SCHOOL OF GOLF COURSE OPERATIONS
AND
LANDSCAPE TECHNOLOGY
LANDSCAPE
ENGINEERING
ORH 1838
John Wildmon
Lake City Community College
Some materials for this manual provided by or adapted from:
Jim Grimes, LCCC Forestry Instructor
"Solving Your Drainage Problems" Kelly Ami Inc.
"Golf Course Irrigation System Design & Drainage" Edward Pira
1
LANDSCAPE ENGINEERING
COURSE OUTLINE
ORH 1839
Drafting
Week 1
a. Introduction to drafting materials
b. Lettering plate
Week 2
a. Legal Descriptions
b. Title blocks
Week 3
a. Plant schedule
Week 4 & 5
a. Structure and plot plan
Surveying
Week 6
a. Introduction to surveying
b. Pacing and taping
Week 7
a. Introduction to level transit
b. Horizontal angles
Week 8
a. Mid-Term Exam
Week 9 - Spring Break
Week 10
a. Bench marks and elevations
b. Profile leveling exercise
Drainage
Week 11
a. Introduction to topography maps
b. Elevations for profile and cut sheet
Week 12
a. Introduction to Drainage
Week 13
a. Identifying causes of poor drainage
b. Drainage theory
Week 14
a. Profile and cut sheet
Week 15
a. Final Exam
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LETTERING
Sooner or later it is necessary to include on every drawing a certain amount of
written information, Free hand formal lettering is quite different from everyday printing,
and for most people lettering is a chore requiring patience, practice, and a fair
amount of self-discipline. Legibility and neatness are the major criteria to be met by
lettering. Careless sloppy lettering can ruin an otherwise decent job of drafting.
The lettering shown in the following pages of this manual represents a style that
is clean, neat, and easy to learn. You must practice, practice, and practice some
more if you expect to become proficient. The capital letters are called uppercase letters
and the little letters are called lower case. The two styles shown are vertical and
inclined - or slanted. Uniformity of height is important. Use the lettering guide to
provide horizontal guidelines to assure this uniformity. Likewise, using the lettering
guide to provide vertical or inclined guidelines will assure uniformity of slant. As a mater
of drafting technique these guidelines should not show up in the final drawings.
When lettering, the job is much simpler, and the results are usually much neater,
if you will break any individual letter into its component straight and/or curved lines.
That is, a series of pencil strokes, smooth and of uniform line weight.
Ordinarily, lettering is done in standard height-width proportion, which means
that the letters are nearly as wide as they are tall. If space is limited, and a lot of
information needs to be presented, the letters may be compressed. That is, their width
is deliberately reduced in proportion to their height. When there is little information to
present a lot of blank space to be filled, letters may be extended - their width is
deliberately widened in proportion to their height. Concerning slant, uniformity of
height-width proportion is important in maintaining a neat, professional appearance to
the drawing.
Drawing details such as property lines, roads, driveways, plant beds and
buildings are rarely at neat right angles to the paper's edges. With accuracy, neatness,
and balance (in this order) always in mind, the person labeling the drawing must follow
the direction of each line, identifying each line and feature so that printed information
can be read easily and with a minimum of twisting the drawing about. As a rule of
thumb, a drawing should be labeled so that written information is legible from the
bottom or right edge of the paper. While tall letters done in heavy lines may be used to
draw attention to important drawing features, it is a good practice to be consistent in
letter height and line weight when labeling similar features. Where possible, lettering
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should parallel the line being labeled, be centered from end to end on the line, and be
above or below the line by about half the letter height.
On very short lines, where it is not possible to maintain consistency of letter size
and fit in necessary information, lettering should be done horizontally adjacent to the
line. If necessary, use an arrow to indicate the line in reference.
While individual circumstances may dictate otherwise, it is a good practice
to label property corners horizontally on the paper. Adjoining landowners, deed
book and plat book references, and other required information should be
indicated horizontally.
BASIC EQUIPMENT
DRAWING BOARD
The drawing board has a smooth flat surface on which the drawing paper is
placed. It is often made of softwood and should be at least 18 inches wide by 24
inches long. The left edge of the drawing board should be perfectly straight so that
it may accurately guide the T-square.
T-SQUARE
The T-square is shaped like the letter "t" as shown in the figure below. It has
two parts called the head and the blade. The blade forms two right angles with the
head. When you draw lines, the head of the T-square should always be held firmly
against the left (or right) edge of the board with your hand. Horizontal lines are
drawn along the upper edge of the blade. The lines should be drawn from left to
right, or right to left if you are left handed.
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PENCILS
The usual writing pencil is not adequate for drafting because they tend to be
much too soft. Preferable pencils used in many drafting courses are 6b, 5b, 4b, 3b,
2b, b, hb, f, h, 2h, 3h, 4h, 5h, 6h, 7h, 8h, and 9h (6b being very soft and 9h being
very hard). The required pencil hardness will be designated for the assignments. All
lettering, title block lines, borders, and traverse lines should be drawn with the
appropriate pencil hardness. Guidelines for lettering, any construction lines or
preliminary layout work that will not appear on the final drawing, should be done
with a 6h or 9h.
Neatness and accuracy demands that the pencils be kept sharp at all times
while in use. Use of an ordinary pencil sharpener is acceptable but it is
recommended that the "wire" edge be taken off by lightly drawing a line or two on
scrap paper before returning to the assigned project. Please see the figure below for
an example how the pencils could be sharpened.
PROTRACTOR
A circle contains 360 degrees. A circular or semi-circular protractor should be
used for plotting angles. At least a six-inch diameter protractor is recommended. A
dull pencil will account for an error of approximately fifteen minutes of angle, so the
larger the protractor, the better.
A good protractor will have a beveled edge graduated in half degrees (see
figure below). Its center should have a cross hair, not a hole. For accuracy of
placement, extend the reference meridian on the paper slightly beyond the zero
degree and 180 degree marks on the protractor, with the cross hair centered on the
point in question. To determine an angle, hold the pencil vertically and position your
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eyes directly above the protractor. Then reading the angle, make a point.
Remember accuracy and neatness are of the utmost importance in making
drawings. No instrument can ever fully offset for sloppy work habits.
CIVIL ENGINEER'S & ARCHITECT'S SCALE
Architects, mechanical engineers, and civil engineers all use scales with
slightly different graduations. The civil engineers scale is divided into 10, 20, 30, 40,
50, 60 parts per inch (see figure below).
10 scale = 10 lines/inch
therefore each space is 0.1000 inch
20 scale = 20 lines/inch
0.0500 inch
30 scale = 30 lines/inch
0.0333 inch
40 scale = 40 lines/inch
0.2500 inch
50 scale = 50 lines/inch
0.0200 inch
60 scale = 60 lines/inch
0.0167 inch
Architect's scales are incremented in fractions of an inch. This allows for a
fraction of an inch to represent 1 foot on the drawing. For example on the 3/8 ths
scale full tick marks are 3/8" apart and represent 1 foot.
It is very important to keep pencils sharp when plotting distances. Hold it
vertically against the scale as well and always read the scale with your eyes directly
above the scale for the best accuracy. Caution, never use the scale as a straight
edge because in time this will mar the graduations on the edge. Always use a
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triangle when a straight edge is needed.
TRIANGLES
Draftsmen regularly use two right triangles. One has angles of 900, 600, and
300 (see figures below). The other has one angle of 900 and two angles of 450. The
triangles are used for drawing both vertical and sloping lines. The triangles are
usually held against the upper edge of the T-square blade, and lines are drawn from
the bottom towards the top.
With the T-square and the 300-600 triangle, angles of 300, 600, 900, 1200, and
150 can be drawn, as shown on the next page.
0
Angles drawn with the 300 – 600 triangle
With the T-square and the 450 triangle, angles of 450, 900, and 1350 can be
drawn, as shown below.
7
Angles drawn with the 450 triangle
Using both triangles in combination, angles of 150, 750, 1050, and 1650 can be
drawn, as shown on the next page.
Angles drawn with combined triangles
AMES LETTERING GUIDE
No matter what kind of drawing is being drawn there will always be some
lettering requirements. A pencil may well be the most difficult instrument to master
in accomplishing this task. For most people formal lettering is an unpleasant task to
say the least. However, it is a requirement that cannot be avoided. Sloppy lettering
and inaccurate measurements will cast doubt over the credibility of the entire
drawing.
The Ames lettering guide, which comes with the package of instruments
required for this course, is critical in assisting the user to draw guidelines to assure
a uniform, proportioned height for upper and lower case letters and numbers 9see
„How to use the Ames Lettering Guide‟ in the appendix). It will also assist in
maintaining a uniform slant for all lettering. The conscientious use of this instrument
can help turn mediocre lettering into an acceptable product.
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PAPER
Always use a good quality drafting paper. In this course we will be using
velum. It is more satisfying to work with, takes ink well, is easier to erase mistakes,
and allows for a neater look.
Borders should be drawn on all assignments in this course before any work
on the projects begins. The border will be drawn one half inch (1/2") from all four
sides of the work sheet. Borders should not detract from the overall balance and
appearance of the drawing. A nomenclature box will be drawn inside this border on
the appropriate side and will be divided into three sections (name, date, plate
number). All margins will be left clean of any overdraws or marks of any kind. The
drawing project and any necessary information should be well centered within the
border.
Plate 2
Plates 1 & 3
Project drawing
½ inch border
Title block
ERASERS
A pencil eraser with a beveled edge is used for erasing lines. An art gum
eraser may be used for final cleaning of a drawing. Ink erasers are not
recommended and results in a spoiled drawing. Pencil erasers are satisfactory for
erasing ink lines if enough effort is applied.
ERASING SHIELDS
Erasing shields are thin metal plates with various shaped openings in them.
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When used, the shield is placed on the drawing so that the line to be erased
appears in one of the openings. As the line is erased, the shield protects other lines
near it.
Homework Plate Number 1
LETTERING PLATE
Ames Lettering Guide
In this exercise you will learn to use the Ames lettering guide. Instructions on
its use and settings are explained on the instruction sheet that comes with the
instrument and will be further discussed during the lectures.
First, lay out the border on the 8 1/2" x 11" work paper. Orient the paper
HORIZONTALLY. Allow 1/2" from the edge of the paper. Construct a box across the
bottom and inside the border at 1/2" depth. Divide this box into four parts. Allow
enough room in the left box for Plate #1, then lettering, your name and lastly, the
date in the right portion.
Make letters the height of the guidlines. Take note of the small numbers and
the arrow direction next to each practice letter. You should make the number 1
stroke first in the direction of the arrow and then the number 2 stroke in the
direction of the arrow, etc. This will aid in developing the necessary skills required to
control the pencil and make smooth straight lines.
Note: the letters vary in width and spacing. The objective of this exercise is to make
the assignment look as balanced and uniform as possible.
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Write the alphabet in capital letters then the numbers 0 through 9. Finish the
exercise writing prose/words until your paper is full. Fill in the title block at the
bottom of the sheet using 1/4" letters centered top to bottom.
Grading, by necessity, must be somewhat subjective on the instructor‟s part.
Such things as neatness, attention to detail, following instructions, attitude and
presentation of work will weigh heavily toward the overall grade.
ASA Lines
Border line
Extra thick/heavy
Visible line
Medium/dark
25'
Thin/light
Extension line
Dimension line
Invisible line
Thin/light
Phantom line
Thin/light
Break line
Medium/dark
11
3/8 inch
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LEGAL DESCRIPTIONS
HOMEWORK PLATE # 2
TITLE BLOCKS
Giving someone directions to get from point “a” to point “b” can be a tricky
business. Similarly, locating specific points on a map can be tricky, but several
techniques have been developed which made this task easier.
PLANE COORDINATES
For defining points on a flat surface, the French mathematician Rene
Descartes, working in the seventeenth century, created a system of plane (flat)
coordinates involving two mutually perpendicular lines; an “x” axis, called the
abscissa; and a “y” axis, called the ordinate. In this Cartesian system each axis has
a scale. The two scales may not be the same. By giving the x scale coordinate first
and then the y scale coordinate (3,1), perpendicular lines are drawn from these
coordinates, their point of intersection defines the location of the point in question.
City Street maps and state highway maps use plane coordinates to help folks
get to their destination. Most state highway maps have an x-axis labeled
alphabetically and a y-axis labeled numerically. The traveler must first locate the
desired city or town in an alphabetically arranged index, printed in the map
information section, to obtain the appropriate coordinates. Intersecting
perpendiculars from those points on the axes mark the approximate location of the
traveler's destination.
Location maps that foresters and other land-managers use are designed the
same way. The state of Florida is divided into quadrangles, townships, ranges,
sections, and fractions of sections.
MEASURING LAND AREA
In New England and Atlantic coastal states (excluding Florida), Pennsylvania,
West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas, the method of subdividing land is
called metes and bounds. Where this confusing system prevails, property lines may
begin at physical features such as streams, lakeshores, ridge tops, or at artificial
features such as fences and roads. Although the corners were once marked with
monuments, their descriptions are vague and many corners themselves have long
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been lost. Locating the legal boundary here is indeed a problem and often a
surveyor must spend days seeking information as to "who owns what". Although not
a complete solution, the more practical rectangular system of surveys applies to
most of the rest of the United States. It is from this system, established in 1784,
that such familiar terms as township and the lower forty were derived.
This system uses established meridians and baselines (see illustration on next
page) as references from which land surveys are made, and is employed by all
states not on the metes and bounds system. Each state or a small group of states
will have a common east to west baseline that parallels (but not necessarily coincide
with) the major parallels of latitude. Similarly, one or more states will have a north
to south principal meridian. The point where the baseline intersects the principal
meridian is called the initial point, which was the starting point of the survey
(located by latitude and longitude). It is here that the systematic numbering of the
square townships north and south of the baseline begins. Ranges east and west of
the principal meridian measure township distances.
By referring to the grid below, this numbering system will be easier to
understand. Township 1 north, range 3 west, is usually stated T 1 N, R 3 W, and
others have been located on this grid. Each township is theoretically 6 miles square,
contains 23,040 acres and is divided into 36 sections. Section number 1 is in the
northeast corner of the township. A section, 80 chains (1 mile) square, containing
640 acres, is further divided into quarter sections of 160 acres each, which in turn
are divided into four 40-acre squares. This last subdivision of 40-acre squares is
called 1/4-1/4 (quarter-quarter) sections. The legal descriptions of the single forties
are designated on the below grid. Irregular areas within a section, caused by lakes
and surveying errors, become lots. The numbering of lots is left to the surveyor,
although by convention they are usually numbered from east to west and north to
south. Below see the SE 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4, NW 1/4 of Section 36.
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16
HOMEWORK PLATE # 2
Title Blocks
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HOMEWORK PLATE # 3
PLANT SCHEDULE
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19
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SURVEYING
PACING AND TAPING
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING:
FIELD NOTES
Reasons for field notes:
The field notes made by surveyors in any given construction project are the
only permanent record of the work in the field. If they are incorrect or incomplete,
most of the time spent making the accurate measurements will be lost. A field book
with the information gathered over a period of weeks will be worth thousands of
dollars. The field notes must contain a complete record of all measurements made
during the survey, along with any necessary sketches, diagrams, or narration that
help clarify the notes.
Original notes are the ones taken at the time measurements are being made.
Anything done later is a „copy‟ and must be marked as so. Copied notes are not
accepted in court. No one should scribble notes on sheets of scrap paper for later
transference in neater form to the regular field book. It should also be remembered
that the best field survey is of little value if the notes are not complete and clear.
The field notes are the only record that is left after the survey party departs from
the field survey site.
Requirements for good notes:
The following points are most important in valuing a set of field notes:





