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Unit 1: Renaissance and Discovery
I. The Renaissance in Italy (1375-1527)
Renaissance-a time of transition from the medieval to the modern world
Jacob Burkhardt: the renaissance was the release of the “full, whole nature of man”
Started after the death of Pertrach, “the father of humanism” and ended with the sack of Rome
from Spanish-imperial soldiers.
A. The Italian City-State
Growth of City-States: endemic warfare between emperor and pope of Italy
weakened one another and strengthened merchant oligarchies of the cities. 5 major,
competitive states in Italy: Milan, Florence, Venice, the Papal States (Rome), and
Naples.
Social Class and Conflict: Florence-four social groups: old rich/grandi, new rich
merchant class-capitalists/ “fat people”, Middle class, populo minuto/ lower
economic class.
Social divisions = conflict
Ex: Ciompi Revolt- In 1378 the poor established a chaotic four-year reign of power.
Causes: feud between old and new rich, social anarchy from Black Death, collapse of
banking houses
Despotism and Diplomacy: Despots ruled the city states through the support of
merchant oligarchies. podesta-a strongman hired by dominant groups in a city who
was given all authority to allow the normal flow of business activity through
mercenary armies obtained through military brokers known as condoterri.
Florence- Cosimo de’ Medici controlled city internally manipulating constitution and
influencing elections. Government: Florence was governed by a council known as
Signoria chosen from the powerful guilds. Cosimo kept councilors loyal to him and
as the head of the Office of Public Debt he had influence. His grandson, Lorenzo the
magnificent ruled Florence in almost totalitarian fashion.
Milan-the Visconti family and Sforza family ruled without constitutional restraints or
serious political competition as despots
Venice-ruled by successful merchant oligarchy with Senate of 300 members, a
judicial body of the Council of Ten, which suppressed rival groups.
City-states established embassies in other city-states and the ambassadors became
spies as well
Impact: Despots provided flow of wealth that promoted Italian Renaissance culture
B. Humanism
Humanism- the scholarly study of the Latin and Greek classics and ancient Church
Fathers in hope of a rebirth of ancient norms and values
Studia Humanitatis-liberal arts program of study that embraced grammar, rhetoric,
poetry, history, politics, and moral philosophy promoted by humanists
Petrarch, Dante, and Boccaccio:
Petrarch- “father of humanism”. served the Visconti family in Milan, celebrated
ancient Rome in his Letters to the Ancient Dead-personal letters to Cicero, Livy,
Vergil, and Horace, Africa-poetic historical tribute to Roman general Scipio
Africanus, and Lives of Illustrious Men-biographies of famous Roman men, his
critical studies and elitism were precedents for later humanists, Classical and
Christian values co-existed in his work
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Dante- his Vita Nuova and Divine Comedy, with Petrarch’s sonnets were the
cornerstones of Italian vernacular literature
Boccaccio-student of Petrarch’s. Writings: Decameron- 100 bawdy tales told by 3
men and 7 women which was a social commentary on human behavior, also collected
an encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology.
Educational Reforms and Goals
Humanists used primary sources and refused to be slaves to tradition
Pietro Paolo Vergerio’s On the Morals That Befit a Free Man wrote about the idea
of liberal education as education that developed and trained the body to be free
Quintillian’s Education of the Orator became the classical guide for the humanist’s
curriculum. Reading the works of Greek philosophers and classics, vigorous physical
exercise and games, and study of classical languages were a part of this curriculum.
Baldassare Castiglone’s book of the Courtier- became a practical guide for the
nobility to learn humanism
Christine de Pisan- became an influential women humanist and wrote The Treasure
of the City of Ladies
The Florentine “Academy” and the Revival of Platonism
Beginnings: City invited Manuel Chrysoloras to promote Greek learning, after fall
of Constantinople Greek scholars fled to Florence for refuge forming the Florentine
Platonic Academy under the patronage of Cosimo de’Medici.
Platonism: synthesization of Platonic philosophy with Christian teaching. Florentine
humanists devoted themselves to the revival of the works of Plato and the
Newplatonists. Marsilo Ficino edited and published the complete works of Plato
Pico della Mirandola wrote the Oration of the Dignity of Man depicting humans as
the only creatures in the world who possessed the freedom to chose
Critical Work of the Humanists: Lorenzo Valla
Valla wrote Elegances of the latin Language and the expose of the Donation of
Constantine-the fraudulent Donation challenged the church and helped the protestant
reformation
Civic Humanism-belief that education should promote individual virtue and public
service
Examples: many humanists served as leaders in Florence and rallied Florentines
against aggressive Naples and Milan using rhetoric and writings
Many humanists also became an intellectual elite as well
C. Renaissance Art
-realistic with the observation of the natural world and expression of emotions
-greater rational order with proportionality and symmetry
-greater technical skills: Oil paints to enhance naturalness Chiaroscuro-shading
techniques to enhance perspective
1. Leonardo Da Vinci- Renaissance ideal of the universal person. He was a great
scientist and inventor and one of the greatest painters of all time. His most famous
painting is the Mona Lisa
2. Raphael- known for his tender madonnas and frescoes, the most famous of which
is The School of Athens which portrayed the great masters of Western Philosophy
3. Michelangelo- genius in a variety of arts, sculpted the sculpture David, painted the
Sistine Chapel, and was commissioned by four different popes.
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His later works marked the passing of Renaissance painting to mannerism- painting
based on the subjectivity of the artist backlashing against the simplicity and
symmetry of Renaissance art
D. Slavery In the Renaissance
-Increase in slavery, flourished just as much as art and culture
-Western slave market began when Spanish sold Muslim slaves to wealthy Italians
-Increase caused by Black Death reducing the supply of laborers-demand soared
-owners had complete dominion
-slaves became part of the family, “genetically” as well
-slaves were still a foreign and suspect presence in Italian society
II. Italy’s Political Decline: The French Invasions (1494-1527)
A. The Treaty of Lodi-a political alliance during the latter half of the fifteenth century
that brought Milan and Naples into an alliance with Florence, united all five citystates when a foreign enemy threatened Italy
Ended: Milanese despot Ludovico il Moro resumed hostilities between Milan and
Naples. Ludovico invited French to reenter Italy, revive dynastic claims and help
Milan defeat Naples
B. 1st Invasion: Charles VIII’s March Through Italy
Charles VIII: successor to Louis XI,
1. Florence-responded to Ludovico’s call immediately, Girolamo Savonarola
convinced Florentines that French king’s arrival was justified, Savonarola’s
appeasement guaranteed him rule over Florence after Charles VIII left.
2. The League of Venice-Ferdinand of Aragon was threatened by the FrenchItalian axis, wanted to expand into Italy as well. League of Venice was a
counter-alliance with Venice, the Papal States, and Emperor Maximilian I,
and Spain against the French. Ludovico also joined the League and the
League forced Charles into retreat.
C. 2nd Invasion: Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family
French returned under Charles’s successor Louis XII, assisted by new Italian ally, the
Borgia pope, Alexander VI.
Alexander VI, Borgia pope: corrupt, formed political base in Romagna, gained
French favor by annulling Louis XII’s sister and promoting Louis XII’s favorite
cleric to cardinal, abandoned the League of Venice.
Result: France invaded Milan split Naples with Ferdinand, Borgia conquered
Romagna with French military aid
D. Pope Julius II (Warrior Pope)
-successor to Alexander VI, suppressed Borgias and placed their lands under papal
jurisdiction
-fully secured Papal State’s, drove out Venetians.
1. Holy League: Second alliance between Julius, Ferdinand of Aragon, Venice,
Emperor Maximillian I, and the Swiss
2. 3rd French Invasion: Louis’s successor Francis I, French armies massacred
Swiss soldiers of the Holy League, compromise-gave French king control over
the French clergy in exchange for French recognition of the pope’s superiority
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E. Niccolo Machiavelli
1. Political time period: Italy’s political tragedy-invasions by Spain, France,
and Germany
2. Humanist influences-impressed by Roman rulers, patriotism and selfsacrifice, deep republican ideals
3. “Machavellian”-ruthless political expediency-believed the salvation of Italy
required a cunning dictator. Hoped to see the Medici family control Italy,
admired Pope Alexander VI for bringing factious Romagna together. His dreams
were not realized, the year of his death Emperor Charles V sacked Rome.
III. Revival of Monarchy in Northern Europe
A. Overview-after 1450, a progressive shift occurred from divided feudal to unified
national monarchies.
1. Feudal monarchy: division of power between king and nobility,
representative assemblies thwarted centralization of royal power. Declined
after the Hundred Year’s War and Great Schism when the nobility and clergy
were less able to contain expanding monarchies.
2. Alliance of King and Town-taxation, warmaking became national matters,
monarchs rarely called the Cortes, Estates General, or Parliament into
session, national bureaucracies and civil servants, national armies.
3. Taxes: national taxes on basic needs (e.g. salt tax/gabelle in France). Sales
tax (e.g. alcabala in Spain), and direct taxes on peasants (e.g. taille in France)
Nobility was still tax-exempt, monarch’s borrowed from rich nobles.
B. “New Monarchy in France” (Charles VII)
1. Factors responsible for rise in power-collapse of English Empire in France
after Hundred Years’ War, defeat of Charles the Bold and rising power in
Burgundy
2. Features of the monarchy- permanent professional army, strong economy
through the help of merchant banker Jacques Coeur, national administration
(postal system, trade and industry). Restricted the French Estates General
C. Spain (Ferdinand and Isabella)
1. Factors responsible for rise in power-Union of Isabella of Castile and
Ferdinand of Aragon
2. Features of the monarchy-ventured militarily, secured borders by
conquering the Moors in Granada and Naples, financed explorations,
Christianized the whole of Spain through appointing clergy and exiling Jews
and Muslims, retained power through marriages of daughters.
D. England (Henry Tudor)
1. Factors responsible for rise in power- end of the War of Roses
(Lancastrian Henry Tudor defeats Rose family’s Richard
2. Features of the monarchy-political marriages, Court of Star Chamberjudges were king’s councillors to discipline the nobility who would bribe and
intimidate to get favorable verdicts in court cases, bypassed Parliament
E. The Holy Roman Empire
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1. Germany-territorial rulers/cities resisted national consolidation, rulers
partitioned kingdoms among sons, Golden Bull-agreement in 1356 reached
by major German princes that established a 7 member electoral college made
up of the archibishops of the major territories who elected an emperor. Still,
the conditions of his rule and powers were renegotiated every election
through the 7 electors. Rights of many balanced against the one.
2. Reichstag-national assembly of the 7 electors, nonelectoral princes, and
representatives from the 65 cities. Achievements: ban on private warfare,
creation of a Supreme Court of Justice, Council of Regency to coordinate
policy. Reforms were a poor substitute for true national unity
IV. The Northern Renaissance
A. Overview1. Similarities with Italian Renaissance: Northern humanism was initially
stimulated by importation of Italian learning-students who had studied in Italy,
merchants, and the Brothers of the Common Life-lay religious movement that began in
the Netherlands permitted men and women to live a shared religious life without making
formal vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
2. Differences with Italian Renaissance-humanists came from more diverse social
backgrounds, more devoted to religious reforms, more willing to write for lay audiences,
more widespread through invention of printing press
B. The Printing Press
1. Increased demand-tripling of universities from 1300 to 1500, demand for
books and increased learning
2. Johann Gutenberg-invented printing with movable type in the mid-fifteenth
century in Germany
3. Print revolution impact-more educated lower class, widespread knowledge,
religious and political propaganda, diffusion of Renaissance learning
C. Erasmus the most famous of the northern humanists and the “prince of the
humanists”
1. Early works: Colloquies-Latin dialogues that taught students how to speak
and live well; Adages-collection of ancient and contemporary proverbs
(5000); “where there is smoke, there is fire” popularized in the Adages
2. Central belief: wanted to unite the classical ideals of civic virtue and
humanism with the Christian ideals of love and piety. Philosophia Christiisummarization of his beliefs, ethical piety in imitation of Christ
3. Impact- Church was displeased with him, condemned by Lutheran’s, works
became basic tools of reform in the hands of both Protestant and Catholic
reformers.
D. Humanism and Reform
1. Germany: Rudolf Agricola “father of German humanism”, Von Hutten
gave humanism a nationalist coloring particularly to Roman culture, and
Luther’s religious reform. Reuchlin affair-Johann Reuchlin was Europe’s
Christian authority on Jews, was attacked by Pfefferkorn to suppress Jewish
writings. Humanists unified and rushed to his defense and also to Martin
Luther’s.
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2. England: Thomas More-best known English humanist. Utopia-depicted an
imaginary island based on reason, tolerance, and communalism. Humanism
in England paved the way for the Reformation
3. France: Invasions allowed Italian learning to penetrate. Guillame Bude
and Jacques d’Etaples were the leaders of French humanism. French
humanists influenced martin Luther and cultivated a generation of young
reform-minded humanists.
4. Spain-humanism entered the service of the Catholic Church. Francisco
Jimenez de Cisneros=”Grand Inquisitor of Spain who enforced the strictest
religious orthodoxy. Complutensian Polygot Bible-six-volume work that
placed Hebrew, Greek, and Latin versions of the Bible in parallel columns.
Translated many religious tracts, Greek edition of the New Testament.
Church reforms and repressive measures kept Spain strictly Catholic
throughout the Age of Reformation.
