Terms
Epic
The Odyssey is an epic, a long narrative poem about the deeds of gods or heroes who embody the values of the
culture of which they are they are a part. The oldest epics were transmitted orally and the Odyssey has traits
(see the epithet) that suggest that it has roots in this tradition.
Epic Hero
The central hero of an epic, the epic hero has larger-than-life powers. Achilles fulfills this role in the Iliad;
Odysseus in the Odyssey. Epic heroes are not perfect. Achilles is stubbornly proud over a long period of time;
Odysseus has lapses in judgment. Nevertheless, epic heroes always seem to have an abundance of courage, a
fighting spirit that endears them both to the reader (listener) and the gods.
Epithets
Homer repeatedly describes many of his characters or objects in his story with the same phrase. This phrase is
called an epithet. Epithets are common epic elements which allow the reader to easily identify the character or
object. Epithets stress a quality of what they are describing. The same character often is given several different
epithets. The epithet was used as by oral poets to help them "catch their breath" whenever they mention a major
figure or describe something familiar and recurring. The epithets were not used to illustrate a specific aspect of
the figure at the moment he (she) is being spoken of, but were chosen to fit the meter of the line. Many
translators, however, like to fit the epithet to an aspect of the character that is relevant to the moment.
Examples of epithets used in the Odyssey are:
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"The great tactician" - This term creates the image of Odysseus as being intelligent, and probably
comes his being the initiator of the idea for the "Trojan horse."
"The clear eyed goddess" - This helps the reader imagine that Athena is alert, and wise farseeing.
Here are some more epithets:
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"The man of twists and turns" ( Odysseus)
"wine-dark sea "
"The bewitching nymph" (Calypso)
"Son of Cronos" (Zeus)
"Who marshals the thunderheads" (Zeus)
"Cool headed" (Telemachus)
"Lord of the war cry" (Menelaus)
Narrative drift
Homer is constantly interrupting the narration to elaborate on an aspect of what he is talking about; if he
mentions a gift of wine, he will explain not only the history of the gift but the history of the giver. He rarely
introduces a character without alluding to that character's genealogy and often follows this with an aside in the
form of a story that is told with the same vividness as the main story. The most celebrated of these asides is the
story of how Odysseus received the scar that Eurycleia recognizes in book 19.
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Poetics
Meter
The Odyssey was written in a dactylic hexameter. Each line of the epic has 6 metrical feet, or small groups of
sound. The first five feet are dactyls which are composed of a long sound and 2 short sounds. The last foot of
each line is always a spondee which is made up of 2 long sounds. The Greek version of The Iliad follows these
rules exactly, but only a few English translations have tried to follow it. English has stresses rather than long
and short sounds. Fagels commented, "Once you get that Greek hexameter in your ear, it becomes the most
gorgeous line of poetry ever conceived . . . .And the more it lodges, the more you realize there's nothing like it
in English and you mustn't try to reproduce it." The Fagles translation employs a six beat line, but he varies this
to achieve a "range in rhythm, pace, and tone."
Formal Speech
In the Odyssey the characters tend to make speeches rather than have conversations. (An exception to this is
some of the dialogue between the suitors and between the suitors and Telemachus in Book 20.) Many of these
speeches can be long and at times formulaic, and some parts can be repeated word for word at another point in
the poem. The most startling example occurs when Odysseus repeats Agamemnon's plea for Achilles to back to
fight for the Achaeans in the Iliad.
Imagery
Some of my students have wondered how Homer could possibly have been blind. He visualizes everything from
Athena's blazing eyes to the wind dark sea to Alcinous' palace:
A radiance as strong as the moon came flooding
through the high roofed halls of generous Alcinous.
Walls plated in bronze, crowned with a circling frieze
glazed as blue as lapis ran to left and right
from outer gates to the deepest court recess
and solid gold doors enclosed the palace.
Up from the bronze threshold sliver doorposts rose
with silver lintel above, and golden handles, too.
And dogs of gold and silver were stationed on either side.
Homer's imagery is vivid. He gives us extraordinary detail. Antinous was not just shot with an arrow - "the
point went stabbing clean through the soft neck and out/ and off to the side he pitched, the cup dropped from his
grasp/as the shaft sank home/the man's life-blood came spurting from his nostrils." Although Homer does give
descriptions of settings (for instance the gardens of Calypso and Alcinous), he characteristically brings them to
life. "The West wind always breathing through will bring some fruits to the bud and others warm to ripeness."
When we read about Alcinous' "teaming vineyard," we see "the vintage grapes lie baking in the sun while
pickers gather others."
Nothing in Homer remains static for long. Probably the best known example of his bringing an object to life is
the description in the Iliad of the shield of Achilles. A story lurks behind everything, and Homer loves to tell
stories (see narrative drift); his pictures are always moving. When Odysseus first saw Alcinous' garden, he
"stood, gazing at all this bounty." In the next line he had had his "fill of marveling at it all," and immediately
"crossed the threshold/ strode inside the palace." Homer, like Odysseus, seems most at home when something is
happening (or, in the case of the digressions, has happened). His people are always doing something: weeping,
laughing, eating, crying. They are alive.
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Some of Homer's descriptions are clearly hyperbolic, but many of them gives us a sense of what the world of
his time must have looked like. Even when it is hard to picture everything he describes - no one seems to have
figured out how the axes Odysseus shoots the arrow through line up - we sense it is a failure of our imagination
not his powers:
First [Telemachus] planted the axes, digging a long trench,
one for all and trued them all to a line
then tamped the earth to bed them. Wonder took
the revelers: his work so firm, precise
though he'd never seen the axes ranged before.
In addition to letting us see his world, Homer lets us hear it as well. Armor is "clashing in an ungoldly uproar";
At Athena's instigation "mad, hysterical laughter seemed to break from the jaws of strangers"; "the king let
loose a howling through the town"; Eumaeus "snarling dogs" emit a "a shatter of barks."
Figurative Language
Homer loves similes (a comparison between two seemingly unlike things using "like" or "as"). They can be
found everywhere in the Odyssey. Homer often expands upon a simile, putting it into motion so to speak; and
these expanded similes are called Homeric or epic similes.
Weak as the doe that beds down her fawns
in a mighty lion's den - her newborn sucklings then trails off to the mountain spurs and grassy bends
to graze her fill, but back the lion comes to his own lair
and the master deals both fawns a ghastly, bloody death,
just what Odysseus will deal that mob - ghastly death.
As a man will bury his glowing brand in black ashes,
off on a lonely farmstead, no neighbors near,
to keep a spark alive, so great Odysseus buried
himself in leaves and Athena showered sleep
upon his eyes.
I drove my weight on it from above and bored it home
like a shipwright bores his beam with a shipwright's drill
that men below, whipping the strap back and forth, whirl
and the drill keeps twisting, never stopping So we seized our stake with it fiery tip
and bored it round and round in the giant's eye...
its crackling roots blazed
and hissed as a blacksmith plunges a glowing ax or adze
in an ice-cold bath and the metal screeches steam
and its temper hardens - that's the iron's strength so the eye of Cyclops sizzled round that stake.
So they mocked, but Odysseus, mastermind in action,
once he'd handled the great bow and scanned every inch,
then, like an expert singer skilled at lyre and song-who strains a string to a new peg with ease,
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making the pliant sheep-gut fast at either end-so with his virtuoso ease Odysseus strung his mighty bow.
Quickly his right hand plucked the string to test its pitch
and under his touch it sang out clear and sharp as a swallow's cry.
Joy, warm as the joy that shipwrecked sailors feel
when they catch sight of land - Poseidon has struck
their well-rigged ship on the open sea with gale winds,
and crushing walls of waves, and only a few escape, swimming,
struggling out of the frothing surf to reach the shore,
their bodies crusted with salt, but buoyed up with joy
as they plant their feet on solid ground again,
spared a deadly fate. So joyous now to her
the sight of her husband vivid in her gaze.
Her mind in torment, wheeling like some lion at bay,
dreading the gangs of hunters closing their cunning ring
around him for the finish. (This is Penelope being hounded by the suitors.)
Other devices
Personification occurs in almost every book when "Dawn" arises with her "rose-red fingers". As the gods have
distinctly human characteristics, they display a non-linguistic personification even amongst themselves. They
also appear disguised as people, and the Mentor we know is always the "personification of Athena. Other things
are frequently personified: "Sleep" looses "Odysseus' limbs, slipping the toils of anguish from his mind"; "East
and South Winds clashed, and the raging West and North/sprung from the heavens, roiled heaving breakers up."
Metaphors are less striking in the Odyssey than similes. They are frequently embedded in verbs: "Nine years
we wove a web of disaster"; "that made the rage of the monster boil over"; "his mind churning with thoughts of
bloody work"; "Terror blanched their faces" (note the personification of terror). Odysseus is "fated to escape his
noose of pain," and when he finds himself near the land of the Laestrygonians, he places his ship "well clear of
the harbors jaws."
Symbols are also associated with the gods. Eagles, usually swooping down, are often seen as manifestation of
Zeus, but they are also portents that foreshadow Odysseus' return. As such they need interpreters gifted at
reading signs (Halitherses, Theoclymenus, Helen, and even Odysseus, himself, when he interprets a dream of