Accuracy. An absolute must. If the angles, distances, and recording of
these facts are incorrect, the whole survey is meaningless.
Legibility. If they can‟t be read, they are useless.
Integrity. All measurements must be recorded in the field book at the
time of observation. Never „fudge‟ notes to improve closures.
Clarity. Plan the survey so that the notes will not be crowded or have any
omissions in detail.
Arrangement. Use forms for the notebook that are appropriate for the
survey undertaken. This will greatly help in all the points mentioned
above.
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There are several types of field books in use today, bound and loose leaf are
the most common. Never use a poor quality book. The book must be strong enough
to endure field conditions.
Kinds of notes:
There are three general types of field notes. In practice, a combination of the
three types listed below probably will be used. The three types are as
follows:
a. Tabulations. The numerical measurements are recorded in columns
according to a prescribed plan depending on the instrument used,
order of accuracy of the survey, and the type of measurement.
b. Sketches. Sketches clarify field notes and should be used liberally.
They may be drawn to scale or approximate scale, or even
exaggerated for clarity. Legibility is a very important requirement of
any sketch.
c. Descriptions. Tabulations with or without added sketches can also
be supplemented with descriptions. A description may be only one
or two words to clarify the recorded measurements, or it may be a
lengthy narration if it is to be used at some future date. Too much
information is far better than too little.
Arrangements for field notes:
Left and right hand pages in field books are always used in pairs and carry
the same number. The title of the survey should be lettered across the top of the
left hand page and often extends onto the right hand page. Titles may be
abbreviated on following pages for the same survey project.
Location and type of work are placed under the title. Note forms may be
quite flexible as long as the resulting notes are clear to the reader. To permit
easy location of desired data, the field book must have table of contents which is
kept current daily.
The upper part of the left or right hand page must contain four items:
1. Party. First initials and last names or party members, and their duties. Jobs
may be shown with a symbol of a transit for an instrument person, etc.
2. Date and time. Morning and afternoon, start and finish times.
3. Weather. Wind velocity and temperature are important. Rain, snow,
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sunshine, and fog all have an effect on surveying operations. Weather details
are necessary when field notes are reviewed. They are also needed for
applying tape corrections due to temperature variations.
4. Instrument type and number. Identification of the instrument will be of help
in finding errors made in the survey.
Documentation of field pacing exercises in field notebook.
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LEVEL-TRANSIT
AND
HORIZONTAL ANGLES
INTRODUCTION TO THE LEVEL-TRANSIT:
GENERAL INFORMATION:
The engineer, or surveyor, transit is often called the universal surveying
instrument because of its many uses. It can be used for observing horizontal
angles and/or directions, for observing vertical angels and differences in
elevation, for prolonging straight lines, and for measuring distance by stadia.
Although transits of various manufacturers differ in appearance, the parts and
mode of operation are essentially the same. Some of the more common parts are
listed below.
a. Plate vials. In addition to the telescope level vial, the transit also
has two plate level vials which are used to level the instrument
within the horizontal plane.
b. Compass. The transit has a built in surveying compass for jobs
requiring magnetic directional readings. The compass is graduated
to 10 and numbered in quadrants. The W and E on the compass are
reversed from the normal map position because the dial surface is
attached to the instrument and revolves with it. The needle
remains the fixed line and indicates the direction the telescope is
facing.
c. Compass locking screw. The compass locking screw disconnects the
needle to reduce wear on the needle bearing of the compass when
not in use.
d. Vertical clamp screw. The telescope can be locked to the
approximate vertical angle with the vertical clamp screw.
e. Vertical tangent screw. Fine vertical settings can be made with the
vertical tangent screw. The clamp must be hand tightened firmly
before the tangent screw will function.
f. Lower horizontal clamp screw. The upper horizontal clamp screw
secures the horizontal circle to the standard. The lower horizontal
clamp screw secure the circle to the leveling head.
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g. Tripod. The tripod is the base or foundation that supports the
survey instrument and keeps it stable to the ground during
observations. It consists of a tripod head to which the instrument is
attached, three wooden or metal legs which are hinged at the
head, and metal pointed shoes on each leg to press or anchor into
the ground to achieve a firm setup.
TELESCOPIC SIGHT:
Common to both the surveying level and transit is the telescopic sight.
The modern sight consists of the following:




Reticle. A reticle provides the cross hairs near the rear of the telescope
tube.
Eyepiece. An eyepiece that magnifies the cross hairs and must be
focused on them according to each surveyor‟s eyesight.
Objective lens. An objective lens can be found at the forward end of
the telescope. This lens forms an image within the telescope.
Focusing lens. The focusing lens can be moved back and forth to focus
the image on the cross hairs.
LINE OF SIGHT:
When viewed through the telescope a point on an object will be on a
straight line through the optical center of the objective lens. A straight line from
the cross hairs through the optical center of the lens will strike the point on the
object where the observer sees the cross hairs apparently located. The line of
sight is therefore defined by the cross hairs and the optical center of the
objective.
VERNIERS:
Verniers are short auxiliary scales set parallel with and adjacent to a
primary scale. The vernier is so constructed that when it is paced so that both
primary and vernier scales have a line in coincident position, the fractional part of
the smallest division of the primary scale can be obtained without interpolation.
MEASURING A HORIZONTAL ANGLE: How to read the vernier on the level.
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29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Checking a Level - Peg test
Establish two firm points, A and B, about 50m apart and set up a scale at each
location. Set up the level at, C, midway between A and B. Level the instrument
ensuring that the bubble is centered in all positions. Record elevation readings
from scale A and B thus a1 and b1 respectively. Set up the instrument again at a
point D, about 4m from A. After leveling the instrument, record elevation
readings from scale A and B, thus a2 and b2 respectively. If the elevation
difference at A and at B are the same (a1 – a2 = b1 – b2) then the instrument is in
perfect adjustment and calibration is not needed. If the elevation difference is
not the same (a1 – a2 = b1 – b2) then calibration is required.
Profiles for Construction
 Stake out the drain to be installed (marking paint)
 Locate and uncover any buried utilities along the route (wires, irrigation
pipes, telephone cables, gas lines, etc.)
 Mark the distances from outlet in 25 ft increments
 Mark the intermediate distance at any buried utility or other important
feature such as: road , cart path, edge fairway, depression, hump, end of
drain
 Collect survey data based on the nearest benchmark elevation

Take shots at the following points:

ditch bottom (outlet) + the water level in the ditch bottom

all marked points (every 25 ft plus other intermediate points)

on the exposed utilities. Note the diameter of the buried utility.
 Reduce the data and draw the profile

use standard grid paper (with ¼ inch squares)
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

the vertical scale for elevation should be 1”:10‟ or 1”:20‟ to fit the
data
the horizontal scale for distance in feet should ideally be 1”:40‟ or a
maximum of 1”:100‟ (use 2 sheets for horizontal scale if required)
BENCHMARKS AND ELEVATIONS
LEVELING EXERCISE
Leveling is the operation of determining the difference in elevation
between points on the earth‟s surface. A level reference surface, or datum, is
established and an elevation assigned to it. Differences in the determined
elevations are subtracted from or added to this assigned value and result in the
elevations of the points. A level surface is one in which every point is
perpendicular to the direction of the plumb line.
LEVELING EQUIPMENT:



Levels. The levels were discussed in the surveying section. The level is
a telescopic instrument mounted on a tripod and sighting through it to
transfer a level line to another point. There are many different types of
levels.
Tripod. The tripod supports the level base and keeps it stable during
the observations.
Leveling rod. A leveling rod is essentially a tape supported vertically
and used to measure the vertical distance between a line of sight and
a specific point above or below the line of sight. Leveling rods are
available in many different styles. The graduations on the rod are in
feet, tenths of feet, and hundredths of feet. Instead of using a small
line or tick to mark hundredths, the spaces between alternate pairs of
graduations are painted black on a white background.. thus the mark
for each hundredth is the line between the colors, the top of the black
being even-numbered values and the bottom of the black being oddnumbered values. The tenths of feet and feet are numbered in black
and red, respectively, the observer usually reads the rod directly while
sighting through the telescope. This rod may be used with the level or
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
transit.
Rod targets. Conditions that hinder direct readings, such as poor
visibility, long sights, and partially obstructed sights through brush or
leaves, sometimes make it necessary to use rod targets. The target is
also used to mark a rod reading when setting numerous points of the
same elevation from one instrument setup.
Abbreviations:














AE – actual elevation
BM – benchmark
BS – backsight (back shot, plus shot)
C - cut
DE – desired elevation
Elev- elevation
F – fill
FG – finish grade
FS – foresight (front shot, minus shot)
HI – height of instrument
SE – spot elevation
TAPT – station point
TBM – temporary benchmark
TP – turning point
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Tapes. Tapes are used to measure horizontal, vertical, and slope distances. The
common survey tapes are made of a ribbon or band of steel. Steel tapes are the
most accurate of all survey tapes.
BENCH MARKS:
A bench mark is a relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, bearing
a marked point whose elevation is known or assumed. A bench mark may be
further qualified as permanent, temporary, or supplementary, the purpose of a
survey normally governs whether its stations will be permanently or temporarily
marked. When it is known that the station may be reused over a period of
several years, the station marker should be of a permanent type. A permanent
bench mark is normally abbreviated BM, and a temporary or supplemental bench
mark is abbreviated TBM.
SIGHTING DISTANCES:
During normal surveys, sight distances should be kept shorted than 245
feet. The length of sight will also depend on the quality of instrument being used
and the atmospheric conditions at the time.
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FORESIGHTS AND BACKSIGHTS:
A backsight is defined as a sight to a known elevation and typically is
abbreviated BS. A foresight is a sight to an unknown elevation and is abbreviated
FS. Height of instrument is the elevation of the horizontal cross-hair of the
instrument, is abbreviated HI, and can be calculated as indicated below
HI = BM + BS
The elevation at a point of unknown elevation can be calculated as follows
Elevation = HI - FS
If the line of sight is not parallel to the axis of the bubble tube, rotation
the instrument on its vertical axis will distort the horizontal plane into a conical
plane above or below the horizontal. Unequal distances between back sight and
foresight rod positions will cause an error that will increase in proportion to the
difference in the distance.
To eliminate this source of error, the level should be set up midway
between the turning points. This is not always possible. The next best method is
to balance back sights and foresights at every opportunity. Balancing back sights
and foresights minimizes errors caused by the line of sight not being horizontal.
PROFILE LEVELING:
The process of profile leveling obtains the elevations of a series of points
along a continuous line. The results are plotted in the form of a continuous
vertical cross section called a profile. The vertical scale is always made greater
than the horizontal scale, usually at a ratio on 10:1.
Circuit closure










complete the circuit around the golf course and re-shoot the
original benchmark. Compare the known starting elevation with the
calculated return elevation. The difference is the “Accuracy” of your
benchmark circuit.
Common sources of errors:
erroneous reading of the rod (often by 1.0 ft) or writing of the data
in the field book
error in reducing the notes (calculating all the foresight and
backsight evaluations)
erroneous extension of rod
level not level
rod not held plumb
foresights and backsights not equally distant from instrument
poor turning point (unstable)
instrument out of adjustment
41
SURVEY LEVELING EXERCISE
42
TOPOGRAPHY MAPS
FIELD ELEVATIONS
INTRODUCTION:
Topographic surveying is the method of determining the positions, of the
surface of the earth, of human-made and natural features. It is also used to
determine the configuration of the terrain. The purpose of topographic survey is to
find the data necessary for the construction of a graphical portrayal of topographic
features. The graphical portrayal from the gathered data forms a topographic map.
The topographic map will show the character of the vegetation by conventional
signs, as well as the horizontal distances between features and their elevations
above a given datum.
SCALES:
A topographic map represents in a small area upon a drafting medium a
portion of the surface of the earth. For this reason the distance between any two
points on the map must have a known ration to the distance between the same two
points on the ground. The ratio of these points is the scale of the map. Scales may
be expressed by direct correspondence or by a ratio. For example, a typical scale is
1 in = 100 ft. Expressed as a ratio, this is 1:1200, or 1/1200. One unit on the
ground is equal to 1200 units on the ground.
TOPOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION:
Topography on the map may be represented by contour lines or by hill
shading. Hill shading is accomplished by means of hachures, a series of short lines
drawn in the direction of the slope. For a steep slope the lines are heavy and spaced
close together. For a gentle slope the lines are widely spaced and of a light weight.
The hachures give a general impression of the configuration of ground, they are not
used to give actual elevations of the ground.
A contour line is a line passing through points of equal elevation. A level
plane that intersects the ground surface would show on the map as a contour line.
43
In nature you may think of the shoreline of a still lake as a contour line. The contour
interval for contour lines is the constant vertical distance between adjacent contour
lines. Contour lines on a map are drawn in true horizontal positions with respect to
the ground surface. Topographic maps with contour lines show the slopes of
topographic features – hills, valleys, ridges – and the lines give the elevations of
these features.
Contours cannot have an end within a map. It commences and ends at the
edges of the map, or it closes on itself. Closing on itself will be shown by a series of
contour lines that make circles or ovals on the map. They will indicate either a
depression or a hill. You can identify a hill by the ascending elevations, which
terminate with the innermost closed contour line being the highest elevation. In
case of a depression the innermost closed contour will be at the lowest elevation,
and on the lowest contour line hachure marks pointing toward the depression will be
shown. This makes it quite evident that you are looking at a depression because no
hachure marks are used on hills.
When contour lines are equally spaced along a line normal to the contours,
you know the slope is constant.
Straight, parallel, equally spaced contour represent human-made
embankments or excavations. To make it convenient to read the elevations from a
topographic map every fifth contour is drawn as a heavier line. This line is called an
index contour. The interval between contours is 1 foot, contours whose elevations
are multiples of 5 feet are shown as heavy lines.
Contour lines
Hill top
Hachures
Contour lines
Depression
Contour lines
A ravine
44
PLOTTING CONTOUR LINES:
A contour map is a useful tool in planning land improvements. A map can be
developed by taking the elevation of a series of measured points and interpolating
elevations between the measured points. One way to make a field survey is to lay
out a grid across the field at 100 foot intervals and then determine the elevations at
the intersection of the grid points. The assumption is made that the ground surface
is approximated by a straight line connecting the grid points. If this is not true, then
intermediate points should be taken between the regular grid points. After the field
survey is completed the elevations can be plotted on graph paper as shown.
The contour map can be developed by knowing a few characteristics of
contour lines. The important ones are: 1) contour lines connect points of equal
elevation so they can never cross, 2) contour lines close some place on the surface
of the earth so they are continuous, 3) contour lines point up into draws, 4) contour
lines point down on ridges, and 5) a depression or a knob will show as a closed
circle while other lines will start at the edge of a map and continue across it.
45
Procedure:
1. Determine the highest contour elevation that can be plotted.
NOTE: Find highest elevation shown = 100.81
Therefore, highest contour line = 100.01.
2. Roughing in: The contour lines can be roughly placed in position as
illustrated (x ---- x) on the map to get a general idea where they run.
NOTE: The 100.0' contour line runs between elevations that are
higher and lower than100.01.
46
3. Accurate placement of the contour lines is accomplished by interpolation.
Interpolation:
1. At the point where the contour line being plotted crosses a grid
line, determine the number of tenths above and below the
contour line (see example below).
47
2. Determine the total number tenths and set up a ratio base on
the scale of the map. In this case, 1 block = 100.00‟.
48
49
50
51
Drainage
52
Introduction
Poor drainage can exist for many reasons. Some of the more common are:







the presence of heavy clays or some organic soils;
the presence of a compacted surface layer resulting in poor infiltration;
high watertable in the spring and fall and after heavy rainfalls;
depressional areas which have no outlet due to poor surface grading;
lack of natural outlet for drainage water to flow from the property;
side hill seepage problems;
low level of land relative to adjacent river or lake
Drainage Benefits – A properly designed and installed golf course drainage
system can provide the following benefits:









reduce the number of golfing days lost due to wet conditions;
carts can be sent out sooner in the spring and after rainfalls;
drainage will promote the growth and depth of turf rooting systems as well as
increasing the drought tolerance of the turf;
the turf growth will start earlier in the spring due to higher soil temperatures
plus increased gaseous exchange in the root zone;
drainage will improve the appearance and playability of the golf course by
providing a healthier environment for the turf to grow;
less turf damage and less scarring on the fairways;
prevention of ball plugging in wet areas;
reduction of soil compaction. Without drainage, high soil moisture can result
in compaction due to the movement of golf carts and turf maintenance
equipment. This compaction leads to reduced water infiltration, reduced air
space and will adversely affect the turf growth.
Drier fairways, through the introduction of surface and subsurface drainage
systems will provide more enjoyable play for the members of a golf club
Why do some areas need drainage and others don’t?