V. Voyages of Discovery and the New Empire in the West
A. Overview: Western Europe’s global expansion in the 15th century. There was a
transfer of commercial supremacy from the Mediterranean and Baltic to the Atlantic
Ocean
B. Gold and Spices
1. Motivation for gold- Portuguese prince Henry the navigator (1394-1469)
wanted to break monopoly of gold trade, spread missionary ideals and to
fund mercenary armies
2. Portugal as commercial center- gold from Guinea was entering Europe
through Portuguese ships, Antwerp became financial center- trading,
German banks
3. Demand for Spices-dull diet of Europeans, spices could preserve and
enhance taste of food
4. Explorers
 Bartholomeu Dias-Portuguese explorer whorounded Cape of Good
Hope/tip of Africa in 1487
 Vasco da Gama- Portoguese explorer who reached the coast of India,
allowed Portuguese to establish colonies in India and control European
spice trade
 Christopher Columbus- Spanish explorer who set sail across the
Atlantic and reached the Americas wanted to establish rich spice markets
of the East Indies
 Amerigo Vespucci- discovered South America, America was named
after him
 Ferdinand Magellan-explored the Pacific Ocean, found the westward
route to the East Indies, circumnavigated the globe in 1515, died in the
Phillipines.
C. Spanish Empire in the New World
1. Impact of Columbus’s voyage marked beginning of more than 3 centuries of Spanish
domination of a vast American empire, gold and silver extracted financed Spain’s
role in religious and political conflicts and European inflation, Spanish
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government set an imprint of Roman Catholicism, economic dependence, and
hierarchical social structure that has endured to the present day
D. A Conquered World
1. Native American civilization
• Native Americans had established civilizations dating back to 12000 BC:
Olmec, Aztec-dominated Mesoamerica at time of Spanish explorers,
Incan-dominated Andean South America, and Mayan Empires2. Aztecs in Mexico
• Capitol-Tenochtitlan (modern-day Mexico City) located on island in
center of Lake
• At time of Spanish explorers-Aztec realm ecompassed all of central
Mexico
• Demanded heavy tributes in goods and labor and human sacrifice to feed
the gods blood
• Conquered by: Hernan Cortes- Aztec emperor, Moctezuma II,
thought Cortes was a good and appeased him with gifts of gold. Cortes
forged alliances with enemies of the Aztecs and took over Tenochtitlan
when welcomed in by Moctezuma
3. The Incas in Peru
• located in highlands of Peru
• expanded rapidly in 15th century to rival China and Ottoman Empire in
size
• relied on taxation rather than tributes
• Conquered by: Francisco Pizarro-lured Atahualpa, Inca ruler, into a
conference, then seized and killed him. Spanish fought to Cuzco, the
Inca capital, and captured it ending the Inca Empire.
4. Reasons for Spanish Success
• Advanced weapons, spread of European diseases, especially
smallpox aided the conquest. Spanish conquest marked the process
whereby South America was transformed into Latin America
E. The Church in Spanish America
• Roman Catholic priests accompanied earliest explorers
• Believed they could foster Erasmus’s concept of the “philosophy of
Christ”
• Tension with Spanish conquerors over harsh conditions imposed on
native people Bartolome de Las Casas-priest who criticized Spanish
treatment of Native Americans as unprincipled and inhumane calling it a
“Black Legend”
• Institution that defended colonial status quo, became landowner, did not
challenge Spanish domination
• Roman Catholic Church became one of the most conservative forces in
Latin America
F. The Economy of Exploitation
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1. Competitive European commercialism: forced labor for Indians of Latin
America and blacks of Africa, 3 major components in economy: mining,
agriculture, and shipping
2. Mining• conquistadores were interested in gold
• middle of 16th century silver became chief source of metallic
wealth
• crown maintained monopoly over mercury required in silvermining process, received 1/5 of all mining revenues
• mining for silver through forced labor for benefit of Spaniards and
the crown epitomized the extractive economy Spain developed
3. Agriculture:
• hacienda-large landed estate owned persons born in Spain
(peninsulares-think Ibarian peninsula) or persons of Spanish descent
born in America (creoles-think Haitti), laborers were of formal servitude
to the owner and stayed on the hacienda
• Products of hacienda economy-foodstuffs for mining areas, urban
centers and leather goods used in mining machinery (farming and
ranching dwarfed by mining economy)
• Plantation-basic agricultural unit in West Indies (Cuba, Puerto Rico),
sugar was the major crop produced by black slave labor
• Urban service occupations- government offices, legal profession,
shipping-mostly peninsulares or creoles who held these professions
4. Labor Servitude-social devices drew forced labor into extractive economy
• Encomienda-formal grant to right to the labor of a specific number of
•
•
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•
•
•
Indians, usually a few hundred, for a particular time
Decline of encomienda-Spanish monarchies feared holders of
encomienda might become an independent nobility in New World,
humanitarian reasons
Repartimiento-required adult male Indians to devote certain # days of
labor to Spanish economic enterprises (mining, farming), was extremely
harsh, and Spanish managers abused workers on assumption that fresh
workers would arrive
Decline of Repartimiento-shortage of workers, and crown’s pressure
led to free labor
Debt Peonage-free laborers still were indebted to mine owner to
purchase goods, still exploited
Black slavery-used for sugar plantations
Conquest, forced labor economy of exploitation, European diseases
devastated Native American population. Europeans had frequent contact
with different ethnicities and developed strong immune systems. Native
Americans grew up in simpler more sterile environments and were
defenseless against diseases. The population was reduced from 25
million to 2 million within one generation in New Spain.
G. Impact on Europe
1. Skepticism about traditional knowledge
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-Columbus’s discovery toppled geographical facts
2. New possibilities of civilization and morality
- communication, peace between countries, globalization
-immoral treatment of Native, questioning of traditional values
3. Economy
-influx of spices and metals increased inflation
Capitalism through banking, shipping, printing and private entrepreneurship
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Unit 2: The Age of Reformation
I. Society and Religion
A. Background-Reformation occurred at time of: conflict between nation-states,
centralization and conformity in nation-states, reaction of long-accustomed, selfgoverning small towns, states’ rights/ local control identification with Reformation
B. Social and Political Conflict
o Reformation started in Germany and Switzerland: majority of 65 cities had
Protestant movements, diversity of reactions to Reformation
o Internal social/political divisions: different guilds favored Reformationeconomically prospering guilds were in forefront (more power)
printing guild wanted more prosperity in printing propaganda
guilds with history of opposition to governmental authority
• Social and political experiences bonded with common religious themes in the
Reformation
C. Popular Religious Movements and Criticism of the Church
o Medieval church crises: “exile” in Avignon, Great Schism, Conciliar period,
Renaissance papacy caused Protestant Reformation
o Intellectuals and laypeople felt the medieval church did not provide a viable
foundation-secular pretensions of papacy, dry teachings of Scholastic theologians
o Laity and clerics began to seek a more heartfelt, idealistic religion
o Causes of criticism of the church: increased knowledge about authorities (travel
increase, postal systems, printing press, new age of books and libraries),
Heightened sense of initiative (religious simplicity in imitation of Jesus,
inspired by apostolic poverty in religion, more egalitarian-church that gave all
members in the church a voice (New Testament model)
D. The Modern Devotion
o Lay religious movement in Northern Europe known as the Brothers of the
Common Life
o Established by Gerard Groote
o Centered in the Netherlands-spread rapidly throughout Northern Europe
o Characteristics
1. fostered common life, individual piety, practical religion
2. active in education-conducted schools, worked as copyists
3. Erasmus, Reuchlin were looked after by the Brothers
4. Source of humanist, Protestant, and Catholic reform in the 16th
century
5. Thomas a Kempis summarized philosophy of the brothers in the
most popular religious book of the period, The Imitation of
Christ
6. Some scholars believed it was to individualistic/indifferent
approach to religion, actually very conservative movement
7. Movement appeared when laity was demanding good preaching
in the vernacular-native language, Modern Devotion permitted
laypeople to practice full religious life
E. Lay Control over Religious Life
o Collapse of Rome’s international network of church offices: growing sense of
regional identity/nationalism, local secular administration
o Benefice-system of the medieval church that had permitted important
ecclesiastical (papal) posts to be sold to the highest bidders and left residency
requirements in parishes un-enforced.
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Led to complaints over maladministration, fiscalism, benefices lived far away in
Rome
o Protest of financial abuses: sale of indulgences-sale of releases from time in
purgatory for people and their loved ones,
o City governments began endowing preacherships-provided well-trained and
dedicated pastors who became platforms for Protestant preachers.
o Restriction of clerical privileges and ecclesiastical properties: churches and
monasteries had been exempted from taxes and laws that affected others-clergy
couldn’t be burdened with military service, compulsory labor, or standing watch
at city gates-these were restricted by magistrates new attempts from the church to
acquire property were regulated.
o
II. Martin Luther and German Reformation to 1525
A. Overview: Germany lacked the political unity to enforce “national” religious reforms
during the late Middle Ages. German humanists and criticism of ecclesiastical abuses and
immunities provided the foundation for Martin Luther’s organized “national” reform.
Martin Luther biography: son of miner, educated by the Brothers of the Common Life,
registered with the law faculty, but entered into an Order of hermits, promised to Saint Anne
to enter in a monastery if he escaped a lightning storm, journeyed to Rome in 1510 finding
justification for many of the criticisms of the church, earned doctorate in theology at
Augustinian monastery
B. Justification by Faith Alone
o Justification theology grew out of the failure of traditional religion to provide
personal satisfaction
o “righteousness of God” was unachieavable
o To believe and trust in Christ meant to stand before God clothed in Christ’s
righteousness
C. The Attack on Indulgences
o Indulgence-remission of the temporal penalty imposed by priests on penitents as a
“work of satisfaction” for their mortal sins.
o Originally given to Crusaders who did not complete their penances because they had
died in battle
o Pope Clement VI proclaimed the existence of a treasury of merit-infinite reservoir
of good works in the church’s possession
o Church sold “letters of indulgences”, Pope Sixtus IV extended indulgences also to
cover purgatory
o Pope Leo X extended indulgences to cover dead relatives as well-rebuild the St.
Peter’s Basilica in Rome
o Joint venture between Archibishop Albrecht, Augsburg banking house of Fugger, and
Pope Leo X.
o Luther posted 95 theses against indulgences on the door of Castle Church
D. Election of Charles V
o 95 theses prompted official proceedings against Martin Luther
o Emperor Maximilian I died and turned attention away from Luther to the contest for
a new emperor
o Pope backed French king, Francis I
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o Charles I of Spain succeeded grandfather Maximilian and became Emperor Charles
o
o
V-assisted by Habsburg imperial rule and a massive Fugger campaign chest
The electors wrung new concessions from Charles-revival of Imperial Supreme Court
and the Council of Regency
Prevented unilateral imperial action against the Germans
E. Luther’s Excommunication and the Diet of Worms
o Entered a debate in Leipzig with John Eck-challenged infallibility of pope and
inerrancy of church councils, appealing to the sovereign authority of Scripture,
defended John Huss
o 3 famous pamphlets: Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation-urged
German princes to force reforms on the Roman church
The Babylonian Captivity of the Church-attacked the 7 sacraments arguing only 2,
baptism and the Eucharist (communion) were biblical, exalted power of secular
princes from pope
Freedom of a Christian-new teaching of salvation by faith alone
o Excommunication-Leo X condemned Luther for Heresy, Luther presented his views
before the empire’s Diet of Worm’s-over which Emperor Charles V presided, luther
refused to recant and became an “outlaw”
F. Imperial Distractions: France and the Turks
o Reformation helped by Emperor’s war with France and advance of Ottoman Turks
into eastern Europe
o Charles V needed German troops and promoted friendly relations with the German
princes.
o Spain (Habsburg dynasty) v. France (Valois dynasty) with League of Cognac fought
four major wars over disputed territories in Italy and along their borders
o Turks overran Hungary in Battle of Mohacs
o In Diet of Speyer, Charles V allowed each territory sovereignty in religious matters
and gave Reformation time to put down deep roots
G. How the Reformation Spread
o From late 1520s through 1530s Reformation passed from theologians and
pamphleteers into those of magistrates and princes
o Magistrates took lead of Protestant preachers in mandating the religious reforms
o Reform became law
o Political movement led by elector of Saxony and prince of Hesse=2 most powerful
German Protestant rulers
o Recognized political/economic opportunities and pushed Protestant faith with
neighbors, formed powerful alliances and prepared for war with Catholic emperor
H. The Peasant’s Revolt
o Protestant movement suffered more from internal division than from imperial
interference
o Luther became more of an object of protest than pope
o German peasants had believed Luther to be an ally-organized against princes and
revolted against their masters in 1524-1525
o Luther condemned them and urged princes to crush their revolt
o 70,000-100,000 peasants died
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Unit 2: The Age of Reformation
Luther’s decision ended any chance of the Reformation as a social revolution, but his
reform survived beyond the 1520s.
III. The Reformation Elsewhere
A. Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation
1. Background: Switzerland was a loose confederacy of thirteen autonomous Cantons,
or states, and allied areas. Some cantons became Protestant, some Catholic, and
others both. 2 main preconditions of the Swiss Reformation: 1. growth of national
sentiment occasioned by popular opposition to foreign mercenary service 2. desire
for church reform since the councils of Constance and Basel
2. Reformation in Zurich: Ulrich Zwingli, leader of Swiss reformation, received a
humanistic education influenced by Erasmus. Became a critic of Swiss mercenary
service and indulgences. He became involved with a barber’s daughter and
petitioned an end to clerical celibacy and non-marriage
3. Zwingli’s reform: Anything that had no literal support in Scripture was to be neither
believed nor practiced-Zurich became center of Swiss Reformation, harsh discipline
made city one of the first puritanical Protestant cities.
