U.S. President Age, Height, and Facial Feature Changes
with the Social and Economic Climate
Terry F. Pettijohn II
Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
100
J ohn son
T ru ma n
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0
Eise nh owe r
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Rea gan
Nixon
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70. 5
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Ro ose velt
Bu sh
C arte r
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Bu sh
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-1
Ken ne dy
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Goo d
Times
10
2006
2004
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1996
1994
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1990
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1982
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1972
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1958
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Year
Figure 2. U.S. President Age and General Hard Times Measure
Across Time (1932-2004)
2
0
Hard
Times
These results support recent investigations considering how face
shape of political candidates across war and peace times can
influence voting patterns (Little et al., 2007). Masculine, dominant
manipulated faces were preferred during war-time contexts and
feminine faces were preferred during peace-time contexts.
Similarly, the current study finds presidents with more mature facial
features (smaller eyes and larger chins) and who were taller (social
dominance feature) were preferred during more threatening times.
Future research may consider the relative difference between
presidential candidates in each election to determine whether the
more mature, socially dominant candidate is more likely to win
during more difficult times. Other studies may focus on local
elections, cross-cultural elections, and consider how the features of
female candidates determine election outcomes.
0
19 34
-1.5
Consistent with the Environmental Security Hypothesis, U.S.
presidents who were taller and who had larger chins and smaller
eyes were elected to office during times of social and economic
threat. Contrary to predictions, U.S. presidents who were younger
were elected when times were difficult. Younger presidents may
have been perceived as more charismatic (McCann & Stewin, 1987;
McCann, 1991, 1997) and able to handle the responsibilities and
challenges of a difficult economy and social state.
Although correlational, and based on a very limited sample size,
these results suggest that environmental security may influence
perceptions and preferences for U.S. presidents with certain age,
height, and facial features.
50
-0.5
These results have important implications for future political races.
While physical appearance is only one dimension of consideration
when voting, it may be more important than previously believed.
10
1.5
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1
Selected References
46
Carter
Nixon
51
55
0
Tru man
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54
58
60
62
64
50
50
52
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57
60
40
Cl int on
43
60
Age (years)
30
Kenn edy
0.5
64
66
69
-0.5
70
73
Roo sevelt
Bush
80
Bu sh
Johnson
-1
Ei sen ho wer
Good
Times
90
Reagan
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
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1976
Year
1974
1972
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1966
1968
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1962
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1946
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1942
1940
100
1938
-1.5
1934
1936
Figure 3. U.S. President Chin Area and General Hard Times Measure
Across Time (1932-2004)
2
1.5
0.21
0.18
1
Ke nnedy
0.16
0.5
0.14
0. 13
Chin Area
0.15
Reagan
Cli nto n
Johnson
Truman
0.1 2
0.1 2
0
0.1 2
0.11
0.1 2
0.1 2
0.12
0.1 0
Eisenh owe r
0.09
0.09
Roosevelt
-0.5
Little, A., Burriss, R., Jones, B., & Roberts, S. (2007). Facial
appearance affects voting decisions. Evolution and Human Behavior,
28, 18-27.
McCann, S. J., & Stewin, L. L. (1987). Threat, authoritarianism, and the
power of U.S. presidents. Journal of Psychology, 121, 149-157.
Nelson, L. D., Pettijohn, T. F. II, & Galak, J. (2007). Mate preferences
in social cognitive context: When environmental and personal change
leads to predictable cross-cultural variation. In V. Swami & A. Furnham
(Eds.), Body beautiful: Evolutionary and socio-cultural perspectives
(pp. 185-206). New York: Palgrave.
Young, T. J., & French, L. A. (1998). Heights of U.S. presidents: A trend
analysis for 1948-1996. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 321-322.
Acknowledgements
0.24
Hard
Times
Bush
Carter
Bush
0.03
Good
Times
2004
2006
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1982
1984
1978
1980
1976
Year
1974
1972
1970
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1962
1960
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1956
1952
1950
1948
0
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-1.5
I thank Lauren McDermott and Ginny Naples for assistance with data
collection and facial feature measurement.
Contact Information
Terry F. Pettijohn II, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Coastal Carolina University
P.O. Box 261954
Conway, South Carolina
29528-6054
0.06
Nixon
-1
1944
Election
Age
Height
Year
Name
(years)
(inches)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1932
Franklin D. Roosevelt
51
74
1936
Franklin D. Roosevelt
55
74
1940
Franklin D. Roosevelt
59
74
1944
Harry S. Truman
60
69
1948
Harry S. Truman
64
69
1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower
62
70.5
1956
Dwight D. Eisenhower
66
70.5
1960
John F. Kennedy
43
72
1964
Lyndon B. Johnson
57
75
1968
Richard Nixon
56
71.5
1972
Richard Nixon
60
71.5
1976
Jimmy Carter
52
69.5
1980
Ronald Reagan
69
73
1984
Ronald Reagan
73
73
1988
George H. W. Bush
64
74
1992
Bill Clinton
46
74.5
1996
Bill Clinton
50
74.5
2000
George W. Bush
54
72
2004
George W. Bush
58
72
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Mean
57.84
72.29
StDev
7.65
1.93
Max
73
75
Min
43
69
90
C li nto n
1932
Table. Age and Height of Presidents of the United
States by Election Year (1932-2004)
Height (inches)
General Hard Times Measure _____
_____
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1942
When economic security is threatened, attributes associated with
mature individuals should become more important and preferred
in order to assist with the demands of a more threatening
situation. In accordance with the Environmental Security
Hypothesis, a relationship between threatening social and
economic conditions and U.S. president height, age, and facial
characteristics was hypothesized. In particular, U.S. presidents
who were relatively taller, older, and who had smaller eyes and
larger chins were predicted to be popular with the voting public
in poor social and economic times. In good social and economic
conditions, U.S. presidents who were relatively shorter, younger,
and who had larger eyes and smaller chins were predicted to be
elected to office.