Soil type

fine textured soils need drainage

coarse textured soils need less drainage (depending on
availability of deep percolation or outlet)
53

Topography
 natural slope greatly reduces drainage requirements
 slopes less than 1% are susceptible to drainage problems
 Availability of a good outlet
 proximity of deep ditches/lakes
Soil Investigations
Soil Investigations for Drainage.
These are the tests normally required to determine the nature of a drainage
problem. Some of the tests involve specialized equipment which the golf course
may not have.







Soil texture by the “feel” method, also check the color (looking for blue, grey
or mottled soils – poorly drained)
Particle size – sand, silt, clay for an indication of the type of drainage problem
and for making a decision about fabric envelope. Fabric envelope will be
required to prevent clogging of pipes by soil particles.
Check for infiltration rates (good infiltration into a soil profile with bad
drainage indicates a very different type of drainage problem than low
infiltration rate into a poorly drained soil)
Check for impermeable boundary (from 0-6 ft) impermeable = 1/10
percolation rate of the overlying layer
Check for water table
Measure the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity – specialized equipment
Look for evidence of iron ochre (red sludge) or “sphaerotilus” (white sheath
like slimy material) in existing drains or ditches.
Equipment for Soil Investigations




Clay auger – 2 to 3 in. diameter. Usually 4 ft long with possibility for adding
extensions of 4 ft each
Sand auger – same dimensions as clay auger – different head
Soil sampler – push type 12 to 18 in. long, 0.8 to 1.2 in. diameter
Double ring infiltrometer
54
Worksheet #2a – Survey for Profile of Swale Drain
55
Identifying the Nature of a
Drainage Problem

Impermeable soils are characterized by the following:








silt/clay soil texture
flat topography
poor infiltration rates
susceptible to compaction
surface sealing
pondings at the surface
relatively dry sub-soil
a water table at some distance below the surface well below the level of
the pondings
To check for impermeable soil condition:




verify soil texture and infiltration rates
dig a 2 or 3 in. diameter auger hole near a group of pondings
wait several hours for the water table to stabilize in the hole
measure the depth of the water table and compare to the level of the
water in the pondings
Installation of a drain in the dry subsoil will not treat this type of drainage
problem.
Depressional areas can be defined as follows:





low wet areas where water ponds
no natural outlet for surface water flow
no deep percolation for the excess water
usually created during the golf course construction
can develop over the years through soil settlement in swales without
adequate slopes
Conventional subsurface drains are often installed through these depressional
areas but generally do not work adequately – very difficult to get large
amounts of water to infiltrate through the turf and soil and into a drainpipe.
56
High water table condition is described as follows:





When the level of free water in a test hole (auger hole) stays within 12 to
16 in. of the ground surface, the water table is too close to the surface
and is a drainage problem.
During rain storms this water table can come to the surface very rapidly
(typical drainable pore space for sandy textured soils is about 10 to 15%
and only 3 to 5% for finer textured soils)
No natural outlet for subsurface flow – usually a clay barrier
There is usually some type of water weeds present either in the low areas
of the fairway or in the adjacent shallow ditches
This can occur in areas adjacent to a lake or a pond where the ground
surface is too low as compared to the level of the water in the lake or
pond. When this difference is less that 20 in., poor drainage can result.
Side hill seepage can occur:
A. Where a relatively permeable soil (sandy) overlies and relatively
impermeable
soil (silt/clay) on a slope.

excess water infiltrates into the sand but cannot continue
downwards into the clay

the water is forced to move horizontally and “seep” out along the
toe of the slope or partially up the slope.
B. Where clay soils have been reworked into mounds or hills by machinery
there will be larger voids left in the clay.

these large voids will allow the water to move freely into the
disturbed profile

the undisturbed heavy soils will not permit the water to continue
downwards

the result is the same as case A – water moves horizontally and
seeps out along the base of the new feature (mound or hill).

to compact this soil back to native soil density during construction
would be extremely expensive and not practical.

stay wet for extended periods
Wet swales:
A properly constructed swale effectively removes large quantities of water
during the spring runoff and after large rainfall events during the season. In
57
most cases the fairways are raised 20 to 40 in. above the elevation of the
swales providing good natural drainage for the fairways.
Drainage problems occur in swales when:
 swales are constructed without any pipe drainage
 swales constructed with less than 2% grade
 heavier soil textures (silt/clay) result in low infiltration rates to the existing
swale drain
 machinery scarring in the bottom of swales result in a sealing of the soil
surface
 the swale stays wet for many days after a rainfall
Selecting Appropriate Types Of Drainage Systems
There were 5 types of drainage problems introduced in Chapter 4. This
Chapter will introduce 5 different types of drainage systems which can be used to
solve drainage problems on golf courses. Two pages of figures presenting and
describing the first 4 types of drainage solutions are included at the end of this
Chapter.
1) Impermeable soils: SOLUTION = Slit Drainage/French Drain
Slit drainage systems consist of 3 to 6 inch wide trench, 10 to 24 inches
deep, containing a 2 inch to 4 inch inside diameter drain pipe backfilled to the
surface with a column of coarse sand aggregate. The sand trench is
eventually grassed over at the surface by the natural growth of the turf from
both sides during a season. Seeding of the sand slits can be done to increase
the speed of recovery. Allowing the adjacent turf to root in the coarse
aggregate without the addition of a finer top soil maintains a high infiltration
rate into the slit trench which is required to remove the excess water. The
excess surface water moves into the columns of coarse aggregate and is
carried away by the silt drainpipes to a collector drainpipe that leads to an
outlet ditch.
Each of the individual slit drains are connected to a larger diameter properly
sized collector (main/sub-main) drain. This larger drain will carry the water to
an outlet.
58
2) Depressional areas: SOLUTION = Surface Inlets or Slit
Drain\French drain
Surface inlets are installed in the lowest part of a depressional area where
water naturally ponds. Surface inlets are required to allow large quantities of
water to rapidly enter a pipe drainage system. A properly sized collector pipe
is then required to be installed on grade to carry the excess water to an
outlet.
Surface inlets come in many shapes and sizes. The size is selected based on
the amount of excess water that ponds in the depressional area. All inlets
should have the following features:




sturdy construction
metal grate at the surface with large enough openings to allow
unrestricted water entry, but small enough to prevent golf balls from
entering
a 12 to 20 in. deep sediment trap is recommended for each inlet to
prevent sediment or debris entering into the drainage system.
steel bells must be installed to prevent the entry of floating debris (leaves,
twigs, grass clippings) into the drainage system. This bell covers the
entrance of the outlet pipe where it leaves the surface inlet.
Surface inlet installation is normally done by a backhoe or small excavator. The
drainpipe leading to outlet can be installed by backhoe or chain trencher
depending on the soil conditions and depth of installation.
3) High water table: SOLUTION = Water Table Control
Whereas a slit drainage system was proposed in item 1), above, for a surface
drainage problem, high water table conditions require a treatment to lower the
water table that is already in the soil profile. This requires a sub-surface
drainage system used for water table control. This is similar to an agricultural
drainage system.
The features of a good water table control drainage system are:



4 inch diameter drainage pipes installed at 2.5 to 4.0 ft. deep
drain spacings are determined based on the saturated hydraulic conductivity
and the desired „drawdown‟ on the water table
a good (sufficiently deep) outlet to allow free flow from the drainage collector
59


pipe.
a well designed and selected fabric envelope material (if required)
native soil can be used as backfill
The major problem with installing water table control pipes is sloughing soils.
The trench tends to collapse as you dig deeper (below the water table). This
problem can be minimized by timing the construction during the period of the
year when the water table is the lowest.
If you must work in the water table a specialized machine is usually required to
prevent the soils from sloughing before the pipe is laid on the planned gradeline.
A trencher with a pipe box attachment can do the job. It is very difficult to
install with a backhoe, except for the cases when the water table has fallen to
below the planned depth of installation.
A trenchless plow (commonly used for farm drainage) can also be used. The
increased speed of installation (and resultant cost savings) would have to be
weighed against the greatly increased cost of restoration.
A second type of high water table condition is the high water level in lakes or
ponds adjacent to fairways. The solution here is to provide an overflow control
to lower the water level in the lake or pond. This overflow control should contain
the following features:



a water level control structure, or
an overflow control concrete weir with removable boards for water level
adjustment
a properly sized outlet pipe to carry the overflow for those cases where the
overflow cannot be directed into an open ditch
4) Side hill seepage: SOLUTION = Interceptor Drains
Wet spots due to side hill seepage can be drained by installing 4 inch diameter
interceptor drains, 2.5 to 4.0 ft deep backfilled with a highly pemeable
drainage sand. The bottom of the trench should be placed just into the less
permeable subsoil.
The exact positioning of interceptor drains is very important during construction.
The interceptor drain should be placed just above the wet spot (or just above
the highest seepage point) along the contour. The seepage water will then be
intercepted by the curtain of sand which allows the water to flow freely
downwards into the pipe drain, and then carried to outlet. The wet seepage area
60
will not dry if the interceptor drains are installed either too far below or above
the seepage zone on the hill. Often it will take more than one interceptor drain
to solve the problem.
Interceptor drains are normally installed by a backhoe or small excavator. You
have to be very careful installing on side hills steeper than 10% (danger of
machinery slipping down the hill). The excavator can be propped up on one side
with one track on top of a timber to allow the machine to dig level. This will
prevent the sides of the trench from collapsing. It is usually very difficult to
install these drains with a chain trencher due to the depth requirement and due
to the fact that the narrow trench will be on an angle and will be susceptible to
collapsing.
5) Wet swales: SOLUTION = SLIT/ FRENCH DRAIN
The installation of a single slit or French drain in the bottom of the swale can
effectively treat this type of problem.
Designing Drainage Systems
Design Drainage Rate
The basic drainage criteria for golf course drainage systems is to dry the fairways
after a rainfall, to improve the quality of the turf, to increase the possible playing
time for members during the season and to allow the golf course to open earlier
in the spring each year.
The most critical factor in designing the pipe sizes is the choice of the design
drainage rate (also termed drainage coefficient). This is defined as the rate at
which a certain depth of excess water is drained from the golf course. Excess
water will pond on the surface when the rate of rainfall is higher than the
infiltration rates of the turf and soil. Collector pipes must be designed to drain
enough water per day so that there will be very few times during the playing
season when ponded water on the course causes problems for longer than 24
hours. This rate is based on historical weather data and on financial
considerations (the larger the drainage rate, the more expensive the collector
pipes are).
61
In the North East humid regions of the USA and Canada, a fairway drainage rate
of 1 in. per day has been used for collectors without surface inlets and a fairway
drainage rate of 2 in. per day for collectors with surface inlets. This is because in
the first case, there are depressional areas where some of this surface water is
trapped. In order to utilize these drainage rates, in both cases there must be
adequate existing surface drainage to carry high runoff volumes overland to
outlet. Other areas of the USA and Canada can also use these drainage rates
provided that the existing surface drainage can remove the large flows generated
by rainfall events in excess of 2 inches per day.
If all of the runoff water must be carried away in drainage pipes, then a different
method must be utilized for designing the size of the drainage systems.
Before embarking on a drainage project the rainfall data for a golf course should
be analyzed to determine the specific drainage rate for that region. In areas
where one expects to handle all of the runoff draining from a watershed into a
pipe drainage system, the runoff flows should be calculated by one of several
hydrological methods: Rational Method; SCS Method; Cooke‟s Method:
etc…These analysis methods are commonly used by municipal engineers to
design storm sewers and other municipal drainage works. A professional
engineer should be consulted to perform these calculations. Some instances
when these types of calculations would be required are:

design of pipe size for closing in a ditch

design of culverts for open ditches

height of bridges above open ditches

design of erosion control works including spillways and pipe chutes

estimates of river flooding

design of open channels

drainage of parking lots

lake overflow pipes where no flooding is permitted
62
Impermeable Soils & Depressional Areas
1) French Drains and Collectors (mains)
Design of a slit drainage system includes consideration of depth, soil texture,
spacing, and slope. Drain depths will vary depending on the topography of the
golf hole, since the drains must remain on grade (i.e. always running down hill to
an outlet). Slit drain spacing depend on soil type and topography. Spacings are
usually selected as follows:
*Drain Spacing (2” pipe)
Usage
5 to 6.5 feet
6.5 to 8 feet
Used on flat areas in heavy textured soils
Used on gentle slopes, and coarse textured
soils
> 8 feet
Used on steeper sloping land and coarse
textured soils with infiltration problems
*(4” tile double above spacings)
The direction and spacing of the slit trench drains are determined by the soils
and topography of each fairway. The slit drains should be placed parallel to the
contours where possible. They will intercept the most surface water flow and be
less susceptible to erosion.
The design of the collector pipe size depends on the volume of water to be
carried in the pipe, and assumes that we already know the following information
(measured on the golf hole):



area drained (acres); this is the area treated by the slit drainage systems
contributing water to the collectors. When more than one hole or area is
treated by the same collector, the areas must be added together for
cumulative flow in the pipe.
collector design drainage rate (in./day) – use 1.0 or 2.0 in./day (without or
with surface inlets)
the area drained multiplied by the drainage rate give the volume of water to
be carried in the pipe:
Discharge Q (GPM) = Area (acres) x 20; for a drainage rate of 1.0 in./day
Discharge Q (GPM) = Area (acres) x 40; for a drainage rate of 2.0 in./day
63

pipe slope/grade; this can only be calculated after drawing a profile of the
drain to be installed. The following guidelines should be used when
designing profiles for drainage pipes:
 always draw the bottom and top edges of the drainage pipe on the profile
(important to see whether the pipe goes over or under a buried utility).
 start a minimum of 8 in. above the water level in the outlet ditch (where
possible) to allow for future ditch sedimentation. Never start below the
water level.
 try to minimize the depth of cut through high points to limit excavated
spoil and consequently the cost of the aggregate backfill.
 Use 0.10% as a minimum slope for all pipe sizes
 Use the following guidelines for depth of collector pipes:
Pipe ID
4.0 in.
6.0 in.
8.0 in.
Pipe OD + Min. Depth of Cover = Depth to
Pipe Bottom
4.75 in.
7.1 in.
9.25 in.
20 inA
20 in
20 inB
24.75 in.
27.1 in.
29.25 in.
A. Less cover (as low as 14 in.) is acceptable when the 4 in. drain is
installed in a narrow trench (6 to 7 in. wide) where machinery
support is obtained from the adjacent soil.
B. Same depth of cover for all larger pipe diameters
NOTES: 1. These depths assume no heavy machinery will cross the pipes.
If they cross under a road where heavy machines will pass
they must be either installed deeper or be protected by an
additional sleeve.
The pipe size is then determined by looking in Figure 6.1 for corrugated plastic
drainage pipe (flexible); or in Figure 6.2 for smooth wall interior plastic pipes
(rigid). The slope to be used in the figures should be the minimum slope
available for the section of collector you are trying to size. Choose the closest
drain diameter above the intersection of the line drawn vertically from the slope
axis and horizontally from the discharge axis.
For example:


based on an area to drain of 300 x 60 yds (3.71 ac.), the design
discharge is 74.4 GPM, assuming a drainage rate of 1.0 in./day
the slope available is 0.20%
64

the diameter to carry the flow is 6 in. from both Figures 6.1 and
6.2
A corrugated (flexible) drainpipe is generally chosen over the smooth wall interior
pipe for the following reasons:

easier to handle (smooth wall pipes come in rigid straight lengths)

easier to couple together and to make tee connections

less expensive per unit of flow capacity
In some cases, the smooth wall pipe is chosen:

due to either an outlet constraint or the depth of a buried utility
that must be crossed, there is less than the minimum required depth
of cover. Smooth wall pipe is stronger (crush resistance) and can
survive in trenches on golf courses with just 14 in. cover (assuming
proper compaction of the backfill).