4. Marburg Colloquy: Landgrave Phillip of Hesse-wanted to unite Protestant
Germany and Switzerland in a mutual defense pact. Zwingli and Luther were
brought together in his castle in Marburg but were unable to work out differences on
Christ’s presence in communion (Eucharist): Zwingli thought communion was
symbolic and spiritual, but Luther thought Christ was bodily present in the
communion
5. Splintering of the Protestant movement:
o Separate defense leagues formed
o Semi-Zwinglian theological views were embodied in the Tetrapolitan Confession
as an alternative to Luther’s Augsburg Confession
6. Swiss Civil Wars
o Division of Swiss cantons between Protestantism and Catholicsm
o 2 major battles: Both at Kappel-1st ended in Protestant victory forcing Catholics
to break foreign alliances and recognize rights of Protestants. 2nd Zwingli was
found wounded and executed and confirmed right of each canton to determine
own religion
o Heinrich Bullinger-Zwingli’s protégé married Zwingli’s daughter and continued
the Swiss Reformation establishing it as an established religion.
B. Anabaptists and Radical Protestants
o Moderate pace and low ethical results of Lutheran and Zwinglian reformation
discontented many
o Anabaptist-radical group that implemented more visible/apostolic Christianity
rejecting infant baptism and insisting only on adult baptism
1. Conrad Grebel and the Swiss Brethren
o Conrad Grebel-founder of Anabaptist, performed first adult rebaptism,
alternative of the Swiss Brethren breaking openly from Zwingli embodied in
Schleitheim Confession.
o Document stated: refusal to go to war, swear oaths, participate in secular
government, political separatism
2. The Anabaptist Reign in Munster
o Zwinglians, Lutherans, Catholics joined together in opposition to Anabaptists
and persecuted them within cities
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Rural, agrarian class made up great majority
In 1529 rebaptism became capital offense in HRE
o Munster-Anabaptist majority forced Lutherans and Catholics to leave the city
and city became blockade by besieging armies, Old Testament theocracy took
control (charismatic leaders, polygamy), shocked outside world and armies
crushed the radicals
o Munster caused moderate, pacifistic Anabaptism to become the norm
o Moderate Anabaptist leader- Menno Simons became the founder of the
Mennonites
3. Spiritualists
o Another radical movement distinguished by disdain of all traditions and
institutions
o Believed only religious authority was God’s spirit
o Critic of dogmatism
o Believed in religious autonomy of every individual soul
o Thomas Muntzer, Sebastian Franck, and Caspar Schwenckfeld were
members
4. Antitrinitarians
o Final group of radical Protestants believed in common sense , rational religion
o Michael Servetus- leader of this religion, strongest opponents of Calvinism
o Defenders of religious toleration
o
o
C.
John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation
o In late 16th century Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as dominant Protestant force in
Europe
Inspired massive political resistance in France, Netherlands, and Scotland
Believed in predestination and individual’s responsibility to reorder society
Became zealous reformers, acting externally from internal beliefs
o Max Weber wrote the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism-argues that
Calvinism developed modern capitalist societies
o John Calvin-founder of Calvinism, rich education, rejected the indigenous French
reform party
o Surrendered benefices he had held as a kid and joined the Reformation
1. Political Revolt and Religious Reform in Geneva
o Political revolution against prince-bishop laid foundation for religious change
o Calvin arrived in Geneva after city council took over
o Guillame Farel and Antione Froment-first reformers in Geneva who persuaded
Calvin to stay and help
o Geneva’s Protestant ally, Bern persuaded magistrates to restore traditional
ceremonies and exiled reformers
o Calvin went to Strasbourg, wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion-definitive
theological statement of the Protestant faith, learned from Strasbourg reformer
Martin Bucer a model for reform
2. Calvin’s Geneva
o Returned to Geneva under favorable political conditions
o City implemented new ecclesiastical ordinances
o Following a model Calvin developed in Strasbourg, Church was organized into
four offices: 1. Pastors, 2. teachers or doctors, 3. elders. 4. deacons
o
o
o
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Calvin was stern moralist- active role in executing Michael Severtus (see
antitrinitarians)
o Consistory-regulatory court made up of elders and pastors that enforced Calvin’s
power and moral discipline
o Geneva became home to Protestant refugees, beacon and refuge, “woman’s
paradise”-severe punishments for domestic violence
o
IV. Political Consolidation of the Lutheran Reformation
A The Diet of Augsburg
o Emperor Charles V returned from military matters in 1530 to direct DofA
o Meeting of Protestant and Catholics to impose settlement of religious divisions
o Diet adjourned with a blunt order to all Lutherans to revert to Catholicism
o Lutherans responded with formation of own defense alliance-Schmalkaldic
League
o Its banner was the Augsburg Confession-statement of Protestant beliefs spurned
by the emperor at the DofA
o Luther wrote more strongly worded Protestant confession known as the
Schmalkaldic Articles
o Landgrave Phillip of Hesse and Elector John Frederick of Saxony -lead the
league in a stalemate against the emperor (distracted by France and Turks
B. The Expansion of the Reformation
o in 1530s German Lutherans formed consistories (see Calvin)-judicial bodies
composed of theologians and lawyers which oversaw new churches
o Consistories replaced old Catholic episcopates
o Phillip Melanchthon “praeceptor (teacher) of Germany” oversaw educational
reforms, compulsory primary education, schools for girls, humanist revision of
traditional curriculum, instruction of laity in new religion
o Reformation spread elsewhere:
1. Denmark: introduced by Christian II and thrived under Frederick I who
also joined the Schmalkaldic League-Lutheranism became official
religion under Christian III
2. Sweden: King Gustavus Vasa supported by Swedish nobility greedy
for church lands embraced Lutheranism and subjected clergy to royal
authority at the Diet of Vesteras
3. Poland: politically splintered, Lutherans, Anabaptists, Calvinsts and
Antitrinitarians found religious tolerance and pluralism
C. Reaction Against Protestants: The Interim
o Charles V in 1540-1541 tried a compromise between Protestants and Catholics
o When this failed, turned to military solution
o 1547 imperial armies crushed Schmalkaldic League and John Frederick and
Landgrage Phillip
o Puppet rulers in Saxony and Hesse were established
o Augsburg Interim: imperial law that mandated Protestants readopt Catholic
beliefs
o Protestants granted few concessions: clerical marriage with papal approval,
communion in both kinds
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o Forced many leaders into exile: Strasbourg reformer Martin Bucer departed to
England
o City of Magdeburg became the Geneva of Germany for Protestants
D. The Peace of Augsburg
o Puppet ruler Maurice of Saxony shifted allegiance to Protestants
o Emperor forced to relent and reinstated Protestant leaders and Lutheran religious
freedom in the Peace of Passau
o Peace of Aubsburg-in September 1555 made division of Christendom
permanent: cuius region, eius religion-ruler of land would determine religion of
land
o PofA did not recognize Calvinism and Anabatism
o Calvinists organized to lead national revolutions in the 2nd half of the 16th century
V. The English Reformation
A. Overview: Late medieval England maintained rights of crown v. pope. Edward I
taxed the clergy, humanism and widespread anticlerical sentiment prepared the way for
Protestant ideas which entered England in the early 16th century. Lollardy- the political
and religious movement of the Lollards from the mid-14th century to the English
Reformation. The term Lollards refers to the followers of John Wycliffe, a prominent
theologian who was thrown out of University of Oxford in the 1381 for criticism of the
traditional church, especially his doctrine on the Eucharist
B. The Preconditions of Reform
o Early 1520s future English reformers met at White Horse Inn to discuss
smuggled Lutheran writings
o One of these was William Tyndale-later translated New Test. Into English
o Royal opposition: Cardinal Thomas Wolsey-chief mister of King Henry VIII
and Sir Thomas More, Wolsey’s successor guided royal opposition
o King Henry VIII defended seven sacraments receiving title “Defender of the
Faith” from pope Leo X
C. The King’s Affair
o Lollardy and humanism provided seeds for reform
o King Henry’s unhappy marriage broke soil and allowed seeds to take root:
Henry married Catherine of Aragon, but the marriage had produced no male heir,
Henry believed marriage was cursed because Catherine had first been wife of his
brother
o Henry liked Anne Boleyn-needed a papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine
o The reigning pope was a prisoner of Charles V who was Catherine’s nephew
o Cardinal Wolsey, with aspirations to become pope, tried to secure a royal
annulment, but fails and is dismissed
o Thomas Cranmer and Cromwell, Lutheran sympathizers, become King’s
closest advisors and proposed a plan to declare the king supreme in spiritual
affairs so that the king could settle his own affair
D. The “Reformation Parliament”
o Seven-year session of parliament starting in 1529 in which it passed a flood of
legislation that restricted the clergy
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o Set precedent that Whenever fundamental changes are made in religion, the
monarch must consult with and work through Parliament
o In 1531 the Convocation-a legislative assembly representing the English clergy,
recognized Henry as head of the church in England
In 1532 Parliament published official grievances against the church: excessive
number of religious holidays, indifference to needs of laity
o Parliament passed Submission of the Clergy-placed canon law under royal
control and the clergy under royal jurisdiction
o In 1533 Henry wed Anne Boleyn, Cranmer officiated, Parliament made king
highest court of appeals, Cramer became archbishop and invalidated the king’s
marriage to Catherine, Act of Succession-made Anne Boleyn’s children
legitimate heirs and the Act of Supremacy-made Henry “the only supreme head
in earth of the Church of England”
o Thomas More and John Fisher refused to recognize these 2 acts and were
executed
o
E. Wives of Henry VIII
o Domestic life lacked consistency- executed Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour died in
childbirth, annulled a marriage to Anne of Cleves, beheaded Catherine Howard,
and the only one to survive was his last wife Catherine Parr
F. The King’s Religious Conservatism
o Despite break with Rome, Henry remained conservative in religious beliefs
o Ten Articles of 1536-made mild concessions to Protestants, maintained Catholic
belief
o Forbade English clergy to marry
o Six Articles of 1539-reaffirmed transubstantiation (Catholic view of the
Eucharist in which Christ is actually physically in the bread and wine) denied
Eucharistic cup to laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provide private
masses, and order continuation of oral confession (“whip with six stings” to
Protestants
o William Tyndale’s English New Testament grew into Coverdale Bible and the
Great Bible
G. The Protestant Reformation Under Edward VI
o Son and successor of Henry took throne when only 10
o Reigned under regents Edward Seymour (Duke of Somerset) and Earl of
Warwick (Duke of Northumberland)
o England fully enacted protestant Reformation
o Corresponded directly with John Calvin
o During Somerset’s regency, Henry’s Six Articles and other laws were repealed,
clerical marriage and communion were sanctioned
o In 1547 chantries-places where endowed masses had traditionally been said for
the dead w ere dissolved
o Act of Uniformity-imposed Thomas Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer on all
English churches in 1549
o Images and altars were also removed from churches
o After Charles V’s victory over German princes in 1547, Protestant leaders fled to
England and assisted in the English Reformation (e.g. Martin Bucer)
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o Second Act of Uniformity-imposed revised edition of the book of Common
Prayer, 42 article of faith also by Thomas Cranmer was adopted setting forth
moderate Protestant Doctrine
o Changes were short-lived-Catherine of Aragon’s daughter succeeded Edward,
Mary I, restored Catholic doctrine and practice.
o Elizabeth I, Anne Boleyn’s daughter finally worked out a lasting religious
settlement in England
VI. Catholic Reform and Counter-Reformation
A. Sources of Catholic Reform
o Ambitious proposals had been made for church reform
o 16th century popes were mindful of how councils of Constance and Basel had
stripped the pope of his powers and squelched reform
o Preferred charge of the Fifth Lateran Council: “Men are to be changed by,
not to change, religion”
o New religious orders still sprang up in 16th century
o Theatines- groomed devout and reform-minded leaders in church hierarchy,
cofounder would become Pope Paul VI
o Capuchins-sought to return to original ascetic and charitable ideals of Saint
Francis, became popular among ordinary people
o Ursulines-established convents for religious education of girls
o Oratorians-elite group of secular clerics who devoted themselves to promotion
of religious literature and hymns
o Spanish mystics Saint Teresa of Avila and Saint John of the Cross revived
and popularized mystical piety of medieval monasticism
B. Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits
o Society of Jesus, new order of Jesuits, was the most instrumental of the
various reform groups in the Counter-Reformation
o Organized by Ignatius of Loyola
o Grew from 10 members to more than 15,000 members in the space of a
century
o Ignatius: heroic figure, dashing courtier and caballero, began spiritual
pilgrimage by reading Christian classics and learning heroic self-sacrifice of
the saints
o published ideas of moral self-discipline in the Spiritual Exercies-guide that
contained mental and emotional exercise designed to teach one spiritual selfcontrol
o Jesuits viewed Protestants as disobedient to church authority, Jesuits denied
themselves and submitted to higher church authority
o Discipline and self-control were essential conditions to obedience
o Countered the Protestant Reformation and brought many Protestants back to
Catholicism especially in Austria, Bavaria and along the Rhine
C. The Council of Trent (1545-1563)
o Causes: success of Reformation, insistence of Emperor Charles V
o Def: a general council of the church to reassert church doctrine called by
Pope Paul
o Pope appointed reform commission chaired by Caspar Contarini- a leading
liberal theologian whose report criticized fiscal practices of the papal Curia
as the primary source of the church’s loss of esteem
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Protestants reprinted and circulated this as justification, Pope Paul tried to
censor it
o Council of Trent met in three sessions broken up by politics and war
o Council of Trent was under pope’s control, Italian clergy who were in the
upper levels of the clergy; university theologians, lower clergy, and laity
were not involved
o Most important reforms: Curtailed selling of church offices and religious
goods, bishops who resided in Rome rather than their places of jurisdiction
(dioceses) were forced to move to the dioceses
o Strengthened authority of local bishops
o Parish priest dressed neatly, better educated, strictly celibate, and active
(wanted brighter image)
o No doctrinal concessions to Protestants
o Reaffirmed traditional Scholastic education of clergy, seven sacraments,
withholding of Eucharistic cup from laity, reality of purgatory, clerical
celibacy, veneration of saints and relics and sacred images, and indulgences
o Voted in favor of theology of Saint Thomas Aquinas
o Rulers initially resisted Trent’s decress, but over time the new legislation
took hold and parish life revived under guidance of a devout and better
trained clergy
VI. The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe
A. Overview: common trait of Protestant reformers to work within framework of
reigning political power, conservatism has led scholars to characterize them as “magisterial
reformers”-succeeded by force of the magistrate’s sword, compromising of their principles,
remained highly sensitive to political and social conditions, almost too conscious and reforms
went forward with such caution that they might have encouraged acceptance of the
sociopolitical status quo
B. the Revolution in Religious Practices and Institutions
1. Religion in Fifteenth-Century Life
o Clergy and religious were everywhere (6-8% of pop.)