120
1
1940
Current Study Hypotheses
130
1938
Pettijohn & Tesser’s (1999) Environmental Security Hypothesis is
a context-dependent theory of attraction and preferences
drawing on evolutionary theory and ecology. The theory suggests
that when social and economic conditions are threatening,
individuals will prefer others with more mature characteristics
compared to non-threatening conditions because maturity is
associated with the ability to handle threatening situations. Past
archival research on American actress facial features (Pettijohn
& Tesser, 1999), Playboy Playmate facial and body features
(Pettijohn & Jungeberg, 2004), Billboard music and musical
artists (Pettijohn & Sacco, 2009), as well as experimental studies
(Pettijohn & Tesser, 2005) have supported this theory. See
Nelson, Pettijohn, & Galak (2007) for a review.
140
1936
The Environmental Security Hypothesis
At the time of data analysis, some social and economic statistics
for 2008 were not yet available, so the 2008 election of Barack
Obama could not be included in the current results.
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1932
1934
Past research has also shown that facial features, such as eye
size and chin size, are associated with specialized sets of
attributes (see Zebrowitz, 1997). Small eye size and large chin
size are components of a mature face, which is associated with
the attributes of strength, dominance, competency, expertise,
maturity, independence, status, and shrewdness.
Rationale for the Current Sample
Standardized measures regarding social and economic statistics in
the U.S. were not available or consistently collected before the
1920s. In addition, more recent presidential elections were more
widely covered by the press and presented in the media, thereby
making appearance and body features of candidates more
salient. For these reasons, we chose to begin our investigation
with the 1932 election of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
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1.5
1932
Taller individuals are believed to be stronger, more independent,
and more dominant than shorter individuals (Melamed, 1992;
Adams, 1980; Young & French, 1998; Boyson, Pryor, & Butler,
1999), while older individuals are believed to be more
responsible and mature than younger individuals (Adams, 1980).
President Features
Each of the 11 elected Presidents of the United States of America
from the 19 elections between 1932-2004 were identified (see
Table). Age at elected term and height measurements were
collected from historical records. Complete, face-front images of
each of these presidents were collected and two independent
researchers completed facial feature measurements on these
images (see Cunningham et al., 1995, for exact measurement
schema) with aid of computer software. Facialmetrics related to
eye size and chin size were the focus of this investigation due to
their relation to maturity dimensions in previous research.
2
Hard
Ti mes
General Hard Times Measure _____
Past archival studies have found societal measures of threat in
America have been related to powerful and charismatic
presidential candidate preferences (McCann & Stewin, 1987;
McCann, 1991, 1997). But what characteristics connote power?
Height, age, and facial features may offer insight into the voting
habits of the American people during presidential elections in
fluctuating socioeconomic states.
Discussion
Figure 1. U.S. President Height and General Hard Times Measure
Across Time (1932-2004)
_____
Introduction
General Hard Times Measure
To test the hypotheses, U.S. social and economic statistics
(unemployment rate, change in disposable personal income,
change in consumer price index, death rate, birth rate, marriage
rate, divorce rate, suicide rate, and homicide rate) for each year
(1929-2004) were collected and standardized to create a General
Hard Times Measure (GHTM). Higher values on the GHTM indicate
more threatening social and economic conditions. The GHTM for
the election year and three years prior to each president’s
election were averaged and used as the dependent measure in
this study.
Results
Overall, in threatening social and economic conditions, U.S.
presidents were taller, r(17)=.60, p<.01 (see Figure 1), younger,
r(17)=-.28, p=.12 (see Figure 2), and had larger chins, r(17)=.31,
p=.09 (see Figure 3), and smaller eyes, r(17)=-.24, p=.17 .
General Hard Times Measure _____
Age, height, and facial characteristics of U.S. presidents over the
past 75 years were identified and investigated to explore their
relationships with social and economic factors. Consistent with
the Environmental Security Hypothesis, presidents with more
mature features (taller, older, smaller eyes, and larger chins)
were predicted to be elected in conditions of social and
economic threat. Results revealed that in more difficult times,
U.S. presidents who were taller, younger, and who possessed
smaller eyes and larger chins were elected to office.
Method: Data Collection
_____
Abstract
Phone: 843-349-6447
Fax: 843-349-2857
Email: pettijohn@coastal.edu
Presented at the 117th Annual American Psychological Association
Convention, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, August 7 th, 2009