the first 10-ft of any drainage system (the outlet pipe) must be a
rigid length of smooth wall interior drainpipe (non-perforated).

for lake inter-connecting pipes to prevent the ends from floating
upwards.
65
66
67
68
69
2. Surface Inlets
A properly designed drainage system for depressional areas will consist of I) a
surface inlet, ii) a collector drain; and iii) an outlet.
The first step in designing a drainage system with surface inlets is to determine
the “watershed” bringing water to the low spot where the inlet is to be installed.
This information is used to properly select the type of inlet and to design the
diameter of the drainage pipe exiting from the surface inlet.
If no topographic map exists, the watershed can be approximated by:




using existing maps for location (no topography). These maps should be
drawn to scale.
walk the entire area and look for watershed divides (a level may be required
for determining the high points where water flows in opposite directions).
mark each of the watershed divides on your map and join them together to
form a closed loop – (the surface inlet location must be within this loop).
measure the area of the watershed in acres. You could also directly
approximate the watershed in the field by drawing a series of rectangles and
triangles on a sketch and wheeling off the distances in the field.
Once the watershed area is known we multiply by the drainage rate to obtain a
design flow in GPM. Check with the manufacturer for design flow for a given
inlet.
70
71
Water Table Control
There were two types of water table control problems discussed in the previous
Chapter:
i)
ii)
high water table on flat areas
high lake or pond levels causing high water table conditions
adjacent to the lake
In the first case, a system of deep (2.5 to 4 ft) lateral drains are placed at a
calculated spacing. The drains are usually installed parallel to the irrigation
system to avoid crossing with these deep drains. Drain spacing is determined
based on the saturated hydraulic conductivity and the desired „drawdown‟ on the
water table. These calculations are fairly complex and should be done by a
drainage engineer. The measurement of the saturated hydraulic conductivity is
the key element in the design of the drain spacing. This should also be done by
a drainage engineer because it involves specialized equipment.
Once the spacing is determined, the flow in each line is calculated by multiplying
the width of influence of each drain (drain spacing) by the length of the drain
line by the drainage rate. The calculations for all laterals are then added up
giving the total design flow used to select the collector pipe diameter.
The collector pipe can then be designed following the same procedure as for the
surface inlets (profile, slope, and grade changes, then looking up the diameter in
Figure 6.1).
In the second case the water level in the lake or pond must be artificially
lowered. This will involve the installation of a lake overflow control structure and
collector pipe to carry the excess water to an outlet. Once the lake water level is
lowered the drainage will be improved adjacent to the lake or pond.
The design of the overflow pipe diameter depends on whether the lake is
allowed to temporarily flood or not.
i)
ii)
If Yes (non-critical lake location): The collector pipe is sized as if
the lake were a surface inlet. The procedure to follow is the same
as for the surface inlet design above.
If No (critical lake location – damage will result if the lake
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overflows): Then all of the excess water must be taken in a pipe.
A professional engineer should be consulted to determine the flows
and pipe sizes.
Worksheet # 6d provides an exercise in designing water table control
collectors.
4) Interceptor Drains
Interceptor drains are normally designed to be installed at 2.5 to 4 ft which is
deeper than normal collector drains. The bottom of the trench should be placed
just into the less permeable subsoil if possible. If this is not done, the seepage
water will travel under the interceptor drain and not move into the drain. The
following guidelines should be used when planning and designing for interceptor
drains:






an accurate topographic survey is required to map the location and extent of
the seepage areas. This survey/investigation work must be done when the
area is wet.
the diameter of drainpipe normally used is 4 in. as seepage rates are usually
relatively slow.
if two or more interceptor drains are required, design the spacing of the
drains such that the bottom of the upper drain is deeper than the ground
surface at the lower drain.
the backfill used should be a highly permeable sand. The native soil material
should not be used for backfilling interceptor drains.
topsoil and sod are used to restore the surface
in some cases the surface can be left open (coarse aggregate to the surface)
where the area is completely out of play and some overland flow can be
intercepted by the trench.
Once the layout is done for the interceptor drains then the collector pipe can be
designed following the same procedure as for the surface inlets. The following
table gives approximate values for the flow to be expected per foot of interceptor
drains in different types of soils.

permeability of backfill should be 10 X that of native soil
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Table 6.3 Interceptor Drain Flow Rates
Soil Type
Approximate Flow per Foot of Interceptor
Drain (GPM per ft)
Coarse sand
0.25
Sandy Loam
0.04
Clay
0.01
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Swale Drains
Swale drains are a common requirement on every golf course. This section
describes the design of a swale drain where no surface inlets are required (no
excessive pondings occur after rainfalls). If pondings are occurring then refer to
the section on Surface Inlet Designs.
The purpose of a drain in a swale is to dry the swale after the surface water flow
has stopped and to lower the water table (if there is one) both in the swale and
in the ground adjacent to the swale. To design a swale drain:

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
survey the swale
make note of proximity of trees and type of trees during survey
draw the profile
size the pipe according to Table 6.4. Note that this table assumes there are
no surface inlets connected to the swale drain.
if the drainpipe cannot be installed in the center of the swale to the minimum
depth shown above in 6.2(1), offset the pipe from the centerline of the swale
until the minimum depth is achieved.
offset the drainpipe as far as possible from trees. If tree roots are visible
during construction non-perforated pipe may have to be installed.
the backfill used should be a highly permeable sand
topsoil and sod are used to restore the surface
Table 6.4 Swale Drain Flow Rates (With no Surface Inlets Connected)
Soil Type
Approximate Flow per Foot
of Swale Drains
(GPM per ft)
Coarse sand
0.125
Sandy Loam
0.06
Clay
0.03
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Gravity versus Pumped Outlets
A gravity outlet should always be the number one priority in any drainage design,
even if a fairly deep cut is required to carry water from a very low depressional
area. If the outlet is available and the excess water can flow away by gravity
then this should be the solution chosen.
There will be some instance when this will not be possible:

no outlet for a certain section of the course;

the ground surface in a wet area is lower than the outlet ditch;

the existing outlet ditch is not deep enough to provide adequate
outlet for a sub-surface drainage system even though the ditch is
slightly lower than the wet area;
In the cases when the outlet ditches cannot be deepened, the only solution is to
build a sump pit near the outlet and install a submersible pumping system to
raise the drainage water into the existing outlet.
The design and selection of a pumping system is fairly involved and should be
done by a pump supplier based on information supplied to him. They will ask for
the following information, which you have learned how to obtain elsewhere in
this chapter:





the flow required ==> the collector design flow rate
head to pump against. This is calculated as the difference in the
water surface elevation in the pump sump to the level of the outlet
pipe from the proposed pumping system.
length from pump sump to outlet
specifications on electricity that is available at the pump site
location of the electrical supply and the distance to the proposed
pump sump. The supplier can also calculate the gauge of wire to use
should the source have to be extended for some distance.
You can then work together with the supplier to optimize the type of pump,
outlet pipe diameter, pump horsepower, voltage, wiring and type of pump
controls to be used.
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Drainage Materials
Drainage Pipe