o Clergy taxed, legislated, and enforced in special church courts
o Church calendar regulated daily life, ¼ year given to religious
observance or celebration
o Monasteries and nunneries were prominent and influential, powerful
citizens resided their
o Churches and local aristocrats closely identified with churches had
power
o Pilgrims and shrines enjoyed booming business
o Complaints over influence of church
2. Religion in Sixteenth-Century Life
o Number of clergy fell by 2/3 and religious holidays shrank by 1/3
o Monasteries and nunneries reduced in number along with churches
o Worship conducted in the vernacular
o Indulgences, shrines, relics and images of saints were subject to fine and
punishment
o Private worship
o Clergy could marry, paid taxes, and were punished for crimes in civil
courts
o
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o ½ of Europe was Protestant in mid-16th century, only 1/5th in mid-
seventeenth century
C. The Reformation and Education
o Implementation of many education reforms of humanism
o Shared humanists opposition to Scholasticsm and a belief in the unity of
wisdom
o Humanist program of studies became a tool for the elaboration of Protestant
doctrine
o Catholic Counterreformation response: Ignatius of Loyola in Spiritual
Exercises insisted Bible was to be read under guidance of the authoritative
scholastic theologians (best was Thomas Aquinas in his opinion)
1. Luther and Melanchthon:
Philip Melanchthon-humanist who arrived at University of Wittenberg
and implemented curricular reforms on humanist model, claimed scholastic
theologians were “barbaric”, cooperated with Luther to restructure U of W’s
curriculum
o Curriculum changes: historical study replaced scholastic lectures on
Aristotle, read primary sources directly, universal compulsory education for
both boys and girls to reach vernacular literacy in bible
2. Calvin and Beza
o John Calvin and successor Theodore Beza founded Genevan Academy later
becoming University of Geneva
o Trained Calvinist ministers, pursued ideals similar to Luther and
Melanchthon’s
o Calvinist refugees trained in academy carried education reforms throughout
the world
o Knowledge of Greek and Hebrew became commonplace in educated circles
3. Humanist Reaction:
o Erasmus-feared Reformation as threat to liberal arts and good
learning
o Sebastian Franck-pointed out parallels between Luther’s and
Zwingli’s differences over Eucharist to Scholastic disputes
4. Impact
o Protestant endorsement of humanist program of studies remained
significant for humanist movement and vice versa
o Studia humanitatis found a permanent home in conservative
Protestantism
D. The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women
1. Reformation’s stance on role of women
o Positive stance on clerical marriage, opposed monasticism and celibacy
o Challenged medieval degradation of women as temptresses (Eve model)
and exalted them as virgins (Mary model)
o Praised woman in her vocation as mother and housewife
o Women remained subject to men, new marriage laws gave them more
protection
o Calvin and other reformers viewed wives as indispensable companions
2. Ideal of companionate marriage
o husband and wife as co-workers in a special God-ordained community of the
family
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Expansion for grounds for divorce: women had equal right to divorce and
remarry in good conscience
3. Protestant doctrines appeal to women
o attractive to women
o renegade nuns declared nunnery was no special woman’s place at all,
supervisory male clergy made their lives unpleasant
o women in higher classes found Protestant theology a complement to greater
independence
o Cloistered noblewomen-protested closing of nunneries, believed nunneries
were interesting and independent
Impact: Encouragement of the education of girls to literacy in the vernacular,
women found biblical passages suggesting equality to men, significant advances
in the direction of the emancipation of women
o
VII. Family Life in Early Modern Europe
Overview: Changes in timing/duration of marriage, family size, child care show social
and economic pressures on families in the 16th and 17th centuries. Reformation and different
cultures infused family life with different values and influenced behavior.
A. Later Marriages
o Between 1500-1800, men and women in western Europe married at later
ages than previously
o Men-mid to late 20s, Women-early to mid-twenties as opposed to teens
o Canonical (church-sanctioned) age for marriage remained 14 for men and 12
for women
o Church increasingly required parental agreement and public vows in church
before a marriage could be recognized
o Late marriage reflected difficulty couples had supporting themselves
independently: factors: population growth in recovery from Great Plague,
divided inheritance and greater division of resources magnified problems
from pop. Growth
o Impact of late marriage:
o marriages of shorter duration-couples would not spend as much time
together, women who bore children at advanced ages had higher mortality
rates vs. younger mothers
o Increased premarital sex-raised the number of illegitimate children, rapid
growth of orphanages and foundling homes because of church condemnation
B. Arranged Marriages
o “arranged” in sense that parents met and discussed terms of marriage before bride
and bridegroom knew of the discussions
o Wealth and social standing were not only considerations, two involved people
usually had prior relationship
o Parents didn’t force total strangers to live together
o Children had legal right to protest and resist
C. Family Size
o Western European family was conjugal, or nuclear- consisted of a father and
mother and two to four children who survived into adult-hood
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o
o
o
Nuclear family lived with larger household-secondary family
Average of 7-8 children
Infant mortality common
D. Birth Control
o Artificial BC had existed since antiquity
o Church condemned coitus interruptus-male withdrawal before ejaculation
o Church opposed birth control for historical and moral reasons
o Suppressed extreme ascetic sect, the Cathars, whom it accused of practicing
birth control
o Thomas Aquinas-believed natural/moral end of sex could only be birth of
children
E. Wet Nursing
o Church allied with physicians on another family matter
o Condemnation of women who hired nurses to suckle their newborn children, for
as long as a year and a half
o Practice was popular among upper-class women (symbol of high rank)
o Practice increased risk of infant morality, exposing infants to strange milk,
supplied from women not usually as healthy and sanitary
o Vanity and convenience were motives for turning to wet nurses
o Husbands:church forbade sexual intercourse while a women was lactating, SI
spoiled milk, a nursing wife often became a reluctant lover
o Some husbands participated in this family planning, others especially noblemen
and royalty thought nursing robbed them of offspring and jeopardized the
patrimony
F. Loving Families?
o When children were between ages of 8-13, parents sent them out to
apprenticeships, school, or employment
o Emotional ties between spouses were tenuous as with children
o Widows often married again wthin a few months of spouses’ deaths
o Marriages with extreme disparity in age were the norm
VIII. Literary Imagination in Transition
Overview: Major religious literary figures of the post-Reformation period had elements
of both the old and the new in their own new transitional works. Two who stand out are Miguel
de Cervantes Saavedra, writing in deeply Catholic Spain, and William Shakespeare writing in
newly Anglican England
A. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Rejection of Idealism
1. Influences on Spanish literature in the 16th and 17th centuries
o Traditional Catholic teaching, since joint reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the
reigning political power gave unqualified support to the church
o Aggressive piety of Spanish rulers-intertwining Catholic piety and political
power
o Preoccupation with medieval chivalric virtues-honor and loyalty, novels and
plays focus on a special test of character that threatens honor and reputation
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o
2.
o
o
3.
o
o
o
o
o
Spanish literature remained more Catholic and medieval than that of
England and France, where major Protestant movements had occurred
Major writers
Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderon de la Barca later became priests
Greatest Spanish writer of all time, Cervantes, preoccupied with religious
idealism
Cervantes
Self-educated by reading popular literature
Worked in Rome for a Spanish cardinal, decorated for gallantry in Battle of
Lepanto as a soldier, spend 5 years as a slave, worked as a tax collector
Don Quixote-written in 1605 while in prison after padding accounts as a tax
collector, intended to satirize chivalric romances popular in Spain, but Cervantes
couldn’t conceal his deep affection for the character he created as an object of
ridicule
Don Quixote represented old-fashioned religious idealism and Sancho Panza, the
foil, represents down-to-earth realism
Quixote engages in chivalric acts for a peasant girl aspiring to be a knight
B. William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age
o Married at Anne Hathaway
o Worked as schoolteacher for a time
o Took new commercialism and the bawdy pleasures of the Elizabethan Age in
stride and with amusement
o Allusions to the Puritans seem more critical than complimentary
o Interest in politics: historical plays and references to contemporary political
events, viewed gov. through character of individual ruler, political conservative,
accepted social rankings and power structure and demonstrated unquestioned
patriotism
o Playwright, actor, and part owner of a theater
o Member and writer for King’s Men, performed at court
o Elizabethan drama-distinctive form of writing, contrast to French drama
dominated by classical models, English drama developed into a blending of:
classical comedies, tragedies, medieval morality plays, and contemporary Italian
short stories
o Contemporary influence: Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe wrote the
first dramatic version of Hamlet, wrote tragedies that set a model for style and
character
o Writings:
o Richard III-stand-out among histories, “Tudor propaganda”
o Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, and Romeo and Juliet-tragedies
written by Shakespeare, regarded as his unique achievement
o
Impact
Struck universal human themes rooted in contemporary religious traditions,
popular with most playgoers and play readers, no other dramatist from his age’s
works are performed in theaters or on film more regularly than his.
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I. Renewed Religious Struggle
o From 1st half of 16th century to 2nd half of 16th century religious conflict shifted from
struggle of Lutherans confined in central conflict to western Europe and became a
struggle by Calvinsts for recognition
o Aftermath of Peace of Augsburg
o Acceptance of cuius region, eius religio-ruler determines religion
o Legal recognition of Lutheranism in HRE
o No recognition for non-Lutheran Protestants (Calvinists, Anabaptists)
o
Outside HRE:
o Struggle intensified-Catholics began Jesuit-led international counteroffensive
against Protestants after Council of Trent
o Geneva: after death of Calvin, Geneva became refuge for protestants and school
for Protestant resistance. Dogmatic, aggressive Calvinism and Catholicism
battled
o
Calvinism
-when religious rights denied, Calvinists became true firebrands and revolutionaries
-adopted Presbyterian organization: emphasized regional/local religious authority
-boards of presbyters-elders, represented individual congregations of Calvinists, shaped
policy of church
-ART: gentler, simpler and more restrained art-Ex: Christopher Wren and Rembrant
van Rijn
o
Counter-Reformation
-centralized Episcopal church system, arranged hierarchically stressing absolute
obedience to person at the top
-supported totalitarian rulers like Louis XIV-“one king, one law, one faith”
-ART: baroque-successor to mannerism, ornate, grandiose style of art, Peter Paul
Rubens, and Gianlorenzo Bernini were Catholic baroque artists
o
New Skepticism and Relativism
-Sebastian Castellio’s censure of John Calvin for role in execution of Michael Servetus
summarized growing sentiment “To kill a man is not to defend a doctrine, but to kill a
man”
-Michel de Montaigne-scorned dogmatic mind “What do I know”
-Valentin Weigel-urged people to look within themselves for religion
-Politiques-rulers who subordinated theological doctrine to political unity, urging
tolerance, moderation, and compromise in religious matters.
o Ex: Elizabeth I of England
o Rulers like Mary I, Philip II of Spain who were not politques did not achieve
political goals in long run
II. The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
A. Anti-Protestant Measures and the Struggle for Political Power
o Huguenots-French Protestants , under surveillance and persecuted
o Edict of Fontainebleu-subjected French Protestants to the Inquistion
o Edict of Chateaubriand-Henry II established new measures against Protestants
o Habsurg Valois Wars-ended with Treaty of Cateau Cambresis marking peace in
Europe, but beginning of internal French conflict and shift of balance of power from
France to Spain
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-during tourney held to celebrate marriage of Henry II’s daughter to Philip II, son
of Charles V, Henry II was mortally wounded by lance
-Francis II, Henry’s 15-year old son under regency of queen mother, Catherine
de Medics, took the throne
o Three powerful families saw chance to control France
1.
Bourbons-power in south and west
2.
Montmorency-Chatillons-power in center
3.