Penelope's). Many gods are associated with specific symbols: Zeus, the thunderbolt; Poseidon, the scepter;
Apollo and Artemis, arrows; Athena the loom. The loom itself is associated with all the major female
characters, Calypso, Circe, Helen and, most memorably, Penelope.
Structure
The Odyssey is not structured chronologically. Although it is clearly a poem about Odysseus, we do not meet
the hero until book five (Note that the division of the Odyssey into 24 books is believed to have taken place long
after Homer, perhaps as a result of transcribing the poem onto papyrus rolls which could only hold a limited
amount of text). The books can be divided as follows:
Books 1-4: Athena has received "permission" from Zeus to enable Odysseus to return to Ithaca, his home. She
inspires his son Telemachus to stand up to the suitors who have been courting his mother Penelope, whom she
has been deceiving in order to forestall a marriage to them. Odysseus has been away for almost twenty years
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and no one, including Telemachus, believes he will return. During the 3rd and 4th book, Telemachus visits two
of the Captains who fought beside Odysseus at Troy. He learns from Menelaus, who surprisingly still seems
"happily" married to Helen, that Odysseus is probably still alive, stranded on an island with the immortal
nymph Calypso.
Books 5-8: We meet Odysseus on Ogygia. He is by himself and weeping, longing for home, captive of the
immortal nymph Calypso. Hermes on instructions from Zeus tells Calypso she must release her captive.
Odysseus has a long, storm filled journey to Phaeacia, overcoming the wind and waves stirred up by Poseidon,
who is angry at Odysseus for having blinded his son, the Cyclops, Polyphemus. After being virtually washed
up on Scheria, the island of the Phaeacians, Odysseus is discovered by the king's daughter Nausicaa who,
inspired by Athena, bathes him and invites him to the palace of King Alcinous, and Queen Arete. Once there,
Odysseus is treated as an honored (and initially anonymous) guest and he stirs only when he is insulted at the
"games." He responds to goading by hurling a stone discus long past any of the Phaeacian's efforts. Alcinous
has noticed that Odysseus weeps whenever the bard Demodocus sings of Troy. Finally, he is pressed by
Alcinous to tell his story.
Books 9-12: After revealing that he is the legendary Odysseus, he tells of his life from his leaving Troy until his
journey to Ogygia. In order, these adventures describe his men's foolish greed at the land of the Cicones, their
temptation by the Lotus Eaters, Odysseus' wounding of the monstrous Cyclops, a squandered gift from
Aeolus, a hazardous expedition to the land of the Lastrygonians, a year long sojourn with the bewitching Circe
who sends Odysseus to Hades so he can hear the prediction of his future from the blind seer Tiresias, and
where he meets his mother and several of his fellow Captains from Troy, including Agamemnon who tells of
his betrayal by his wife; after returning to Circe's island to bury a fallen comrade, Circe gives him advice that
enables him to travel past the seductive Sirens, between the hideous Scylla and terrifying Charybdis, only to
be blown onto Thrinacia, Island of Helios, the sun god, where, after a month, his men succumb to temptation
and eat Helios' sacred cattle. When Odysseus and his men leave, Zeus strikes their ship with a thunderbolt.
Odysseus, who did not eat the cattle, is spared, and clinging to the wreckage, he finally lands on Ogygia. At the
end of the recounting of his story, Odysseus is offered a ship by Alcinous, many gifts, and a transport back to
Ithaca.
Books 13-24: The last half of the Odyssey follows Odysseus from his landing on Ithaca to his eventual reunion
with Telemachus, the defeat of the suitors, and his reunions with Penelope and his father. Following the advice
of Athena, who is never far from him during these books, he is disguised as a beggar until he reveals himself to
the terrified suitors at the beginning of Book 22. During this time, he has endured humiliations at the hands of
many of the suitors, including his goatherd, but he has also discovered the loyalty of the swineherd and the
cowherd, as well as that of his son, his wife (who, like the swineherd and the cowherd, do not recognize him)
and his old nurse, Eurycleia (who, because of a scar from childhood, does recognize him). Through the help of
the swineherd and Telemachus, and the sporadic in attentiveness of the somewhat drunk suitors, he manages to
be allowed to enter a contest to string his old bow. After he succeeds, he reveals himself. His onslaught is
ferocious but not without a moment when Athena feels the need to chastise him for his lack of spirit (and faith
in her). After reuniting with Penelope (who stubbornly refuses at first to recognize him) and his father Laertes,
he has a final showdown with the families of the suitors who have come to revenge the deaths of the children.
After a brief skirmish, Athena (in disguise) and her "team" rout the Ithacans to route. The poem end when
Athena restrains Odysseus from wrecking further havoc.
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Who’s who
Principals
Athena - The goddess responsible for rescuing Odysseus from exile becomes the only Olympian we can
imagine as a dinner guest (but at the head of the table whatever her disguise). After getting her father to agree to
her "plan," she appears to Telemachus disguised as Odysseus faithful friend Mentor and begins the process of
bringing Odysseus' son to manhood. In dreams and in various disguises she consoles Penelope, arranges for
Nausicaa to find Odysseus in Scheria, and hides Odysseus in mist. In the second half of the book during her
interactions with her favorite mortal ("you are so winning, so worldly wise, so self-possessed"), she encourages,
cajoles, and berates Odysseus into restoring his place in Ithaca. She also gives him a plan, helps him disguise
himself, and leads him both to victory and peace. The scenes with Odysseus in Book 13 give us a picture of a
gods in direct contrast to what we have seen earlier in that book (Zeus and Poseidon collaborate to destroy the
Phaeacian ship that took Odysseus to Ithaca) and in general. Even though we have had a glimpse of her
fearsome power (Menelaus describes her rage after the Achaean desecrate the temples of Troy), she is the sole
Olympian who appears sensitive to the plights of mortals. (Zeus seems concerned, but only distractedly.) Her
"values" seem closest to those of the Greeks themselves.
Odysseus - The hero of the Odyssey has little in common with Homer's other hero, Achilles. The latter is a
symbol of the power of rage and is as hot as Odysseus is "clear-headed." When we first meet this legendary
hero he is weeping. In some ways the epic is the story of the restoration of his legendary powers. Even at the
end, Athena has to goad him, reminding that his enemies now are mere "suitors". After leaving Calypso, he
appears to be constantly aware of his dependence on the gods, especially Athena. This is no doubt the result of
knowing the dispenser of much of his hardship is the god Poseidon. Unlike other mortals, including
Telemachus, he immediately senses the presence of a God. Experience has taught him to accept the power of
the gods without reservation.. Because of this, Odysseus never is "broken" by his "life of pain." Odysseus; is a
good listener, trying to follow the advice of both Tiresias and Circe, attending to the words of others. After
making the mistake of boasting to Polyphemus, he maintains self-control in all his encounters - rising only to
the bait when mocked by the Phaeacians. His shows great diplomacy with Calypso when he leaves Ogygia, with
Nausicaa when he awakes in Scheria, with Arête when he enters her palace. When he returns to Ithaca, he trusts
no one unless he "tests" the person first. He is guarded even when he senses the shepherd he is talking to is
Athena. Transformed into a beautiful woman, the goddess chides, "You terrible man,/ foxy, ingenious, never
tired of twists and tricks." In then end, age and hardship do not seem to have hindered his qualities as a warrior
and dispatches the suitors with a ruthless efficiency. Always thinking, he does not repeat mistake he had made
with Polyphemus of glorying in victory. He is fully aware that the suitors' relatives will want to avenge his
death and he orders the hall cleaned and calls for his followers to create a festive air so that those outside the
walls that Penelope has chosen her suitor at last.
Penelope - Odysseus’ wife embodies all the qualities of the loyal, patient, devoted wife, even practicing
duplicity to stay the suitors. She seems the exception among women, of whom, Eumaeus notes, "a long, deep
embrace . . . can break [the] will [of] even the best alive." She stands in stark contrast to Helen (who Penelope
sees as a victim of the gods) and starker contrast to Clytemnestra. When we meet her, she seems ready for her
son to assert his manhood, but is chagrined when he sails to Pylos. She does seem to waver at moments, and in
her dream of the eagle killing her geese she "weeps and wails" when the geese are killed, but she shows
remarkable strength, facing down the suitors when called to, and even testing Odysseus when he has told her
who he is. Throughout her ordeal, she has been faithful to her husband and will no doubt condone his duplicity,
by accepting the "powers' of Calypso and Circe.
Telemachus - Telemachus (cool-headed) learns who he is in the Odyssey. In the beginning he seems unaware
of what it means to be Odysseus' son. By the end of Book 24 his grandfather Laertes delights that he is "vying
over courage" with his father. Through the tutelage first of Mentor (Athena) and then successively Nestor,
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Pisistratus, Menelaus and finally Odysseus, he becomes a man. In the late books, after Athena prods him from
sleep, he acts decisively, making a number of intelligent decisions as he returns to Ithaca from Sparta. After
reuniting with his father, he faces down the suitors a number of times before he joins Odysseus, Eumaeus, and
Philoetius in battle. Of course, he is somewhat handicapped as he can never be his father.
Supporting cast
Achilles - The hero of the Iliad tells Odysseus he would rather be some "dirt-poor tenant farmer" than "rule the
breathless dead."
Aeolus - Odysseus' crew thinks his gift to Odysseus is treasure so they open it. It turns out to be a bag of wind.
Blown back to Aeolus, Odysseus is told by the king he and his men must be cursed.
Agamemnon - Leader of the Achaeans at Troy and brother of Menelaus. When he returns from Troy, he is
killed by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus (who was warned by Hermes that killing Agamemnon
would lead to his own death at the hands of Orestes, Agamemnon and Clytemnestra's son). This story is told