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corrugated Polyethylene drainage pipe with carbon black for an
ultra violet light stabilizer (pipe can then be stored outside)
must meet national or provincial standards for agricultural usage
do not use PVC pipe where exposure to sunlight will occur
be sure to purchase manufactured fittings for the drain pipe (tees,
„y‟s, couplers, and end caps)
10 ft long smooth wall interior plastic outlet pipes (polyethylene)
should be used, non-perforated with a rodent guard at the end
grey duct tape is a very handy product to use to ensure the fittings
stay connected during installation and for sealing joints in nonperforated tubing.
Culvert Pipe

generally plastic culvert pipe is less expensive than corrugated
galvanized steel culvert in diameters up to 20 in. – check your
suppliers. Plastic is preferred for longer life and cheaper installation
costs.
Fabric Envelope Material




determine if a fabric material is required on the drain pipes
 sandy or slity textured sub soils
 sand backfill used on top of the drains
there are many types of fabric available on the market today:
 knitted sock, usually polyester
 non-woven polypropylene/polyester
 woven polypropylene (not used for drainage). Used as a separator
in foundations or roads, buildings, etc.)
consult your local pipe supplier for the type of fabric you need to
protect your drainage system
all fabric wrapped pipe must be stored indoors away from the
sunlight
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Chapter 8 - Operation and
Maintenance of Drainage
Systems
Routine Checks and Maintenance
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Outlets:
check for
check for
out
clean out
check for
free flow from the outlet pipe
ditch sedimentation or blockage downstream and clean
the rodent guards
erosion at the outlet structure and repair
Surface Inlets:
check for accumulation of sediment in surface inlets
twice per year, in the Spring and Fall, clean out the sedimentation
chambers
routinely check for pondings after heavy rainfalls in the areas
where inlets are located
Drainage Systems – check for:
 wet spots showing up in the drainage areas
 depressions along drainage lines
 cloudy or colored outflow
 ponded water on top of drainage lines the day after rainfalls – think
about your drainage rate and how much rain fell.
 measure the drain outflow and compare to expected design flows

Slit Drainage Systems:


look for wet spots showing up and find out if the wet spot is on a
slit or between two adjacent slits
avoid machinery traffic on the slits during and immediately after
rainfalls (even if the area appears dry – this will reduce the
tendency for the slit to close at the surface
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Open Ditches:
routinely check the ditches and remove any debris such as trees, branches,
timbers, etc…particularly at culverts and bridges
check for sloughing of the side slopes. In these areas the bank must be cut
flatter. Use 1.5 horizontal to 1.0 vertical as a minimum side slope for clay
soils up to a maximum of 3.0 to 1.0 for sandy soils.
the banks of any new ditches should be seeded down immediately after
construction or renovation
maintain a clear right of way on one side of the ditch for future cleaning and
maintenance

General:



avoid planting any new trees closer than 30 ft from a perforated
drain pipe
small bushes and trees that are close to drainage pipes should be
removed before they develop roots which can enter and block the
drain
never connect waste water disposal to a drainage system
Management of Slit Drained Turf
It is imperative for a slit drainage system to maintain a highly permeable column
of coarse sand to the turf surface. Any practice which will seal the surface is
undesirable and must be prevented. The following is a list of some key turf
management practices which should be adhered to in order to achieve the
maximum benefit from the silt drainage systems.
1. Care must be taken not to drag sand out of the new slit trenches with the
mowers before
the grass has fully bridged across (and the slits are no longer visible). During
this period, mowing should be done parallel to the trenches, not
perpendicular. This may take more time for cutting, but will result in faster
bridging of the turf.
2. Do not core a slit drained fairway until after the grass has bridged across and
become completely established on the slit trench. This prevents the cores
from being packed on top of the slit drains.
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3. Aeration of drained fairways by the coring method (or any method which
brings clay plugs to the surface) should be accompanied by a program of
picking up and removing the plugs if the cores are deep enough to pull up the
clay soil. Matting out and spreading of clay plugs will eventually lead to a
slowing down of the slit drainage system at the surface. If the aeration
program only brings turf, thatch and a coarser textured soil to the surface,
then there is no problem spreading these cores on drained fairways.
4. Minimize maintenance equipment and golf cart travel on drained fairways
immediately after rainfalls and especially in early spring, when the turf is still
wet. Golf course equipment can squeeze the heavy clay soil from the sides
over onto the slit drain sand column lowering or preventing infiltration at the
surface. If the slit drain infiltration rates are reduced, the benefit of the
drainage improvement work will also be reduced. Leave the wettest fairways
as the last to be cut.
Drainage System Repair
Repair of Slit Drainage Systems

check to see if the problem in a slit drained fairway is at the surface
(sealing) or is it a subsurface problem (blocked pipes)

if the problem is at the surface the following procedure should be
followed:
A repair at the surface is required. The repair is not difficult and can
be done with golf course staff or by a contractor. The column of sand
below the surface of the drain pipe will still be in good condition and
need not be disturbed. The drain lines to be repaired are located
using a probe and marked with string or paint. The clay plug and turf
directly over the slit drain are removed (excavated) to the original 3 in.
width and the slit trench is topped to the surface with new drainage
sand.

If the problem is a subsurface pipe problem, follow the procedures
presented in the next section.
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Repair of Drainage Pipes

The first step in any repair is finding the problem in the collector
pipe system. The following procedure can be used to locate the
problem:




using your as-built drawing, mark out the drainage system with
paint or flags in the vicinity of the wet spot
find a location downstream of the wet spot where the pipe is dry.
When excavating the pipe, be sure not to cause any damage.
Make a small hole in the top of the pipe to inspect. Use ½
circumference sections of spare pipe to cover the small inspection
holes.
work you way upstream towards the wet area until you find the
pipe full of water
once the pipe is found full of water you have isolated the problem
between the last dry spot and the first wet spot. You can now use
a plumber‟s fish or hose to probe the pipe to find the blockage.

All of the work to find the problem must be done under wet
conditions. The repair, however, can and should wait until the area
dries. If the problem is severe/urgent then a pump should be used to
keep the holes dry while making the repairs.

Once the problem has been discovered there may be many causes
for the failure. Some of the most common, along with a recommended
repair, are shown in Table 9:1:
Repair of Sodded Collector Drains
Sodding is the restoration method recommended for all drain pipes where the
trench width is greater than 3 in. (for all collector drains 4 in. diameter and
larger). In preparation for sodding the Contractors are usually instructed to
place a layer of topsoil up to 4 in. in thickness. The placement of this topsoil and
sod will reduce the infiltration rate into the trench above the drainpipe. One
should not sod directly over the sand trench since this would cause a droughty
condition resulting in yellowing of the sod. The disadvantage of the topsoil is
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that after a number of years, the infiltration may slow enough for a wet condition
to exist directly over one of the new drains.
You can limit the occurrence of this problem by placing surface inlets in the
depressional areas where water has ponded in the past.
The speed with which this problem occurs (time after installation) will depend on
the type of top soil used, the local watershed feeding the collector pipe, and the
turf management practices – spreading of clay cores on top of the collectors in
the rough will eventually reduce the infiltration rates.
In the event that a sealing at the surface occurs over the collector drain lines, a
repair will be necessary. The repair is not difficult and can be done with golf
course staff or by a contractor. The sand below the topsoil and sod will still be in
good condition and need not be disturbed. The collector drain lines to be
repaired are located using a probe and marked with string or paint. The turf and
topsoil directly over the collector trench is removed in 3 in. wide strips across the
path of the collector (perpendicular to the water flow). The spacing between the
repairs has to be determined in the field for each individual case and will depend
on the severity of the problem. The strips are then topped to the surface with
new drainage sand. These strips will close (turf bridging across) naturally.
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