Guises-controlled Eastern France, strongest of the 3,
established firm control over young king-family connections to Francis II and
political power
Impact: Guilles=militant reactionary Catholicism
Montmorency-Chatillon and Bourbon developed strong Hugenot
sympathies in response. Louis I, prince of Conde (Bourbon) and Gaspard de
Coligny (Montmorency-Chatillon) became political leaders of the French
Protestant resistance
Conspiracy of Ambiose-plot to kidnap Francis II by Conde and Coligny, John
Calvin condemned these tactics as disgraceful
B. Appeal of Calvinism
o Ambitious aristocrats and discontented townspeople joined Calvinists in
opposition to the Guise-dominated French monarchy
o Huguenots only majority of pop. In 2 regions, 1/15 of pop., controlled
important geographic areas and heavily represented among aristocracy
o Aristocracy wanted to establish territorial sovereignty like the Peace of
Augsburg had in the HRE
o Calvinism served forces of political decentralization
Methods for Achieving Goals
o Calvin and Beza curried favor in aristocrats-Jeanne d’Albert, mother of
the future Henry IV, Prince of Conde
o Military organization of Conde and Coligny merged with religious
organization of French Hugenot churches
o Calvinism gave politica resistance justification and inspiration while
poltiica resistance made Calvinism a viable religious alternative
o Suspicion on religious appeal of Calvinism because of secular motives
C. Catherine de Medicis and the Guises
o Francis II died, Catherine remained regent for second son Charles IX
o Colloquy of Poissy-meeting where Catherine tried to bring Protestants and
Catholic together
o First concern to preserve monarchy: allied with the Protestants
o January Edict-issued by Catherine to give Protestants more power and
freedom to worship publicly, privately within
o Massacre at Vassy-Duke of Guise massacred worshippers at Vassy in
Champagne marking the beginning of religious wars in France
o If Huguenots had immediately sent armies to help queen could have secured
alliance with crown, but Catherine cooperated out of fear with Guises
1. Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
-Duke of Guise assassinated in first religious war, troops from Hesse and
Palatinate fought with Huguenots
Conde killed, Coligny became new leader-good, because Coligny was better
military leader
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-Third war ended with Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye: granted religious
freedom for Huguenots within their territories
-Catherine De Medici tried to balance Huguenot and Guise extremes-wanted
catholic France, but did not want Guise control
-Impact of P of SGL: Protestants became more powerful (Bourbon family
rising, Coligny becomes most trusted advisor of Charles IX), Catherine starts to
side with Guise to balance against Protestants
Reasons for shift: Louis of Nassau (Dutch Reform leader) influenced Coligny
to tell king to support Dutch protestants, political consequences of support of
Dutch would’ve put France against Spain, no chance for France
2. The Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre
a. Causes of SBDM: Catherine’s Response to Growing Protestant Power
-Henry of Navarre (Huguenot) married king’s sister Marguerite of
Valois= sign of growing Protestant power
-Catherine’s assassination attempt on Coligny fails, Catherine scared
king will turn against her and convinces him to do the SBDM
b. SBDM-3000 Huguenots killed in Paris including Coligny and in three
days, 20,000 Huguenots were killed
Impact: Pope Gregory XII and Philip II Spain happy-French concentrated on
internal conflicts allowed them to suppress Dutch reform. On the road
toward a more international conflict
3. Protestant Resistance Theory
o Protestants began to politically resist after major losses
o Lutherans published defense of lower class to oppose emperor
o Calvin hadn’t faced political defeat, did not agree with disobedience, but
still agreed with Lutheran defense of lower class
John Knox-wrote “First Blast of the Trumpet against the Terrible Regiment
of Women”-stating importance to remove ultimate power of one person
Classical Huguenot theories of resistance in literature:
-Franco Gallia-Francois hotman,historically Estates General greater than
king
-On the Rights of Magistrates over their Subjects-Theodore Beza, said
throwing over a monarch could be necessary
-Defense of Liberty against Tyrants-Phillipe du Plessis Mornay, people
under king must take up arms against tyranny
D. Rise to Power of Henry of Navarre
o Henry III-last of Henry II’s kids to be king
o Henry III was politique like mother-gained popularity from neutral Catholics and
Protestants who prized unity
o Peace of Beaulieu-gave protestants almost all religious freedom
o Catholic League-radical Catholic group formed in 1576 by Henry of Guise
o Catholic League forced Henry to “undo” Peace of Beaulieu- going back to
limited freedom for Protestants
o Resurgence of military conflict Henry of Navarre lead Protestants
o Catholic League becomes too powerful with help of Spanish
o Day of the Barricades-Henry III fails in attack of the Catholic League, but
succeeds in assassinating duke and cardinal of Guise, angering the Guise and forcing
the King to ally with Henry of Navarre
o Dominican friar kills Henry III
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-Bourbon Huguenot Henry of Navare succeds Henry III as Henry IV
-Spain feels uneasy and sends troops to support Catholic League
-Impact of Spain’s troops: made Henry IV get stronger grip of position, like by
public and people wanted him to be king, dressed informally, came to throne as
politique-embraced Catholicism after long time deliberating-still embraced
tolerance
E. Edict of Nantes
o Henry IV’s religious settlement-accepted Protestantism, gave freedom of public
worship, to assembly, admission to public offices, and maintain towns
o Treaty of Vervins-ended fight between France and Spain
o (Edict of Nantes gave freedom to Protestants, Treaty of Vervins assured it)
o Protestants not allowed to spread their religion or convert Catholics
o Edict of Nantes turned intense hot war into a long cold war
o Catholic assassinates Henry IV:
-Henry IV’s political/economic policies made good transition to Cardinal Richelieu
and Louis XIV
-Later Louis XIV called for concept of “one kin, one law, one faith” overturning
everything Henry IV had accomplished
III. Imperial Spain and the Reign of Philip II (r. 1556-1598)
A. Pillars of Spanish Power
o Until defeat of Spanish Armada by English in 1588, no person stood larger in
2nd half of 16th century that Philip II
o Philip heir to intensely Catholic and military supreme western Habsburg
kingdom
o Eastern Habsburg given over by Charles V, Philip’s uncle, to emperor
Ferdinand I, Philip’s uncle.
1.
New World Riches
o
Populous and wealth Castile provided strong base
o
arrival in Seville of bullion from Spanish colonies in New
World provide additional wealth
o
silver mines opened in Central and South America-provided
funds for bankers and mercenaries
o
Still Philip couldn’t erase debts of father and contributed to
bankruptcy of the Fuggers when he defaulted on enormous debts at death
2.
Increased Population
o
As Europe became richer, it became more populous-France, England,
and Netherlands, populations tripled and quadrupled
o
Inflation-caused by increased wealth and populations: 2-percent-per-year
rise in prices caused less food/fewer jobs/stagnation of wages
o
Magnified in Spain-new wealth concentrated in the hands of few, richpoor gap widened, Castillan peasantry became most heavily taxed ppl of
Europe
o
This labor contributed most to Spanish heg, but prospered least from it
3.
Efficient Bureaucracy and Military
o
Philip II organized lesser nobility into loyal/efficient bureaucracy
o
He was reclusive, managed kingdom by pen and paper
o
Learned and pious Catholic and a generous patron of the arts and culture
o
Suspicions: Philip executed his son, used religion for political purposes
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4.
Supremacy in the Mediterranean
Catholic Europe’s champion against Islam-Don John with command of
the Holy League defeated moors in Granada and Turks in the Mediterranean in
the largest naval battle of the 16th century-Lepanto
o
Added to sea power by annexing Portugal
B. The Revolt in the Netherlands
Overview: spectacular Spanish military success was not repeated in Northern Europe,
resistance of the Netherlands proved the undoing of Spanish dreams of a world empire
1. Cardinal Granvelle
- Netherlands was richest area of Europe
-in 1559 Philip left Nlands for Spain, his half sister Margaret of Parma, was
assisted by a special council of state, became regent in his absence
-Antoine Perrenot known as Cardinal Granvelle-Philip’s handpicked
lieutenant who lead this special council
-Granvelle-Goals: A politically docile and religiously uniform Netherlandschecking Protestant gains by internal church reforms, breaking down traditional local
autonomy of 17 Nland provinces by establishment of a centralized government
Netherlands Resistance: merchant towns were Europe’s most independent
o Ex: Antwerp, were also Calvinist strongholds, inclined toward variety and
toleration
o 2 members of the council of state formed opposition against Spanish: Count
Egmont and William of Nassau, the Prince of Orange, known as “the Silent”,
small circle of confidants
o William of Orange passed through successive Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinists
stages placing political autonomy above religious creeds, married Anne of
Saxony, after SBDM, Orange became Calvinist
o Orange and Egmont: organized Dutch nobility and removed Granvelle from
office, but Aristocratic control became inefficient and popular unrest continued
to grow increasing Calvinist numbers
2. The Compromise
o 1564 saw first fusion of political and religious opposition to Margaret’s
government
o Philip insisted decrees of the Council of Trent be enforced
o Louis of Nassau, Orange’s brother, led opposition receiving support from
Calvinist-inclined lesser nobility and townspeople
o Compromise-national covenant articulating a solemn pledge to resist the decress
of Trent and the Inquisition
o When Margaret’s gov. spurned protestors as “beggars”, Calvinists rioted as Louis
of Nassau called on French Huguenots and German Lutherans to send aid to the
Nlands and a full-scale rebellion became imminent
3. The Duke of Alba
o Rebellion failed to materialize, higher nobility didn’t support it
o Their shock at Calvinist iconoclasm/anarchy = resentment of Granvelle’s subtle
repression
o Philip dispatched Duke of Alba to suppress the revolt with 10,000 troops in a
show of combined Spanish and papal might
o Council of Troubles (Spanish name)/ Council of blood (Dutch name) reigned
over the land-Count of Egmont and thousands of heretic were public executed
o
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o Duke of Alba’s reign of terror: new taxes forcing Nlands to pay for suppression
of its own revolt, “tenth penny”-a 10% sales tax met with such resistance from
merchants and artisans that it remained uncollectible even when reduced to 3%
o Persecution and taxation sent tens of thousands fleeing from Nlands during
Alba’s six-year rule- Alba hated more than Granvelle or radical Calvinists
4. Resistance and Unification
o William of Orange remained exile in Germany during Alba’s reign, now emerged
as leader of broad movement for independence of the Nlands
o Northern, Calvinist-inclined provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht, of
which Orange was the Stadholder, or governor was the base of the movement
o As with in France, political resistance gained organization/inspiration by merging
with Calvinism
o Early victories:
-Capture of port city brill by the “Sea Beggars”-int’l group of anti-Spanish exiles
and criminals, among them many Englishmen enlisted by Orange
-Their brazen piracy caused Elizabeth to disassociate herself from them and bar
their ships from English ports
-Sea beggars captured Brill and other seaports in Zeeland and Holland, mixed
with native pop. And sparked rebellions against Alba town after town spreading
resistance southward
-In 1574 people of Leiden resisted a Spanish siege. Dutch opened dikes and
flooded their own country
-Alba ceded power to Don Luis de Requesens-replacement commander of
Spanish forces in the Netherlands
5. The Pacification of Ghent
o Spanish Fury-After death of Requesen in 1576, Spanish mercenaries, leaderless
and unpaid, ran amok in Antwerp leaving 7,000 people dead in the streets
o Impact of Spanish Fury: In 4 short days, 10 largely Catholic Southern
provinces (modern day Belgium) came together with the 7 Protestant northern
provinces (modern day Nlands) in unified opposition to Spain
o Pacification of Ghent-union accomplished in 1576 declared internal regional
sovereignty in religion, key clause that permitted political cooperation among the
signatories who were not agreed over religion. Nlands version of the Peace of
Augsburg
o 4 provinces initially held out, but they made the resistance unaminous by joining
the all-embracing Union of Brussels in 1577
o Don John, victor at Lepanto, took command of Spanish land forces in Nov. 1576
o Experienced first defeat, confronted by unified Nland, signed Perpetual Edictprovided for the removal of all Spanish troops from the Nlands within 20 days
o Gave country to William of Orange ended Philip’s plans of using the Nlands as a
staging area for an invasion of England
6. The Union of Arras and the Union of Utrecht
o Spanish persistence: Don John and Alessandro Farnese, Margaret’s son, revived
Spanish power in the southern provinces, where fear of Calvinist extremism
caused leaders to break the Union of Brussels
o The Southern provinces then formed the Union of Arras (served cause of
Counter-Reformation
o Union of Arras-union of Southern provinces, made peace with Spain
o Union of Utrecht- Northern response to the Union of Arras
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5. Netherlands Independence
o Last-ditch effort to break back of Nland resistance-Philip declared William of
Orange an outlaw and placed a bounty of 25,000 on him
o Stiffened resistance of the northern provinces: “The Apology”-defiant speech to
the Estates General of Holland by Orange denouncing Philip as a tyrant
o Union of Utrecht met in The Hague and renounced Philip as ruler, turned to
French duke of Alencon, youngest son of Catherine de Medicis
o All northern provinces except Holland and Zeeland accepted Alencon, but
Alencon was a failure and was deposed
o William of Orange assassinated in 1584, succeeded by son Maurcie
o Philip meddled directly in French and English affairs: signed secret treaty with
the Guises (the Treaty of Joinville) and sent armies under Farnese into France
and hostilities between Spain and English when English helped Dutch increased
o Climax: Philip’s great Armada was defeated in the English Channel
o Impact: Multiple fronts overextended Spain, northern provinces drove out
Spanish and France and England recognized independence
o Peace concluded with the Twelve year’s Truce-gave Northern provinces virtual
independence, full recognition in the Peace of Westphalia
IV. England and Spain (1553-1603)
A. Mary I (1553-1558)
o Before Edward VI died, he agreed to make Lady Jane Grey-nobleman’s
daughter, family connections in place of the Catholic Mary Tudor (r.1553-1558)
o Popular support for principle of hereditary monarchy led to Jane Grey’s
removal from the throne and beheading
o 1554 Mary entered political marriage with Philip II of Spain-sympathizer of
militant Catholicism to English Protestants
o Pursued foreign policy in 1558 that cost England’s last enclave on the
Continent, Calais
o Domestic measures: Parliament repealed Protestant statutes of Edward,
reverted to Catholic religious practice of her father Henry VIII.