and retold numerous times, twice by Agamemnon himself from the underworld. He says that as a consequence
of his fate, women can never be trusted again.
Alcinous -The king of the Phaeacians, husband of Arête, father of Nausicaa, he shows Odysseus great
hospitality - too much for Poseidon's liking.
Arête - The queen of the Phaeacians and wife of Alcinous; Odysseus embraces her as a suppliant.
Argos - Odysseus’ ancient dog who dies just after recognizing his master has returned.
Calypso - A nymph/goddess who offers Odysseus immortality if he will only stay with her and make love to
her forever; instead, he feels imprisoned and for seven years seems to spend much of the time when he is not
"with her" weeping. She complains to Hermes that the Olympians, notably Zeus, have a double standard when it
comes to relationships between mortals and immortals.
Charybdis - A monster in the guise of a whirlpool, or a whirlpool in the guise of a monster, who is the greater
of two evils - the lesser being Scylla who can only eat six at a time.
Circe - After Odysseus, with the help of Hermes' advice, has her turn his back from swine into crew, this
bewitching goddess proves an excellent entertainer of and a valuable advisor to Odysseus. In many ways she
has proved to be the most intriguing of the "women" of the Odyssey, a kind of promiscuous alter-Penelope, who
like Penelope lives endlessly lonely on an island, surrounded by men who are "pigs" and spending most of her
days at her loom.
Demodocus - Like the Homer of legend, a blind bard. He entertains Odysseus and the Phaeacians in the hall of
Alcinous with his tale of Hephaestus' trapping of Ares, but only after making Odysseus weep with tales of Troy.
Perhaps we can glimpse Homer at work in him.
Elpenor - One of Odysseus crew who, drunk, falls off Circe's roof; he later meets Odysseus on the outskirts of
the Underworld and places a curse on Odysseus if he does not return to Aeaea and give him a proper burial.
Eumaeus - Odysseus’ swineherd whom Odysseus first visits in disguise upon his return to Ithaca. Eumaeus
proves his loyalty more than once. He and Eurycleia are perhaps the only "middle class" figures we come to
know.
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Eurycleia - The aged nurse of both Odysseus and Telemachus is loyal to both. She is the only person who
recognizes Odysseus on her own.
Eurylochus - Odysseus’ second in command leads the first expedition to Circe’s hall and escapes unharmed;
later he spearheads a "mutiny" on Helios that leads to the death of the entire crew.
Eurymachus - A suitor who is generally as offensive as Antinous although occasionally he is seen as a
considerably lesser evil. After Antinous is slain, he tries to bargain with Odysseus.
Helen - Although her departure with Paris began the Trojan War, She seems completely at ease back at home
with Menelaus and entertaining Telemachus. Perhaps the beautiful daughter of Zeus manages to get away with
almost anything.
Helios - The God of the Sun whose cattle are eaten by Odysseus’ men demands Zeus render justice. Zeus
instantly complies.
Hermes - The busy messenger of the gods tells Aegisthus to avoid killing Agamemnon, and Calypso to release
Odysseus; he also gives Odysseus a potion to ward off Circe's brew.
Laertes - Odysseus' father has retreated to his farm during his son’s absence. He is a pathetic figure, but with
some assistance from Athena transformed by Odysseus' return.
Menelaus - Reconciled with Helen, the King of Sparta welcomes Telemachus and entertains him for a year,
sending him and Nestor's son Pisistratus home with riches.
Mentor - An old friend of Odysseus whose identify Athena frequently assumes.
Nausicaa - The beautiful Princess of Scheria and daughter of Alcinous and Arête has been ordained by Athena
to be the first person Odysseus meets after his storm tossed journey from Ogygia.
Nestor - The senior captain amongst the Greeks from the Trojan War; he is the first man Telemachus meets
who knew his father at Troy. Extremely respectful of the gods, he serves, albeit briefly, as a kind of father
figure to Telemachus. Later, Telemachus decides not to visit Nestor on his return home because he thinks that
he will have to hang around out of politeness; it has become time for him to meet his father.
Pisistratus - The son of Nestor guides Telemachus to Menelaus’ palace in Sparta and serves as a kind of
brotherly role model. Athena approves of his manners when he offers her (disguised as Mentor) a libation
before he offers one to the younger Telemachus.
Polyphemus - The inhospitable Cyclops is blinded by a "Nobody" who later makes the mistake of boasting that
he is Odysseus. The son of Poseidon calls upon his father to "grant that Odysseus . . . never reaches home . . . or
let him come home late . . . a broken man."
Poseidon - The "Earthshaker" becomes Odysseus' nemesis because of Odysseus’ blinding of Polyphemus. He is
outraged when his "people" - the Phaeacians - help Odysseus. Odysseus will only appease him when he
journeys inland to a place where no one knows salt and plants an oar that is mistaken for a fan that winnows
weep.
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Proteus - "The Old Man of the Sea" who is wrestled down by Menelaus. He can see the future and tells
Menelaus what he must do to return home. He also tells him where Odysseus is (on Ogygia with Calypso) something Menelaus tells Telemachus.
Scylla - Charybdis' alter ego uses her six elongated necks to reach down and snatch six of Odysseus’ men.
Later, when Odysseus is adrift and being blown to Ogygia, she is mercifully asleep.
Tiresias - The blind prophet of Thebes to whom Odysseus is sent by Circe. He is the first person Odysseus
speaks to in the underworld. Tiresias details Odysseus' future with complete accuracy.
Theoclymenus - A prophet who Telemachus "rescues" on the shores of Pylos, In Ithaca he is mocked by the
suitors when he warns of Odysseus' return.
Zeus - All powerful, he seems to like to rule by consent. He is usually pictured acceding to the wishes of
another god (Athena in relation to Odysseus; Helios in relation to Odysseus' crew; Poseidon in relation to the
Phaeacians), sometimes suggesting an especially clever way for the god to obtain a desired result. He also sends
signs (thunderbolts and eagles) that gain the attention of mortals. The other gods are exceedingly respectful of
him, and he, in turn, does not abuse their respect. Only one figure, Calypso, seems to resent his "double
standard" when it comes to the nature of his relationship with beautiful mortals.
Extras (there are no small parts . . .)
Ajax Telamonius - Like Odysseus, a Greek captain. He committed suicide after Odysseus was Achilles’ armor
(Athena was one of the judges); he shuns Odysseus in the Underworld.
Amphinomus - Probably the most considerate of the suitors; Odysseus suggests he would be wise to leave the
palace, but he is fated to die at the hands of Telemachus..
Anticleia - Odysseus’ mother, whom he meets in the Hades, and speaks to after he speaks to Teiresias.
Antinous - The leader of the suitors who even oversteps himself in their eyes when he thows a footstool at the
"beggar" Odysseus. He will be the first to die.
Aphrodite- A kind of comic relief for Odysseus, the goddess appears in Demodocus’ story in a compromising
position. Less comically, she can be seen as one of the root causes of the Trojan War when in exchange for the
golden apple, she offers Helen to Paris. Twice Penelope is described as "looking for all the world like Artemis
or Aphrodite."
Apollo - The God of Archery is called on by Odysseus just before he shoots the bow on his (Apollo's) festival
day. Earlier, Penelope has asked "the god of the archer" to "strike [Antinous] hard."
Ares -The god of war is compromised with Aphrodite in Demodocus' story.
Artemis - Odysseus tells Nausicaa that she resembles the goddess of childbirth and archery "to the life"; Twice
Penelope is described as "looking for all the world like Artemis or Aphrodite."; she is paired with Apollo in
Eumaeus' story of the island of Syrie an idyllic ( ?) place where no one grows old or suffers from hunger
because at the appropriate time Artemis and Apollo shoot them "all to death with gentle arrows"
Broadsea - a Phaeacian who goads Odysseus into competing in the "games."
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Dolius - An old servant who remains loyal to Odysseus, though he is the father of the traitorous Melanthius and
Melantho.
Eidothea - This daughter of Proteus tells Menelaus how to trick her father in to helping him return home.
Eupeithes - Antinous' father, enraged after the slaying of his son, leads the suitors’ relatives in the attack
against Odysseus. He is slain by the reinvigorated Laertes.
Eurynome - A faithful housekeeper of Penelope.
Halitherses - An expert "reader of signs" who is countered by Eurylochus when he interprets two eagles "wings
thrashing, wild onslaught of wings . . . banking down on the crowds head" dove as indicating Odysseus'
immanent and bloody return.
Hephaestus - The Firegod who is the great artificer (he makes the shield of Achilles in the Iliad); at the
Phaeacian festival, Demodocus sings of how he traps the adulterous Aphrodite with her lover Ares in a chain
net that he has forged.
Irus - The beggar with seniority who comes to regret challenging the new beggar in town (Odysseus).
Laodamas - Among the greatest of the Phaeacian athletes, he helps goad Odysseus into accepting the challenge
to participate. But, because he is the son of his host Alcinous, Laodamas is the one athlete with whom Odysseus
will not compete.
Lastrygonians - a race of giants that sinks most of Odysseus' fleet.
Leucothea - (also called Ino) "a mortal once" this sea goddess "with lovely ankles" takes pity on Odysseus
when he is in peril on his way from Ogygia to Scheria and lends him her "immortal" scarf.
Medon – The herald of Odysseus remains loyal to Penelope and Telemachus in his master’s absence and is
rewarded when Telemachus intercedes with Odysseus to spare his life. Later he convinces some of the suitors'
relatives not to seek revenge.
Melanthius - The goatherd both abuses Odysseus while he is in disguise and opens the armory for the suitors
during the battle; he meets a most unpleasant end.
Phemius - A bard who entertained the suitors unwillingly is rewarded for his honesty when Telemachus
intercedes with Odysseus to spare his and Medon's lives.
Philoetius - The loyal oxherd of Odysseus who respects him as a beggar and joins him, Telemachus and
Eumaeus in the slaughter of the suitors.
Settings
Olympus.
Islands: Ithaca; Ogygia (Calypso); Scheria (Phaeacians); Aeolia (Aeolus); Aeaea (Circe); Thrinacia (Helios).
Mainland: Pylos (Nestor); Sparta (Menelaus); Ismarus (Cicones) Cimmeria (Cimmerians, bordering the land of
the dead)
10
Some places are known by their inhabitants:



Land of the Lotus Eaters;
Island of the Cyclops;
Land of the Lastrygonians.
And last but not least - the Kingdom of the Dead.
Themes
Hospitality


First shown to Telemachus by Nestor, then Menelaus.
Shown to Odysseus by Alcinous and Arête.
Contrasted with:




The suitors
The Cyclops (Book 9)
The Laestrygonians (Book 10)
Circe (Book 10)
It is interesting that, although strangers are "protected" by Zeus, Zeus agrees with Poseidon that
the Phaeacians are too hospitable to Odysseus. This seems a value more human than Olympian.
Respect for the Gods


Respect for the gods is shown through the numerous descriptions of sacrifices and offerings.
Before feasting, the ritual involves "cutting the first strips for the gods" having them "wrapped in
sleek fat . . . sprinkling barley over them" then "burning the choice parts for the gods that never
die." Libations are also poured.
Disrespect for the Gods inevitably leads to disaster; the Gods do not forget disrespect and are not
easily appeased. (Poseidon, Athena, Aeolus, Helios.)
Note how often Odysseus prays, especially after he makes the mistake with Polyphemus.


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
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Penelope's loyalty to Odysseus
Athena's loyalty to her "Odysseus" and vice versa
Loyalty between parents and offspring.
The loyalty of Eurycleia
The loyalty of Argos
The loyalty of the Achaeans to each other.

Loyalty
Pride and Honor



Odysseus is guilty of excessive pride when he gives his name to Polyphemus (Book 9).
Laodamus shows excess pride when he challenges Odysseus in Book 8.
The suitors seem dangerously proud, especially when Odysseus returns. In the end, the suitors
have dishonored Odysseus and must pay for this.
11


On the other hand, a certain amount of pride and sense of honor is important. Note how
Odysseus responds to the challenge of Laodamus.
Telemachus needs to need to gain more pride so that he can stand up to the suitors who have
dishonored his house.
Live Life to the Fullest



A major characteristic of Odysseus. He cannot resist the opportunity to "explore." He stays out
of trouble by not being reckless.
The episode with the Sirens is an example of both his exploration of life and of his precaution.
He seems to understand how important to make the most of any moment, taking Achilles'
description of death to heart.
Self-discipline


Foolishness and the lack of self-discipline lead to the loss of men with the Cicones and the loss
of the crew on the Island of Helios.
Odysseus loses his self-discipline with the Cyclops, but demonstrates it almost everywhere else,
often in contrast with his crew.
The Importance of Leadership
This is a top down society. The leaders we meet (Odysseus, Nestor, Alcinous etc.) do not rule democratically.
The rule by "divine right" and by force of character. Probably the most important quality of leadership is
courage.
Justice





Odysseus, like Orestes, will eventually be a deliverer of justice.
Justice takes time. Neither Orestes nor Odysseus can act immediately. When they do act justice
is not tempered by mercy.
Helen seems to be beyond justice.
Justice can seem brutal - especially when it is meted out by Zeus or Poseidon directly - the
Phaeacians are brutally punished for their assistance to Odysseus.
Odysseus justice for the maids who slept with the suitors is also brutal.
Revenge
Homer seems to think that revenge is well justified and people are entitled to it.
Reconciliation
At the end of the book Athena ensures that the people of Ithaca are reconciled with Odysseus. The test
Odysseus and various members of his family undergo with each other suggest that their reunions also involve
reconciliation.
Fate


Fate is preordained by a power beyond that of even the gods.
Paradoxically, it does not seem "random." A character's fate is tied up with his "character."
12

Odysseus is fated to return home but he could not fulfill his fate if he were not who he is.
then and there
unlucky Odysseus would have met his death against the will of fate but the bright eyed one inspired him yet again.
Fighting out from the breakers, pounding toward the coast,
out of danger he swam on, scanning the land. . . (Book 5)
13
Book 1: ATHENA INSPIRES THE PRINCE
SCENE: Calypso's island (briefly), Olympus (briefly), Ithaca, (mainly)
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS:
Gods: Poseidon, Hermes, Athena/Mentes, Zeus
Mortals: Telemachus, Mentes (Athena): King of the Taphians, friend of Odysseus, Penelope,Eurycleia (nurse)
Phemias (the singer), the "suitors," especially Antinous and Eurymachus.
PAY ATTENTION TO:

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







Invocation
Story of Orestes (including Zeus' attitude toward of Aegisthus).
The Gods' discussion of Odysseus. Who is on his side? Who is not? Why?
What Zeus "rules."
Problems of Odysseus: Where is he? Why? How long has he been away?
Athena's disguise.
Youth of Telemachus.
The violation of hospitality
Penelope's situation.
Penelope's actions.
EPITHETS: Who is...