o Protestant leaders of Edwardian Age-John Hooper, Hugh Latimer, and
Thomas Cranmer were executed for heresy
o 287 Protestants joined them in martyrdom, 287 burned at stake
o “Marian Exiles”-Protestants who took refuge in the Continent in Germany
and Switzerland forming large communities in Switzerland., Geneva, and
Strasbourg
o Marian Exiles worshipped in own congregations, wrote tracts justifying
armed resistance, and waited for a protestant counteroffensive
B. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
o Successor to Mary I as her half sister, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn
o Successes in domestic and foreign policy-assisted by shrewd adviser Sir William
Cecil
o Passed religious settlement that prevented England from being torn apart
o Politique-subordinated religious belief for political unity by merging a
centralized Episcopal system, controlled by her, with broadly defined Protestant
doctrine and traditional Catholic ritual
o Became Anglican Church-inflexible religious extremes were not permitted
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o Act of Supremacy-passed Parliament in 1559, repealed all anti-Protestant
legislation of Mary Tudor, assessed Elizabeth’s right as “supreme governor”,
mandated revised version of the second Book of Common Prayer for every parish
o Thirty-Nine Articles on Religion-revision of Thomas Cranmer’s original 42
making a moderate Protestantism the official religion within Church of England
1. Catholic and Protestant Extremists
o
Hoped to avoid both Catholic and Protestant extremism
o
Matthew Parker-first archbishop of Canterbury represented ideal
Catholic Extremists
o
Catholics were majority in England, Jesuits encouraged extremists
o
Radicals assisted by Spain-sparked by Elizabeth’s Protestant sympathies
and refusal to take Philip II’s hand in marriage
o
Hoped to replace Elizabeth with Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots-claim to
throne by grandmother Margaret, sister of Henry VIII
o
Elizabeth’s reaction: acted swiftly against Catholic assassination plots,
executed fewer Catholics during 45 years than Mary Tudor executed in 5 years
Puritans-Protestants working within the national church to “purify
it of every vestige of “popery” and to make its Protestant doctrine more precise
o 2 grievances: retention of Catholic ceremony and vestments within
church, continuation of Episcopal system of church governance-political
control of church under firm hand of the queen and archbishop
o Were not separatists, enjoyed popular support and led by widely
respected men like Thomas Cartwright, worked through Parliament to
create alternative national church of semiautonomous congregations
governed by representative presbyteries-Presbyterians
o Presbyterians followed model of Calvin and Geneva
o Elizabeth’s reaction: acted subtly conceding absolutely nothing that
lessened the hierarchical unity of the Church of England and her control over
it
o Congregationalists-extreme Puritans wanted every congregation to be
autonomous with neither Episcopal nor Presbyterian control
o Elizabeth and 2nd archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift refused to
tolerate this group passed Conventicle Act-gave separatists option of either
conforming or death
2. Deterioration of Relations with Spain
o Philip II and Elizabeth sincerely wanted to avoid a confrontation
o Spanish duke of Alba’s march into Netherlands, viewed by English as a
staging area for Spanish invasion of England
o Pope Pius V-favored military conquest of England, “excommunicated”
Elizabeth encouraging internal resistance and int’l intrigue for queen
o Sea beggars, many of whom were English aroused countryside against Spain
o After Don John’s victor at Lepanto, England signed mutual defense pact with
France
o John Hawkins and Francis Drake-Elizabeth’s famous seaman, pirated
Spanish shipping, Drake’s circumnavigation of globe signaled ascendance of
English power on high seas
o After SBDM-Elizabeth became sole protector of Protestants in France and
the Nlands-Treaty of Nonsuch-provided English soldiers to Nlands, openly
funneled money to Henry of Navarre’s army in France
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3. Mary, Queen of Scots
o Elizabeth’s execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, final spark in EnglishSpanish relations
o Mary Stuart was daughter of King James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise,
resided in France until the death of French king Francis II, French/Catholic
o Returned to Scotland after successful Protestant Reformation won legal
sanction year before in the Treaty of Edinburgh
o Not intimidated by Protestants, established int’l French court culture
impressing nobles
John Knox-Scottish reformer, who fumed publicly against queen’s Catholic
practices
o Elizabeth and Cecil supported his role as a watchdog
o Elizabeth personally despised Knox for writing First Blast of the
Trumpet against the Terrible Regiment of Women-aimed at Mary, but
published in year of Elizabeth’s ascent to the throne
o Public scandal involving her lover killing her legal husband forced Mary
to surrender to throne and flee to England
o Remained int’l symbol of Catholic England due to clear claim to throne,
consumed by desire to be queen-house arrest caused discomfort to Eliz.
o Mendoza plot-Eliz.’s secretary, Sir Francis Walsingham uncovered
plot dagainst Eliz. Involving Spanish ambassador Bernardino de Mendoza
o Impact: popular antipathy toward Spain/support for Protestant resistance
in France and the Netherlands increased
o Babington plot- Walsingham caught another plot against involving
Babington involving Mary of Scot
o Elizabeth knew that a dethroned sovereign weakened royalty
everywhere, and would create outcry in Catholic world
o Gave consent to execution which took place in 1587
o Impact: Pope Sixtus V supported Spanish invasion of England
4. The Armada
o Sir Francis Drake’s successful shelling of Cadiz-inflicted heavy damage on
Spanish ships and stores, raided coast of Portugal incapacitating the Spanish
o Spain had to postpone planned invasion until 1588
o On May 30, the armada under duke of Medina-Sidonia set sail for England
o English won stunning victory-invasion barges were prevented from leaving
ports, English and Netherlandic ships helped by “English wind” dispersed the
waiting Spanish fleet
o Impact of Armada’s defeat: gave heart to Protestant resistance everywhere,
although Spain continued to win victories never fully recovered from that
defeat, unified/inspired French, English, and Dutch armies
o By Philip’s death, his forces were rebuffed on all fronts, inferior leaders who
succeeded him lost Spain’s imperial grandeur and France dominated the
Continent, while Dutch and English whittled away Spain’s overseas empire
o Elizabeth died on March 23, 1603
V. The Thirty Year’s War (1618-1648)
Overview: The TYW was last and most destructive war of religion, TYW set Catholics
against Protestants and Calvinists against Lutherans. Virtually every major European land
became involved and shaped the map of northern Europe as we know today
A. Preconditions of War
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1. Fragmented Germany
o
In 2nd half of 16th century Germany was ungovernable land of 360
autonomous political entities
o
Included secular principalities (Duchies, landgraviates, and
marches), ecclesiastical principalities (archbishoprics, bishoprics, and
abbeys, and numerous free cities and castle regions
o
Peace of Augsburg had given each significant sovereignty within
its own borders
o
Trade highway-German princes looked to import/export markets
beyond German borders, opposed consolidation of the HRE, turned to
Catholic France or kings of Denmark and Sweden against Habsburg
o
Protestants suspected existence of imperial/papal conspiracy to
recreate Catholic Europe of pre-reformation times
o
Imperial diet controlled by German princes, emperor ruled only to
degree of support of force of arms
2. Religious Division
o Pop. In HRE equally divided between Catholics and Protestants (slight
edge)
o Territorial reversals violating Peace of Augsburg increased suspicion
o Catholic rulers forced to give concessions to Protestant communities
within their territories, declared all converts to Protestant be deprived of
religious offices and ecclesiastical holdings
o Lutherans and especially Calvinists in the Palatinate ignored this
o Conflict between liberal/conservative Lutherans and between Lutherans
and growing # Calvinists
o Factions existed in German universities: new scientific and material
culture became ascendant in intellectual and political circles increasing
anxiety of all religious persuasions
3. Calvinism and the Palatinate
o Calvinism gained foothold, despite no recognition in PofA, Frederick
III, devout convert to C, became elector Palatine, and made it the official
religion
o Heidelberg became German Geneva: intellectual center of Calvinism
and staging area for Calvinist penetration into empire
o Palatine Calvinists headed Protestant defensive alliances with Spain’s
enemies: Nlands, England, and France
o Lutherans feared Calvinists almost as much as Catholics-threatened
PofA/legal foundation of Lutheran states and Eucharist position
4. Maximilian of Bavaria and the Catholic League
o Catholic Jesuits were active in HRE
o Stauchly Catholic Bavaria, supported by Spain, became militarily and
idelogically for the Counter-Reformation the foil to Palatinate
o Jesuits also launched missions throughout empire, winning back
Strasbourg and Osnabruck
o Maximilian-duke of Bavaria, organized Catholic league ot counter a
Protestant alliance
o League fielded a great army under the command of Count Johann von
Tilly-set stage for worst of religious wars, the TYW
B. Four Periods of War
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Overview: War went through four periods: Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and Swedish-French
1. The Bohemian Period
o Ascent to throne of the Habsburg Ferdinand-archduke of Styria, in line
of succession to imperial throne, educated by Jesuits and a fervent
Catholic
o Goals of Ferdinand: Restore traditional faith to eastern Habsburg lands
(Austria, Bohemia, and Poland
o Revoked religious freedoms of Bohemian Protestants that had been in
force since 1575 and broadened by Emperor Rudolf II in his Letter of
Majesty
o Protestant reaction: nobility threw regents out the
window-“defenestration of Prague” (3 officials fell 50 ft. into manure
o In 1619-Ferdinand became HREmperor- unaminous vote of 7 electors,
but Bohemians deposed him in Prague/declared Frederick V elector
Palatine their overlord
o Escalation into international war: Spain sent troops to Ferdinand, allied
with Maximilian of Bavaria and opportunistic Lutheran elector John
George I of Saxony (wanted territory in Palatine)
o Battle of White Mountain-Ferdinand’s army routed Frederick V’s
troops-subdued and re-Catholicized Bohemia and conquered Palatinate
o Duke of Bavaria pressed conflict into NW Germany-laying claim to land
2. The Danish Period
o Events of BP raised new fears of reconquest and re-Catholicization of
HRE
o Lutheran king Christian IV of Denmark, held territory as duke of
Holstein, wanted to extend Danish influence over coastal towns of HRE
o Encouraged by Eng., Fr.., and Dutch, he picked up Protestant banner of
resistance opening Danish period of conflict (!625-1629)
o Danish quickly humiliated by Maximilian and retreated
o Albrecht of Wallenstein: military success of Maximilian made him an
untrustworthy ally, Emperor turned to Wallenstien- powerful mercenary,
opportunistic Protestant, brilliant military strategist who carried
campaign into Denmark, became law itself with 100,000 outside
emperor’s control
o Wallenstien broke Protestant resistance very successfully
o Edict of Restitution: Edict issued by Ferdinand in 1629-reasserted
Catholic safeguards of the PofA-illegality of Calvinism/return of all
Lutheran church lands
o Impact: struck panic in hearts of Protestants and Habsburg opponents
3. The Swedish Period
o Gustave Adolphus of Sweden-pious king of unified Lutheran nation,
became leader of Protestant forces within empire opening Swedish
period of war (1630-1632)
o Bankrolled by Cardinal Richelieu-French minister wanting to protect
French interests by keeping Habsburg tied down in Germany, and the
Dutch-disliked Spanish Habsburg domination in 16th century
o Allied with electors of Brandenburg and Saxony
o Breitenfeld- smashing victory by Swedish king in 1630, reversed course
of the war and became most decisive engagement of the long conflict
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o Reasons for Swedish victory: Adolphus’s military genius- new tactics
with fire-and-charge infantry and cavalry, smaller infantry and more
versatile artillery and units of army
o Battle of Lutzen- Adolphus dies at hands of Wallenstein’s forces-costly
engagement for both sides creating brief standstill
o Ferdinand assassinates Wallenstein-wallenstien was opportunistic-trying
to strike bargains with the Protestants for his services
o Despite religious motivations, greed and political gain were the real
forces at work in the TYW (Wallenstein perfect example of this)
o Peace of Prague-German Protestant states (lead by Saxony) reached
compromise with Ferdinand
o Swedes refused wanted to maximize investment in war supported by
France and the Netherlands, resistance lead to 4th and most deadly phase
of the war
4. The Swedish-French period
o French openly enters war in 1635-send men, munitions, and money
o War drags on for 13 yrs., French/Swedish/Spanish soldiers loot all of
Germany-“warring for sake of warfare itself”
o Germans too disunited to repulse armies; watched and suffered
o Peace talks in Westphalian cites of Munster and Osnabruck in 1644
o 1/3 of German pop. had died as direct result of war
o Worst European catastrophe since Black Death of 14th century
C. Treaty of Westphalia
o In 1648 brought all hostilities within HRE it end
o Rescinded Ferdinand’s Edict of Restitution, reasserted major feature of the
religious settlement of the PofA-ruler of each land chooses religion
o Gave Calvinists long-sought legal recognition
o Independence of Swiss and Nland proclaimed in law not just fact
o Elevation of Bavaria to elector state
o Made German princes supreme over principalities
o As guarantors, Sweden and France meddled in German affairs-France got
territorial gains
o Brandenburg-Prussia emerged as the most powerful Northern German state
o Broadened legal status of Protestantism/pope no power to prevent
o France and Spain remained at war-French victories forced Treaty of the
Pyrenees on Spanish-France became Europe’s dominant power, Habsburg
kingdom waned
o Perpetuated German division and political weakness into modern period
o Only 2 German states attained int’l significance during 17th century: Austria and
Brandenburg-Prussia
o Petty regionalism was not reflective of large scale drift of European states toward
nation-states with own political, cultural, and religious identity reached maturity
and firmly established competitive nationalism of the modern world
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I. Two Models of European Political Development
o absolutism-France, parliamentary monarchy-England
o English monarchy failed to seek new sources of financial revenue, not dependent on
nobles and assemblies, French succeeded
o Nobility, wealthy landowners effectively resisted monarchs in England
o Louis XIV-made French nobility dependent on him, supported their local influence,
accepted right of noble-dominated Parlement to register royal decrees before they
officially became law-permitted regional parlements to exercise local authority (taxes)
o Religious Factors: Puritanism arose in England, actively opposed Stuart monarcy,
represented nonpolitical force that sought to limit and overturn the monarchy
Louis XI crushed Protestants in France-supported by Roman
Catholics
o Institutional Differences: Parliament of England had long bargained with monarchy
over political issues- institutional basis for consultation with Parliament, broad liberties
France lacked strong tradition of broad liberties,
representation, and bargaining between monarchy and other national institutions, Estates
General had not met after early 17th century
o Personality differences: Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin trained Louis XIII, XIV to
be hardworking and wise, Louis XIV had strong capable ministers around him
Stuart monarchs offended significant groups of their subjects,
acted on a whim, no strong guidance
o Nobility: English nobility stood at top of social hierarchy, distrusted Stuart monarchs,
thought monarch would interfere with local rule. French nobility concluded best way to
secure power was to support Louis XIV, he provided them with many privileges
II. Constitutional Crisis and Settlement in Stuart England
A. James I
o James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded childless Elizabeth
o James was not well known, was an outsider and inherited a difficult situation
after death of popular queen
o Inherited large debt and divided church
o Advocated divine right of kings-wrote Trew Law of Free Monarchies-expected to
rule with minimum consultation
o Parliament’s chief business was to grant sources of income, only met when
summoned, James developed other sources of income, reducing Parliament
o Impositions-custom duties levied by James, newer version of older customs
duties known as tonnage and poundage, Parliament resented these,
wrangled/negotiated behind the scenes
o Religious problems: Puritans hoped James’s experience with Scottish
Presbyterians would cause him to favor their efforts, wanted to eliminate
elaborate religious ceremonies and replace hierarchical Episcopal system
Military Petition-statement of Puritan grievances, James responded to this at
special religious conference, Hampton Court Conference by declaring firm
intention to maintain/enhance the Anglican episcopacy
Hampton Court conference-commissioned new translation of the Bible (King
James Version), Puritans and James left conference with suspicions of other
confirmed,
Opposition to narrow view of human life/social activities: James offended
Puritans by issuing Book of Sports-permitted games on Sunday for people who
attended Church of England services, clergy refused to read order, rescinded
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Religious migration: Puritan separatists founded Plymouth, detesting Anglican
conformity. Better financed group of Puritans founded Massachusetts Bay
o Corruption in court: became center of scandal, governed by favorites-Duke of
Buckingham rumored to be the king’s homosexual lover, Buckingham
controlled royal patronage, sold titles to highest bidder, angered nobles by
cheapening their rank
o Foreign Policy: made peace with Spain, subjects viewed this as sign of proCatholic sentiment. Tried to reduce Catholic penal laws, hesitated to rush
English troops to aid of Germany at TYW, tried to arrange marriage between his
son Charles and Spanish Infanta-daughter of king of Spain
C. Charles I
o Parliament favored war with Spain, couldn’t adequately finance because of
distrust of Buckingham
o Charles I couldn’t gain funds for war, resorted to new tariffs and duties,
subjected English to forced loan (tax theoretically to be repaid), quartering of
troops-intruded life on a local level challenging nobles’ power
o Parliament in 1628: furious about illegal taxes for war that was going badly for
England, Petition of Right-declaration of constitutional freedom, requiring that
no forced loans or taxation could be levied without the consent of parliament, no
quartering or imprisoning without due cause-Charles agreed to this
1. Years of Personal Rule
o Buckingham assassinated in 1628, didn’t resolve hostility
o Parliament declared that religious innovations leading to “popery” and
levying of taxes without parliamentary consent were acts of treason
o “Popery”-Charles’s high-church policies that favored powerful bishops,
elaborate liturgy, centralized power in Church, clashed with Puritan’s
beliefs
o Charles dissolves parliament, conserves resources by making peace with
France and Spain-raised fears that he was too friendly to Catholics
o Roman Catholic/French background of wife roused fears, mass daily
o Arminians-group in church supported by Charles that rejected Puritan
doctrines, favored elaborate high-church practices, similar to Catholicism
o Thomas Wentworth-Charles’s chief minister, institutes thorough-policy
that imposed strict efficiency and centralization in government-goal was
absolute royal control of England
o Success of this goal depended on king’s ability to operate independently
of Parliament, ministers exploited every legal fundraising devise
(extended new taxes, ship money-extended a previously coastal tax to all
of Europe for naval protection)
o John Hampden-mounted legal challenge to this extension, king won a
costly legal contest-more animosity in powerful landowners toward him
o Continued policies of corruption of father, inflation of titles and honors
o Religious policies: wanted religious conformity within England and
Scotland, William Laud-Charles’s religious adviser/archbishop of
Canterbury, held high-church view of Anglicanism
o Laud denied right of Puritans to publish and preach, tried to impose on
Scotland the English Episcopal system and Book of Common Prayer
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o Scot rebellion: Charles forced to call parliament, parliament refused to
give funds unless king agreed to redress long list of grievances, led by
John Pym
o King dissolves parliament, known as “Short Parliament”
o Scots invade England, defeat English at Battle of Newburn-Charles
reconvenes Parliament
2. The Long Parliament
o Landowners, merchants, Puritans in Parliament acted in uniformity
against Charles
o Iimpeached earl of Stafford and Archbishop Laud
o Abolished Court of Star Chamber and Court of High Commission-royal
instruments of political and religious thorough
o Levying of new taxes and inland extension of ship money became illegal
o No more than 3 yrs could elapse b/t meetings, no dissolving by king
o Division of religious reform: moderate Puritans (Presbyterians) and
extreme Puritans (Independents) wanted complete abolition of
Episcopal system and the book of Common Prayer
o Independents: wanted fully decentralized church
o Presbyterians: wanted England to be Calvinist, local congregations
subject to higher representative governing bodies-presbyteries
o Conservatives: wanted to preserve English church in current form
o Divisions intensified when rebellion erupted in Ireland, Parliament was
asked to raise funds for an army to suppress it
o Pym argued Charles couldn’t be trusted, parliament should become
commander-in-chief of army. Conservatives appalled by bold departure
from tradition
3. Eruption of Civil War
o Charles saw division in parliament as chance to reassert power
o Parliament presented him with “grand remonstrance”-more than 200
article summary of grievances against crown
o Charles invades Parliament, begins to raise an army
o Parliament passes Militia Ordinance-authority for P. to raise an army
o For next four years, civil war engulfs England
o War fought over two main issues: Absolute monarchy vs.
Parliamentary government, and Anglican conformity vs.
decentralized Presbyterian
o Cavaliers-charles’s royalist supporters in NW of England
o Roundheads-P. opposition in the SE of England
o Chief factor distinguishing them was religion; Puritans favored P.
D. Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Republic
o Factors for P. victory: alliance with Scotland when John Pym persuaded P. to
accept terms of Solemn League and Covenant-agreement that commited P. with
Scots to Presbyterian system of church government
o Scots knew they would never be confronted by imposition of English prayer
book
o 2nd Factor for P. victory: reorganization of P. army under Oliver Cromwellcountry squire, strong Independent religious views
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Cromwell tolerated established church, wanted right for dissenters to worship
outside of it
o Battle of Marston Moor, Naseby: Two decisive victories for Cromwell’s
newly reorganized forces-New Model Army
o Charles tried to take adv. Of divisions in P., seeked to win Presbyterians and
Scots over to royalist side
o Cromwell foiled him-Colonel Thomas Pride physically barred Presbyterians from
taking their seats, After “Pride’s Purge,” only a “rump” of less than 50 members
remained.
o The independent Rump Parliament executed Charles as public criminal,
abolished the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican church
o Civil War becomes a revolution
o Cromwell’s reign, 1649-1660: England becomes a Puritan republic dominated
by Cromwell-army conquered Ireland and Scotland creating the political entity of
Great Britain
o Cromwell weak as politician, frustrated by P., became a military dictator after
disbanding P. ruling as Lord Protector according to written constitution known
as Instrument of Government
o Failure of military dictatorship: army and foreign adventures inflated budget,
intolerance of Anglicans and Puritan prohibitions destroyed political liberty,
quarreled with P.
o Return of exiled Charles II: failed Puritan religious and republican political
experiments caused many to long for return to traditional institutions, restoration
of Stuart monarchy in 1660.
E. Charles II and the Restoration of the Monarchy
o Charles II returned to England with charm/political skill amid great rejoicing,
refreshing new tone after 11 years of strict Puritanism
o Returned England to SQUO of 1642, hereditary monarch, no legal requirement to
summon Parliament, Anglican church with bishops and prayer book supreme
o King had secret Catholic sympathies/favored policy of religious toleration
o Wanted all outside Church of England, Catholics and Puritans, to worship freely
as long as they remained loyal
o Parliament did not believe patriotism and the religion could be separated:
Clarendon Code-series of laws passed by Parliament excluding Catholics,
Presbyterians, and Independents from the religious and political life of the nation
o Clarendon Code imposed penalties for attending non-Anglican worship
services, required adherence to the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-Nine
Articles
o At time of Restoration-navigation acts adopted-required all imports to be carried
in English ships or ships registered to country from which the cargo originatedstruck directly at Dutch dominance in the shipping industry
o Naval wars between England and Holland began-Charles tightened grasp on rich
English colonies in North American and Caribbean (many settled by separatists)
o Charles required more revenue than P. appropriated, increased custom duties,
received aid from France
o Treaty of Dover-England and France formally allied against the Dutch, secret
portion where Charles pledged to convert to Catholicism and Louis XIV paid him
a substantial subsidy
o
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o Declaration of Indulgence-suspended all laws against Catholics and Protestant
nonconformists in an attempt to unite the English people behind the warconservative Parliament refused to grant money for the war, until Charles
rescinded the measure which he did.
o Test Act-passed by P., required all officials to swear an oath against the doctrine
of transubstantiation-since no Catholics could meet it, tried to limit out Catholics
o Suspicions of King’s family:
o Test Act aimed at the king’s brother, James duke of York, heir to the
throne and recent convert to Catholicism.
o Notorious liar Titus Oates accused Charles’s Catholic wife was plotting
with Jesuits to kill the king and allow James to assume the throne
o Popish Plot, resulting hysteria from the Titus Oate’s accusation,
several were executed, opposition members of Parliament, called the
Whigs and led by the earl of Shaftesbury tried to enact a bill excluding
James from succession to the throne
o Charles’s reaction: ruled from 1681-1685 without calling P., used customs
duties and Louis XIV for income, exiled earl of Shaftesbury and Whigs,
submitted P. to the royal will, leaving James with a P. filled with royal friends
F. James II and Renewed Fears of a Catholic England
Didn’t make the most out of a good thing
alienated P. by insisting on repeal of the Test Act
when P. balked he dissolved it and openly appointed Catholics to high
positions
issued Declaration of Indulgence suspending all religious tests and
permitting free worship
Removed all candidates for P. who opposed the declaration and replacing
them by Catholics
Impact of actions: direct royal attack on local power and legal priveliges of
corporate bodies-attacked English liberty and challenged social hierarchy
Under guise of enlightened toleration, James wanted absolutism and even loyalist
Tories didn’t agree, fearing James wanted to imitate Louis XIV
United opposition:
James’s Catholic 2nd wife gave birth to a Catholic male heir to the
throne
English hoped James would die without male heir so the throne
would pass to Mary, his Protestant eldest daughter married to
William III of Orange, stadtholder of the Netherlands
Whig and Tory members of P. formed coalition and invited Orange
to invade England to preserve “traditional liberties” (Anglican
church and P. government)
G. The “Glorious Revolution”
1. Overview: William of Orange arrives with army and received without
opposition by the English, James flees to French under protection of Louis
XIV, P. declares throne vacant and proclaims William and Mary the new
monarchs, completing the successful bloodless Glorious Revolution
2. Bill of Rights: recognized by William and Mary limiting the powers of the
monarchy and guaranteed the civil liberties of the English privileged classes
3. England’s monarchs would rule by consent of P., called into session every 3
yrs., prohibited Catholics from occupying the throne
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4. Toleration Act of 1689: permitted worship by all Protestants but outlawed
Catholics and anti-Trinitarians
5. Act of Settlement in 1701: let the English crown go to the Protestant House
of Hanover in Germany if none of the children of Queen Anne, the 2nd
daughter of James II and the last of the Stuart monarchs was alive at her
death
6. the Elector of Hanover became King George I of England-3rd foreign
monarch to occupy the English throne in just over a century
7. Impact of Glorious Revolution: established a framework of government by
and for the people that bore out the arguments of John Locke’s Second
Treatise of Government-Locke describes the relationship of a king and his
people as a bilateral contract, if the king breaks it the people (privileged and
powerful) had the right to depose him
8. Established in England a permanent check on monarchical power by the
classes represented in Parliament
III. Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
A. Overview: discontent nobles and religious pluralism smothered by absolute
monarchy and closed Catholic state of Louis XIV. “One king, one law, one faith”
Louis made monarchy the most important and powerful political institution in France
while assuring nobles and other wealthy groups their social standing. Louis worked
through existing local institutions partnering with the nobles, learning from the
mistakes of previous predecessors and chief ministers.
B. Henry IV and Sully
o Henry Navarre came to throne after the French wars of religion
o Sought to curtail privileges of the nobility-targets were provincial governors and
regional parlements-especially the Parlement of Paris-divisive spirit lived on,
old privileged groups and tax-exempt magnates wanted to protect self-interests
o Intendants-royal civil servants that subjected these privileged groups to stricter
supervision, implementing the king’s will in these provinces
o Function: prevent abuses from the sale of royal offices dealing with
revenue/licenses, these offices were key to the nobles’ influence
o Economy became more subject to government regulation
o Duke of Sully-Henry’s finance minister established government monopolies on
gunpowder, mines, and salt-preparing the way for mercantilist policies of Louis
XIV and his financial minister, Colbert.
o Began canal system to link the Atlantic and Mediterranean
o Corvee-labor tax that created a national force of drafted infrastructure workers
o Sully dreamed of a common market in Europe (EU BABY!)
C. Louis XIII and Richelieu
o Henry IV assassinated and Sully retires
o Louis XIII only 9 at time of death, queen mother Marie de Medicis governs
o In a vulnerable position, signs 10-year mutual defense pact with Spain in the
Treaty of Fontainebleau-arranged for marriage between Louis XIII and Spanish
infanta, and the queen’s daughter with the heir to the Spanish thronde
o Sought internal security against nobility by promoting Cardinal Richelieu-king’s
chief advisor
o Richelieu
o Foreign policy: sought to make France the supreme European power
o Devout Catholic who used church for personal ambition of welfare of Fr.