"The bewitching nymph"
"Son of Cronos"
"Who marshals the thunderheads"
"The clear eyed goddess"
"Cool headed"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What do you see as the attitude of the Gods' towards men?
What do you see as the attitude of the Greeks towards hospitality?
How would you characterize Telemachus at this point? What are his strengths?
What are his weaknesses?
How does Athena plan to affect Telemachus?
What tragic homecoming story do we hear of? How does it relate to the situation in Ithaca?
Who is Phemius?
How does Telemachus show strength with Penelope?
How does this relate to the visit of Athena?
Book 2: TELEMACHUS SETS SAIL
SCENE: Ithaca
CHARACTERS: Eurycleia, Mentes/Mentor/Athena, Telemachus, Antinous, Halitherses, Eurymachus.
14
PAY ATTENTION TO:






Athena, goddess of the household who looks over the family.
The economic importance of the household.
The bird omen and the reactions to it.
Assembly and debate.
The "new" Telemachus.
The abuse of and departure of Telemachus.
EPITHETS: Who is...



"self possessed?"
"Daughter of Zeus?"
What has "rose red fingers?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is the suitor's attitude towards Penelope's reluctance to choose one of them?
Why do they think it is their right to "demand" that she choose?
What are the two different interpretations of the omen?
How does Telemachus respond to the position put forward by Antinous?
BOOK 3: KING NESTOR REMEMBERS
SCENE: Pylos
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Telemachus, Athena, Nestor, Pisistratus.
PAY ATTENTION TO:







The sacrifice to Poseidon at the beginning of the book.
Athena's "prayer to Poseidon.
Respect paid to Odysseus.
Athena's role at the end of the war. Her wrath.
Nestor's hospitality.
The Orestes story again.
The sacrifice to Athena at the end of the book
EPITHETS:


Who is "the noble charioteer?"
What is "wine dark?"
QUESTIONS:
1. How does Athena help Telemachus prepare for Nestor?
2. Why is it important for Telemachus to meet Nestor in particular? What does he seem to
represent?
3. Why is it important for Telemachus to meet Pisistratus?
15
4. What does Telemachus learn about himself? about the meaning of being a son? about the
treatment of guests? about sacrifices to the gods?
Book 4: THE KING AND QUEEN OF SPARTA
SCENE: Sparta, Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Telemachus, Menelaus, Helen, Pisistratus, Antinous, Eurycleia, Penelope,
Athena, Proteus, Aegisthus, Orestes, & Medon
PAY ATTENTION TO:








More Greek hospitality and feasting.
Helen’s contribution to the "meal.”
Menelaus' return from Troy.
What Telemachus learns from Menelaus about Odysseus.
The stories of Troy told by Helen.
Menelaus’ reaction to Helen’s story.
The story of Proteus
The plot to kill Telemachus
EPITHETS: Who is . . .




"red haired?”
"son of Atreus?”
"the pearl of women?"
"The Old man of the Sea?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
How do Menelaus and Helen compare with Nestor as hosts?
How do they contrast with the suitors the suitors as guests?
Do Menelaus and Helen know who Telemachus is at the beginning of the book?
What do you make of the relationship between Menelaus and Helen?
What is impressive about their palace?
Who is Proteus? How does Menelaus catch him? With whose help?
What does Menelaus tell Telemachus about Odysseus' whereabouts?
Why does Telemachus need to go to two homes, and visit two of the Captains destroyed Troy?
Why is information withheld so frequently (Proteus at first balks, and Penelope's sister, in a
dream, is also reluctant. Why is other information (Helen’s) suspect?
Book 5: ODYSSEUS - NYMPH AND SHIPWRECK
SCENE: Ogygia
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS:
Odysseus, Calypso, Athena, Zeus, Poseidon, A sea nymph. Ino/Leucothoe: A goddess of the sea who saves
Odysseus.
16
PAY ATTENTION TO:














Odysseus weeping, his longing for home.
The council of the Gods. (Note that it seems to introduce this section in a similar way to how the
assembly in the Book 1 introduces the “Telemachy.”)
The lushness of the island, the beauty of Calypso.
Hermes' appreciation of the lushness, his tact, his businesslike manner.
Calypso reluctant acceptance of the ruling of Zeus.
Her agreeing to help Odysseus with tools and other gifts.
Odysseus' tact when he explains to Calypso why he so wants to go home.
The sexual nature of their relationship.
Odysseus' purposefulness in building the raft.
The wrath of Poseidon.
Ino's gift and Odysseus' mistrust of it.
Athena's aid and Odysseus' survival skills.
Odysseus' prayer to the unnamed river god.
What Odysseus does to make sure he survives his first night back on land.
EPITHETS: Who is . . .




"lustrous goddess, queenly nymph?"
"the guide and giant killer?"
"long enduring?"
"god of the earthquake?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
How long does Odysseus stay on Calypso's island?
What is the source of Calypso's power over Odysseus?
What do we learn of Calypso's feelings for Odysseus?
What will Calypso give Odysseus if he stays with her?
Calypso asks Odysseus to compare her with Penelope; does Odysseus respond satisfactorily?
How would you characterize the making of the raft, and the departure of Odysseus?
For how many days does Odysseus swim?
Why does Zeus, despite his liking of Odysseus, allow Poseidon to make this journey such an
ordeal?
9. Ino-Leucothea, in the guise of a seabird, gives him her veil. Why veil?
10. Why does Odysseus return Ino's veil to the sea?
11. After two days of swimming, note several phases of decision-making. Does Odysseus
accomplish his rescue on his own?
Book 6: THE PRINCESS AND THE STRANGER
SCENE: The island of Scheria, land of the Phaeacians.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Athena, Nausicaa, Alcinous.
PAY ATTENTION TO:

How the Phaeacians are protected by the gods.
17













The idealized household of the Royal Family.
How Athena visits Nausicaa in her dreams.
How the king cannot say no to his daughter.
How beautiful, wise, and young Nausicaa is.
The references to her being "marriageable."
The innocent scene of washing the clothes.
How the playful girls awake Odysseus.
The differing reaction of the girls and Nausicaa to Odysseus' appearance.
Odysseus' tact and Nausicaa's hospitality.
The importance of bathing and anointing with oil.
Odysseus' changed appearance.
Nausicaa's hospitality and her caution at leading Odysseus to the palace.
The presence of Athena.
EPITHET: Who is "the white armed princess?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Why does Nausicaa go to the river to wash clothes?
What is the explanation she offers her father?
What does Odysseus choose not to do when he sees Nausicaa?
What does he choose to do instead?
What do you think Odysseus' speech to Nausicaa tells us about him?
Why does Nausicaa not want to escort Odysseus to the palace?
Book 7: PHAEACIA HALLS AND GARDENS
SCENE: The island of Scheria, land of the Phaeacians.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Athena, Alcinous, Arête
PAY ATTENTION TO:









How the Book begins with Odysseus praying.
The way Odysseus enters the palace.
Note parallels to the way Hermes acts when he reaches Ogygia and greets Calypso.
The description of the palace and its gardens and the god-favoued status of the Phaeacians.
How Odysseus greets Arête (as recommended by Nausicaa).
How the nobleman (Echeneus) chides Alcinous for not being more hospitable.
How the Phaeacians are familiar with visits from the Gods.
How Odysseus avoids identifying himself.
How Alcinous suggest Nausicaa should have brought him directly to the Palace?
EPITHETS: Who is the "man of craft?"
QUESTIONS:
1. How does the palace and the way it is run compare to other palaces we have seen?
2. How might the impression Odysseus and we receive of Phaeacia be significant for
3. Odysseus' subsequent return to Ithaca?
18
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What is the difference between the way Odysseus greets Nausicaa and the way he greets Arête?
What does this tell us about Odysseus’ perception of the two women?
Why does Odysseus sit in the ashes?
What does Odysseus say when asked asks to identify who he is?
What is Arête’s role in helping Odysseus on his journey?
How does Odysseus explain why Nausicaa did not bring him directly to the palace?
Book 8: A DAY FOR SONGS AND CONTESTS
SCENE: The island of Scheria, land of the Phaeacians.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Athena, Alcinous, Demodocus, Odysseus, Laodamon, and Broadsea and the
gods of Demodocus' tale, especially Hephestus, Aphrodite, Ares, Apollo, Hermes.
NOTE: this is a summary of the "story" that Demodocus sings after the games:
The bard sings of Aphrodite's infidelity with Ares. It's a somewhat "bawdy" story, a kind of comic relied from
the stories of Troy that make Odysseus cry, and from the intensity of the "games." Aphrodite's husband, the
crippled blacksmith god Hephestus, creates a net that catches Aphrodite and Ares in the act of making love.
Hephestus has the other gods come to witness and to laugh.
PAY ATTENTION TO:










Alcinous' response to Odysseus' request for help on the way home.
The speed with which the black ship is prepared.
The different elements of the gathering: the song/storytelling of the bard; the athletic games;
feasting; dance.
The arrival of and respect paid to the bard Demodocus.
The effect the song sung by the Demodocus has upon Odysseus.
The games.
The challenge of Broadsea
Odysseus' response to the challenge.
The dancing (420).
The gifts presented Odysseus by the Lords of Phaeacia after the dancing.
EPITHETS: Who is . . .





"the faithful bard the Muse adored, the famous harper?"
"the long suffering hero?"
"Crowned with Flowers?"
"the Master Craftsman, the famous crippled smith?"
"the Archer?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why might Demodocus' blindness be significant?
With whom is Odysseus quarreling in the first song by Demoducus?
What does Alcinous do when he sees how Odysseus reacts?
What does Odysseus do to win the respect of the young Phaeacians? Why ?
What does Alcinous ask Odysseus at the end of Bk. 8?
19
Book 9: IN THE ONE-EYED GIANT'S CAVE
SCENE: In the palace of Alcinous in the land of the Phaeacians where Odysseus tells of the Lands of the
Cocones and the Lotus Eaters as well as of the Island of the Cyclops.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus and Polyphemus: a son of Poseidon and a Cyclops.
PAY ATTENTION TO:











Odysseus' failure to control his men in the land of the Cicones.
His rescuing them in the land of the Lotus-eaters, and saving them in the land of the Cyclops.
Odysseus' adventurous attitude as he lands on the Cyclops' land.
The reverse of the hospitality found in Phaeacia.
The "farm" culture of the Cyclops.
Odysseus' cleverness in calling himself "Nobody."
Odysseus' flattery of the Cyclops.
The vividness of Odysseus' "attack." The similes used to describe this.
The cleverness of his escape.
The curse of Polyphemus.
Odysseus' leadership qualities; his adventurous spirit; his courage and cleverness; his lapse into
pride (hubris).
EPITHETS: Who is...


"teller of tales?"
"god of the sea blue mane who rocks the earth?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Where do Odysseus and his men go first after they leave Troy?
Who are the Cicones?
Who are the lotus eaters?
How does Polyphemus prevent Odysseus and his men from leaving his cave?
What does Polyphemus' diet consist of?
Are the Cyclopes in any way civilized?
What mistake does Odysseus makes as he sails away?
Book 10: THE BEWITCHING QUEEN OF AEAEA
SCENE: In the palace of Alcinous in the land of the Phaeacians where Odysseus tells of the Aeolia land of the
Laestrygonians, and of Aeaea, the island of Circe
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Aeolus, King of Aeolia and master of the winds, Antiphates, King
of the Laestrygonians, Eurylochus, Circe, Hermes, and Elpenor.
PAY ATTENTION TO:



King Aeolus' gift to Odysseus
Odysseus's letting his guard down
Aeolus' belief that Odysseus is not favored by the Gods,
20










Aeolus' attitude toward second chances
Odysseus' caution when he reaches the land of the Laestrygonians,
Odysseus' caution when he reaches Aeaea,
Circe's initial reception of Odysseus' men, her witchcraft.
The role of Hermes
Odysseus as seducer and seduced.
The importance of Circe's “word”,
the luxury of the palace, good times,
Circe's ultimate support and hospitality,
the need to visit Hades and hear from Tiresias.
EPITHETS: Who is...the nymph with the lovely braids
QUESTIONS:
1. After the attack from the Laestrygonians, how many ships are left out of the original twelve?
2. What sort of character is Circe? What craft does she practice that Penelope also practices?
3. Why (aside from her magic) is she able to turn Odysseus' men into swine? How do they offend
her?
4. Into what does Circe transform Odysseus' crew?
5. What does Hermes give to Odysseus?
6. What makes Odysseus give in to Circe's enticements? Is this typical of him?
7. How long does Odysseus stay in Circe's palace?
8. Why does he want to leave?
9. Where must Odysseus go to learn his way home?
Book 11: THE LAND OF THE DEAD
SCENE: the land of the Cimmerians, Hades, and a few moments in the palace of the Phaeacians.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Elpenor, Tiresias, Anticleia (Odysseus' mother,) Arete, Alcinous,
Agamemnon, Achilles, Telemonian Ajax, Tantalus and Sisyphus.
\
PAY ATTENTION TO:


The importance of treating the dead with respect (Elpenor): The ritual Odysseus performs in
order to meet those in the Underworld. The prophesy of Tiresias and the importance of prophesy
(this seems to underscore the inevitability of fate). The parade of women followed by a break in
the narration for some Phaeacian reaction before Odysseus nreturns to his story. Agamemnon's
rage at his wife's betrayal. How Ajax reacts to Odysseus. The cause of this reaction. What
Achilles tells Odysseus about the misery of the dead.
Commentary from the translator, Robert Fagles: "I love that marvelous meeting between
Odysseus and Achilles. It brings back all the latent hostility between the two of them that you see
in the Iliad , especially in the ninth book. Achilles, the great hero of the Iliad , is a ghost who
yearns for life, and Odysseus is able to give him a form of life that's very precious--the depiction
of the heroic life of Achilles' son Neoptolemus. As long as the son is leading that life, the father
can leap triumphant across those fields of asphodel. Two things are being stressed: the extreme
21

fragility of life and how terrible its loss, on the one hand, and how very precious the extension of
life is into the next generation.
"Odysseus plays such a crucial role because by giving the sheep's blood to the dead, he animates
them. That's the power that the living have, to reanimate the dead--to reanimate memory. It's
what we do. We are forever in conversation with these great ancestors."
(http://www.princeton.edu/pr/news/96/q4/1114fagl.html)
EPITHETS: Who is...



"the seer of Thebes?"
"famous Atrides, lord of men?"
"Son of Peleus, greatest of the Achaeans?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What favor does Elpenor ask of Odysseus?
What ritual does Odysseus perform in order to meet those in the Underworld?
What does Tiresias do in order to speak to Odysseus?
What does Odysseus learn about his journey from Tiresias in Hades?
What does Odysseus learn from Anticleia? What does he try to do when after she speaks to him?
Why does he fail?
What does Agamemnon tell Odysseus about how men should feel about women? Is it significant
that earlier in the book we hear about celebrated women?
What is the reason for Ajax's anger at Odysseus?
What is the Greek Underworld (Hades) like?
What do you make of Tantalus and Sisyphus?
Book 12: THE CATTLE OF THE SUN
SCENE: Aeaea, dangerous waters (Sirens, Scylla and Charybdis), the island of Helios (Thrinacia); the sea;
Ogygia.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Circe, the Sirens, Scylla, Eurylochus.
PAY ATTENTION TO:







the burial of Elpenor
Circe's helpfulness
Odysseus leadership - its success and failures
Eurylochus' role (remember he is the most reluctant to join Odysseus at the "party" on Aeaea
the South Wind
the absoluteness of the Gods
Odysseus' endurance.
QUESTIONS:



Why has Odysseus returned to Aeaea?
How does Circe help him?
What does the episode of the Sirens tell us about Odysseus' character? Homer's understanding of
the power of music?
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




What advice does Odysseus take that Circe gives him about Scylla and Charybdis? What does
this tell us about leadership?
Why are the cattle of Helios' island so tempting?
What warning does Odysseus give his men?
This is not the first time Odysseus' warnings are ignored. Whose fault is this?
This is also not the first time Odysseus's orders are defied. Does this absolve him of
responsibility?
Book 13: ITHACA AT LAST
SCENE: The palace of Alcinous, Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Alcinous, Poseidon, Zeus, Athena
PAY ATTENTION TO:
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

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
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
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the departure from the land of the Phaeacians
the power of the Gods
the juggling of that power
the way Zeus placates Poseidon
his reaction to being "betrayed"
Odysseus' anticlimactic arrival in Ithaca
his dialogues with Athena
her transformations
the juxtaposition of the differing attitudes of gods towards men
Odysseus' learning about Telemachus
his disguise after his arrival in Ithaca.
QUESTIONS:
1. How do Poseidon and Zeus interact in this book? What is the balance of power between them?
How does Zeus assert his authority? How does Poseidon assert his displeasure?
2. How does Odysseus first feel as he lands on Ithaca?
3. How much does he tell the "shepherd" he meets about his true identity and intentions?
4. Does he change when he realizes it is Athena? How does she react to his caution?
5. How do the actions Odysseus takes compare with those he takes in the stories he has told? Does
the fact that he has at this point no crew affect the way acts?
6. Where is Athena going at the end of the book? How does she help him at this point?
Book 14: THE LOYAL SWINEHERD
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Eumaeus.
PAY ATTENTION TO:



Odysseus testing of Eumaeus; the frequent mention of Zeus;
Eumaeus referred to as "_ou";
Eumaeus' pride in Odysseus; his pessimism;
23





Odysseus as a story teller;
parallels and difference in his "story" to his own experiences;
Odysseus as a tester of Eumaeus;
the fixing of the "tasty supper in the lodge";
cloaks.
EPITHETS : Who is:


"loyal swineherd?"
"great teller of tales?"
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
How is the swineherd (Eumaeus) connected to Odysseus?
What is the prediction about Odysseus that the stranger swears "on my oath" to Eumaeus?
How does Eumaeus react to this information?
Odysseus tells the swineherd he is from what kind of background? Suffered what kind of
hardships?
5. How does Eumaeus react to Odysseus' story?
6. Who gets the "boar's long loin . . . the cut of honor" in Eumaeus' shelter?
7. Why does Odysseus say, "I'm not long for the living. The cold will do me in./ See, I've got no
cloak."
Book 15: THE PRINCE SETS SAIL FOR HOME
SCENE: Sparta, Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Athena, Telemachus, Pisistratus, Menelaus, Helen, Theoclymenus, Odysseus,
Eumaeus.
PAY ATTENTION TO:






return (of Telemachus),
exile (note: all of the mortals listed above as an "important character" except for Pisistratus have
experienced or are experiencing some form of exile);
hospitality (of Menelaus, Nestor, the swineherd);
bird signs from above; the new sophistication of Telemachus and Pisistratus;
Odysseus' continued testing of Eumaeus;
Eumaeus' story of his "Phoenician nurse."
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Why is Telemachus awake when Athena comes upon him?
How does the beginning of this book compare to the ending of Book 14?
How does Telemachus' departure from Sparta parallel Odysseus' departure from Phaecia?
Who gives going away presents to Telemachus? What does this signify?
What is the portent which precedes Telemachus' departure?
Who is unsure of how to interpret it? Who knows how to interpret it? How does the portent
resemble the earlier portent in Book 2 that is interpreted by Halitherses?
7. Why does Telemachus not want to revisit Nestor? How does Pisistratus react to this?
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8. Who is Theoclymenus? What portent does he interpret?
9. How does Odysseus test Eumaeus?
10. What aspect of Eumaeus' story causes Odysseus to say, "You've moved my heart deeply."
11. How does Telemachus distinguish Eurymachus among the suitors? Who suggested he do this?
Book 16: FATHER AND SON
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Eumaeus, Telemachus, Athena, Antinous, Amphinomus, Medon,
Eurymachus, Penelope.
PAY ATTENTION TO:







Reunions (first of Eumaeus and Telemachus, then of Telemachus and Odysseus);
the irony in several situations; Eumaeus' emotions;
Telemachus' self-control,
Odysseus' discipline ("or are your brothers at fault?");
Athena's role;
Penelope's position and response;
the importance of loyalty (Eumaeus, Penelope)
QUESTIONS:
1. How does Eumaeus greet Telemachus?
2. What errand is Eumaeus sent on?
3. Why does Odysseus reveal his identity to Telemachus?
4. How does Odysseus' look when he reveals himself to his son?
5. How does Telemachus react when Odysseus identifies himself?
6. What are the three major points of strategy in the plan which Odysseus tells to Telemachus?
7. How does Odysseus' look when he reveals himself to his son?
8. What does Antinous try to get the suitors to do?
9. Who offers a different perspective?
10. How does Penelope learn of what the suitors are thinking?
11. How does Penelope react to this information?
12. Which of the suitors attempts to reassure her?
Book 17: STRANGER AT THE GATES
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Telemachus, Eurycleia, Penelope, Piraeus, Theoclymenus,
Eumaeus, Melanthius, Phemius, Argos, Antinous.
PAY ATTENTION TO:




Telemachus' resolve with Penelope;
Telemachus' "true" story ("I'll not deceive you ever.");
Theoclymenus' prophecy;
the taunting of Odysseus by the goatherd Melanthius;
25





Odysseus' self-control;
the recognition by Argos;
the lack of hospitality;
Odysseus' encounter with Antinous – Antinous insulting the stranger and the reactions to this;
Eumaeus' messages from Penelope to the stranger and back again.
EPITHET: Who is... "The man who'd borne long years abroad?"
QUESTIONS:
1. Why compare Penelope to "Artemis or golden Aphrodite" when she comes down the stairs?
2. What does Telemachus leave out of his "true" story when he talks to Penelope; what does he
leave in? How does Theoclymenus contribute to the scene?
3. Where has Argos been lying in the absence of his master?
4. What is Odysseus' reaction to seeing Argos?
5. How does Odysseus handle his "humiliation"? Does he seem more at ease with it than Eumaeus
and Telemachus? If so, why?
6. Who throws a footstool at Odysseus? Why do even the other suitors take exception to this?
7. Why does Penelope want to talk to the stranger?
Book 18: THE BEGGAR-KING OF ITHACA
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Irus (Arnaeus), Amphinomus, Penelope, Telemachus, Eurymachus,
Antinous, Eurynome, and Melantho.
PAY ATTENTION TO:







Odysseus being insulted by Irus and his response;
Odysseus' caution to Amphinomus;
Penelope's appearance before the suitors;
Melantho's mockery of Odysseus;
Odysseus' verbal duel with Eurymachus;
Odysseus' self-control;
the strength of Telemachus.
EPITHETS:


Descriptors for Penelope: wary, poised, discreet, wise;
Descriptors for Odysseus: foxy veteran, seasoned fighter, the one who knew the world, staunch,
master of many exploits
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why does Irus quarrel with "the stranger?"
What is Antinous' reaction to the unfriendly words Irus speaks to Odysseus?
What is the prize for the beggar who wins the fight?
Has Telemachus fully reached manhood yet? Why is this important? What is the symbol of
manhood?
26
5. Who is Penelope's father?
6. What is the implication of the maids' inappropriate behavior?
Book 19: PENELOPE AND HER GUEST
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Telemachus, Eurycleia, Penelope, Eurynome.
PAY ATTENTION TO:





the interaction of Odysseus and Penelope;
the continuing development of Penelope as a character;
the recognition by Eurycleia;
the story behind the scar;
the plan to test the suitors' abilities.
EPITHETS:


More descriptors for Penelope: alert, observant, wise, reserved, discreet. seasoned.
More descriptors for Odysseus: the old soldier, old trooper, master of craft, master improviser,
great master of subtlety, wily, cool tactician, man of exploits.
QUESTIONS:
1. What ruse does Odysseus tell Telemachus to carry out at the beginning of the book?
2. What does the stranger ask Penelope not to ask him? Why? Does she ask him anyway?
3. Where does Odysseus tell Penelope he is from? Does this story have anything in common with
the story he tells Eumaeus?
4. How does Penelope react to what she hears of Odysseus? How does Odysseus react to her
reaction?
5. What prediction does Odysseus give to Penelope?
6. How did Odysseus obtain the scar that Eurycleia recognizes?
7. What does Odysseus say to Eurycleia?
8. What is the dream which Penelope describes to Odysseus? How does he interpret it?
9. How does the stranger affect Penelope? Why is she favorably disposed toward the stranger?
10. How does Penelope plan to test the suitors to see which one she will marry?
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Book 20: PORTENTS GATHER
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Athena, Penelope, Telemachus, Eurycleia, Melanthius, Philoetius
(the cowherd), Antinous, Theoclymenus (the seer), Eurymachus, and Ctesippus, a suitor who abuses Odysseus.
PAY ATTENTION TO:










Odysseus' "seething anger";
the behavior of the maids;
his self-control;
Penelope's prayer;
Zeus' omen; Melanthius' continuing abusiveness contrasted with the cowherd's talk with the
beggar;
the cowherd's affection for Odysseus;
Telemachus' behavior - all of which suggests he has become a man;
Athena's role;
the prophecy of Theoclymenus;
the "manic" behavior of the suitors.
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What does Athena do in this book to boost Odysseus' spirits? To test them?
Why are the stranger's interactions with Melanthius and Philoetius placed one after the other?
What does Philoetius have in common with Melanthius and Eumaeus?
How is Odysseus insulted by Cteppis? How does Odysseus react? Telemachus?
Why do the suitors behave even more inappropriately than usual?
What is Penelope doing at the end of the book?
Book 21: ODYSSEUS STRINGS HIS BOW
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Athena, Penelope, Eumaeus, Odysseus, Antinous, Telemachus, Philoetius,
Eumaeus, Melanthius, Eurymachus, Eurycleia.
PAY ATTENTION TO:










Penelope as she leads up to announcing the contest, especially her emotions as she removes the
bow from its hiding place;
Telemachus' attempt to string the bow;
Odysseus' shaking his head ("no");
Odysseus slipping out of the hall during the contest;
his revealing of his identity to the cowherd (Philoetius) and the swineherd (Eumaeus);
Antinous' proposal after Eurymachus fails to string the bow;
Odysseus counter-proposal;
Antinous' reaction ("Not a shred of sense in your head, you filthy drifter");
Penelope's reaction to Antinous;
Telemachus' sending her back to her quarters:
28



Eumaeus taking the bow to Odysseus;
the mockery of the suitors toward both Eumaeus and Telemachus;
Odysseus stringing the bow.
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What must the stringer of the bow do with his shot?
In what way do Telemachus' words after "giving up" show him to be a worthy son?
What is Antinous' and Eurymachus' reaction to the challenge?
Melanthius is ordered to do what in order to make the bow easier to bend?
How does Odysseus prove his identity to the cowherd and the swineherd?
What is the purpose of the "biography" of the bow?
Penelope's taking the bow from its hiding place is one of the most moving moments in this part
of the poem – why?
Commentary from the translator, Robert Fagles: "In many ways one of the most moving
moments in the poem for me is when Odysseus strings his bow at the end of the 21st book. The
simile for stringing the bow describes the hero as 'an expert singer skilled at lyre and song' who
tunes his harp to a new pitch. That means the bow, the killing instrument, is really a musical
instrument at the same time. Story-telling at that point becomes action.
"It's as though Homer were taking his whole narrative art and conferring it upon his hero and
saying, all right, take your bow and treat it as a lyre and play a new song. With that lyre-bow
Odysseus recomposes his kingdom; he rids it of discordant elements--the suitors--and establishes
a new era of harmony. The storytelling image and the whole activity of heroism come together
and are one and the same." (http://www.princeton.edu/pr/news/96/q4/1114fagl.html)
Book 22: SLAUGHTER IN THE HALL
SCENE: Ithaca
Important Characters: Odysseus, Antinous, Eurymachus, Telemachus, Eumaeus, Melanthius, Athena, Phemius,
Medon, Eurycleia.
EPITHETS: Who is... "the master of longhorn cattle?"
PAY ATTENTION TO:






the violence of this book and the totality of Odysseus’ revenge;
Initial reaction of the suitors;
Athena’s aid as Mentor;
the sparing of Phemias and Medon, Melanthius’ betrayal and subsequent end;
the hanging of the servant girls who have slept with the suitors;
the purification of the palace.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is Antinous doing when Odysseus shoots him? Why is he the first victim?
2. How do the other suitors appeal to Odysseus?
3. How does Eurymachus react to Mentor?
29
4.
5.
6.
7.
How much does Athena help Odysseus, and how much is the victory his?
Who tests the strength and courage of Odysseus and Telemachus?
The dead suitors are compared to what kind of creatures?
Which appendages does Melanthius lose? Where do they end up? (Remember Antinous' threats
to send Irus to Echetus in the beginning of Book 18; and a similar threat to Odysseus in Book
21)
Book 23: THE GREAT ROOTED BED
SCENE: Ithaca
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS: Odysseus, Penelope, Eurycleia, Telemachus, Athena
PAY ATTENTION TO:







The interaction of Penelope and Eurycleia;
Penelope's "hardness";
Penelope’s test of Odysseus;
the story of the bed;
Odysseus’ reaction to the test;
Odysseus’ shorter” version of his adventures;
the ritual and consummation of their reunion and Athena’s “gift.”
QUESTIONS:
1. What do Penelope and Eurycleia argue about at the beginning of Bk. 23?
2. Why is Telemachus irritated at his mother?
3. What (who) does Penelope believe caused the deaths of the suitors?
4. What future problems does Odysseus see as a result of the killing of the suitors?
5. What does Odysseus want those outside his palace believe is happening within the palace?
6. Where does Penelope order Eurycleia to make up the bed? How does Odysseus react to this?
7. Who made the bed and what is remarkable about it?
8. What reason does Penelope give for not recognizing Odysseus earlier?
9. Who made Helen act as she had according to Penelope?
10. Who is responsible for holding Dawn at bay while Penelope and Odysseus spend their first night
together?
11. What does Odysseus tell Penelope about his next journey?
12. Where is Odysseus headed at the end of the book?
Book 24: PEACE
SCENE: Hades, Ithaca (the town and Laertes' farm)
CHARACTERS: shades of the tutors, Agamemnon, Achilles, Odysseus, Laertes, Telemachus, Dolius (Father of
Melanthius and Melantho); Eupithes (father of Antinous), Medon, Halitherses, Athena.
PAY ATTENTION TO:

the suitors escorted by Hermes into Hades;
30









the appearance of the great Achaean captains (who seem not to have come across one another
that often in Hades);
Agamemnon's description of the honors showed to Achilles upon his death in contrast to his own
end;
Agamemnon's lack of sympathy for the suitors and his praise of Penelope;
Odysseus' decision to reveal himself to his father only after "testing" him;
Dolius' faithfulness;
the contrast between Laertes' reunion with his son and Eupithes desire to avenge the death of his
son;
the attempts by Medon and Halitherses to convince the families of the suitors not to seek
revenge;
Athena's role (with Zeus' blessing) to resolve the conflict;
reconciliation (father and son; Odysseus and Ithaca)
QUESTIONS:
1. What different views of their fates do Agamemnon and Achilles seem to hold?
2. When they speak to Agamemnon and Achilles how do suitors' shades feel about their
responsibility for Odysseus' actions?
3. How does Odysseus test his father Laertes, now living a hard life, after the slaughter has been
accomplished? What's the point of testing his father?
4. How does Odysseus prove to his father who he is?
5. What is reasons does Eupithes give when encouraging revenge on Odysseus?
6. What does Athena (disguised as Mentor) do to insure that the families will not succeed in
revenging the suitors' deaths? What does she do to ensure that Odysseus won't cause further
havoc?
31