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Pursued strongly anti-Habsburg policy-determined to contain Spanish
power and influence even aiding Protestant Europe
o Balanced anti-Spain with strongly Catholic: aided Gustavus Adolphus
while insisting Catholic Bavaria be spared
o France gained substantial land and political influence in the Treaty of
Westphalia and the Treaty of the Pyrenees
o Domestic policy: pursued centralizing policies with support of the king
o Attacked provincial governors and parlements like Sully did
o Imprisoned and executed disobedient nobles
o Campaign against Huguenots: Royal armies conquered major Huguenot
cities, revoked Edict of Nantes denying Protestants the right to maintain
garrisoned cities, separate political org. and independent courts
o Propaganda: used the arts and printing press to defend actions and to
indoctrinate people in the meaning of raison d’etat (Reason of state)
D. Young Louis XIV and Mazarin
o Immediate legacy of Richelieu was strong resentment of monarchy among nobles
o Steady replacement of local authorities by state agents, multiplication of royal
offices, and reduction of loyal sources of patronage-undermined traditional
position of the privileged groups
o Louis XIV only 5 when father dies, queen mother Anne of Austria placed gov’t
in Cardinal Mazarin’s hands
o During regency, resentment produces backlash
o Fronde-a series of widespread rebellions where segments of the nobility and
townspeople sought to reverse the drift toward absolute monarchy
o Revolt initiated by the Parlement of Paris, urged on by wives of imprisoned
princes, nobility briefly triumphed and Mazarin released the imprisoned princes
o He and Louis XIV go into exile
o Return after an interlude of anarchic rule by the nobility
o Impact: Fronde convinced most that a strong king was preferable to that of
many regional powers-Louis XIV learned that heavy handed policies like those
of Richelieu and Mazarin could endanger the monarchy
IV. The Years of Louis XIV’s Personal Rule
A. Overview: Louis assumes personal control upon death of Mazarin, appoints no
single chief minister so that rebellious nobles would be challenging the king directly
not a minister. Followed 2 strategies to prevent the Fronde:
1. became master of propaganda and creation of a political image-impressed on
the French people a sense of the grandeur of the crown
2. made sure nobles and other major groups would benefit from his increased
authority-kept local institutions, wouldn’t enact economic regulations
without consulting local opinions, parlements had power
3. Exception: Louis curtailed much of the Parlement of Paris
B. King by Divine Right
o Bishop Bousset-king’s devout tutor who defended “divine right of kings”,
supported theory that kings only answered to God by examples in the Old Testament
o Champion of Gallican liberties: trad. Rights of king and church against the pope in
matters of ecclesiastical appts and taxation
o Louis’s famous alleged declaration, “L’etat, c’est moi”
C. Versailles
o Louis used physical setting of royal court to exert political control
o
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Palace court at Versailles on outskirts of Paris became Louis’s permanent residence
Architecturally designed and artisticall decorated to proclaim the glory of the Sun King
Consumed half of annual revenues but paid significant dividends
Louis was chief source of favors and patronage in France
Organized life around his daily routine-caused fawning nobles to be in attendance at favored
moments-king’s rising and dressing
Used sexuality to political ends-honor to lie with him
Court life domesticated the nobility with ceremonies like dress codes, high-stakes gambling
to contribute to dependence on king, planned entertainment
Rule through powerful councils: chose chief ministers of councils from families long in royal
service who depended on king for standing
D. Suppression of the Jansenists
o Believed political unity required religious conformity
o First move to impose it was against the Roman Catholic jansenists
o Long tradition of guarded independence from Rome of the French church and
crown-Gallican liberties
o Following Henry IV’s conversion to Catholicism, Jesuits flock to France
o Jesuits radically monopolize edu. Of the upper classes-students promote religious
reforms and Council of Trent throughout France-served as confessors to Henry
IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV
o Jansenism: group of Catholics who rose in opposition to the theology and
political influence of the Jesuits-adhered to teachings of St. Augustine
o Particularly opposed Jesuit teachings on salvation and grace, believed divine
grace was the only individuals could be saved
o Cornelius Jansen-namesake of movement, published Augustinus assailing Jesuit
teaching
o Arnaulds-prominent Parisian family adding a political element to the resistance,
believed Jesuits had been behind assassination of Henry IV, dominated Jansenist
communities at Port-Royal and Paris
o Antoine Arnauld-published On Frequent Communion-criticizing Jesuit
confessional practices that permitted easy redress of almost any sin
o Pope Innocentt X declares heretical 5 Jansenist theological propositions, bans
Augustinus and Antoine Arnauld
o Blaise Pascal-most famous of Jansenists publishes Provincial Letters in defense
of Jansenism-objected to Jesuit moral theology as lax and shallow and failing to
do full justice to the religious experience
o In 1660 Louis permits papal bull Ad Sacram Sedem to ban Jansenism-closes Port
Royal Community, Jansenists go underground
o Impact: Jansenism offered prospect of Catholicism broad enough to appeal to
Huguenots, by suppressing it Louis eliminated the best hope for peaceful
religious unity for France
E. Government Geared for Warfare
o France similar to rest of Europe: largely subsistence ECON, limited prosperity in
cities, no economic strength of modern industrial economy
o Superiority in bureaucracy, armed forces, and national unity
o Chief foreign policy goal was to achieve secure int’l boundaries for France,
especially northern borders
o Also wanted to frustrated Habsburg ambitions, secure S border toward Spain
o Saw himself as warrior king and enemies claimed he wanted to dominate France
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o Three remarkable French ministers established Louis XIV’s great war machine:
Colbert, Louvois, Vauban
1. Colbert and the French Economy
-Jean-Baptiste Colbert-controlled general finances and was Louis’s most brillian
minister creating the economic base for wars
Centralized French economy like Louis centralized the gov’t
-had modest success in organizing ECON under state, through tariffs, control of
imports/exports, simplified bureaucracy, reduced number of tax-exempt nobles
-increased the taille-direct tax on the peasantry and major source of royal income
-mercantilism- economic theory of close gov’t control of the economy aiming to
maximize foreign exports and internal reserves of bullion
-Modern scholars argued Colbert overcontrolled the ECON and his
“paternalism” caused the failure of French colonies
-Overall impact: Colbert’s policies transformed France into major commercial
power
2. Louvois, Vauban, and the French Military
o Army, ¼ of a million strong, was creation of the marquis of Louvois, a
superior military tactician
o Before Louvois: army made of uncoordinated local recruits and mercenaries
without regular pay and forced to pillage
o Louvois institutes good salaries and discipline making soldiering a
respectable
o Limits military commissions promoting by merit and bringing dedicated
fighters into ranks
o Enlistment for four years and restricted to single men
o Indendants monitored conduct at all levels
o Army became likable, example of the benefits of a central monarchy
o Sebastien Vauban- brilliant military engineer who perfected art of
fortification and siege, devised system of trench warfare and developed
concept of defensive frontiers that remained basic tactics through WWI
F. Louis’s Early Wars
1. The War of Devolution
-First foreign adventure was the War of Devolution (1667-1668)
-Fought over Louis’s claim to the Spanish Belgian provinces through his wife,
Marie-Therese
-According to the Treaty of Pyrenees, Marie renounced her claim to Spanish
succession if a 500,000 crown dowry is paid within 18 months of marriage,
condition is unmet
-Louis harbored hope of turning marriage to territorial gain arguing Marie was
entitled to a portion of the inheritance from Philip IV of Spain
-legal argument: in certain regions of Brabant and Flanders, property
“devolved” to children of a first marriage rather than the 2nd, Marie had higher
claim than Charles II to these regions
-Louis sent armies under Viscount of Turenne into these territories
-In response: England, Sweden and the United Provinces of Holland form the
Triple Alliance-a force strong enough to compel Louis to agree to peace under
the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, gave him control of certain towns bordering the
Spanish N-lands
2. Invasion of the Netherlands
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-with Treaty of Dover, Eng. And Fr. Allie against the Dutch, crumbling the
Triple Alliance
-Louis invades Holland directly, because the Dutch were main force behind
Triple Alliance and had gloated after the Tof AlaC
-Neutralizing Holland could help him acquire land in the Spanish Nlands
-Invasion caused the downfall of Dutch gov’t, replaced by Prince of Orange
destined to become King William III of England
-Orange, great-grandson of William the Silent, galvanized 7 provinces as a
fighting unit, uniting the HRE, Spain, Lorraine, and Brandenburg in alliance
against Louis
-Enemies saw Louis as “Christian Turk”, a menace to all of Europe
Louis loses his general Turenne and Conde in the fight, but a victory by Admiral
Duquesne over the Dutch gives France control of the Mediterranean
-the Peace of Nijmwegen-ended the war, but no clear victor except the United
Netherlands which retained all of its territory
G. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
1. Aftermath of Edict of Nantes: relations between Catholic majority (9/10 of
pop.) and Protestant were hostile, Catholic church denounced Calvinists as
heretical and treasonous
2. Louis’s campaign against Huguenots: following PofN which halted Louis’s
military campaign, Louis banned H. from gov’t, used selective taxing against H.,
finally revoking the EofN in 1685
3. Impact: Major blunder-Protestant countries saw Louis as a new Philip II
intent on Catholic reconquest of all of Europe, prompted voluntary emigration of
more than a quarter million French who joined the resistance, 1000s of
Huguenots served in army of William of Orange, guerilla resistance, Louis
considered this to be his most pious act.
H. Louis’s Later Wars
1. The League of Augsburg and the Nine Year’s War
-After PofN, Louis conquered the free city of Strasbourg prompting the defensive
alliance-League of Augsburg, including England, Spain, Sweden, nlands,
Bavaria, Saxony, and palatinate, Leopold Austrain emperor
-Louis invades palatinate on weak succession grounds, the League and France
battle in the Nine eYear’s War
-France and England also struggle for NA in King William’s War
-Conclusion: stalemate, The Peace of Ryswick-triumph for William of Orange
and Emperor Leopold securing Holland’s borders and thwarting Louis’s
expansion
2. War of the Spanish Succession: Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt
-Louis tries to expand French against Habsburg influence
-Charles II “the sufferer” dies, Louis and Leopold had claims to the throne
(Louis’s grandson Philip of Anjou had the better claim through Louis’s marriage
to Marie-Therese)
-inheritance expected to go to Leopold’s grandson, because Marie had renounced
her right to the Spanish inheritance in the treaty of the Pyrenees
-Charles II leaves entire inheritance to Philip of Anjou
-Philip of Anjou becomes Philip V of Spain, Louis sends troops into Flanders to
remove Dutch soldiers from Spanish territory, declares all Spanish America open
to French ships
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-Grand Alliance-HRE, Holland and Europe counter Spain wanted to preserve
balance of power by securing Flanders as a neutral barrier between Holland and
France and gaining the emperor his fair share of the Spanish inheritance
-Louis recognizes claim of James Edward, son of James II to the English throne
as retaliation
-War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) begins and total war envelops
England
-France: inadequate finances, poor army and generals, lose every major
engagement
-England: advanced weaponry, superior tactics, John Churchill, Duke of
Marlborough, succeeded William as military leader of alliance
-Blenheim, Ramilles: 2 major routs of France that were decisive battles of the
war
-famine, revolts, and uncollectible taxes tear France apart internally
-Treaty of Rastatt: confirms Philip V as king of Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca
go to England, Louis recognizes right of House of Hanover to English throne
-Spanish decline: diversion of government resources-sons had thrones in Italy,
allowed nobility and provinces to assert privileges against the monarchy, not
until Charles III did Spain have a monarch concerned with internal
improvement
I. Louis XIV’s Legacy
o Mixed legacy: wars had left death and destruction sapping the nation’s resources
o Established a self image of life in a pursuit of military glory
o Centralization policies inhibited representation and self-government
o Aristocracy had been domesticated at Versailles, no leaders or ministers
o BUT, laid groundwork for a new French Empire in Asia and North America
o Absolutism: gov’t not as absolute as some historians and Louis wanted it to behis absolutism functioned primarily in the classc areas of European state action
(war, religion, ECON) but still allowed the local elites to control the local level
o Firmly prevented limiting of authority on the national level
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I. The Maritime Powers
A. Overview: In W. Europe Britain and Spain became dominant powers representing
a shift away from Spain and the United Netherlands=became politically and
militarily marginal during the 18th century
B. The Netherlands: Golden Age to Decline
o
Seven provinces that became the United Provinces of the
Netherlands emerged as a new state recognized by European powers in the 1580s
o
Netherlands won formal independence in the Treaty of
Westphalia (1648)
o
Warfare forged identity of the Nlands: independence
wars from Spain, naval wars with England, defense against the armies of Louis
XIV
o
William III- stadtholder of Holland, the most important
of the nlands, led the entire European coalition against France assuming the
English throne with his wife Mary, daughter of James II
o
Political life:
o
other major nations pursued paths toward strong
central gov’t (monarchies in France, parliament in England). Nlands were
formally a republic, States General-central gov’t met in the Hague,
exercised authority through negotiations with the provinces
o
Holland dominated the States General, the
Dutch distrusted monarchy ambitions of the House of Orange and William
III
o
When confronted with military challenges Dutch
let the House of Orange take control
o
Religious life

Extensive religious toleration, Calvinist
was the official religion

Became haven for Jews driven out from
spain
Urban Prosperity
o
Amazing economic
prosperity-high standard of living
o
Econ based on
urbanization, transformed agriculture, trade and overseas commercial empire
o
Urbanization: more ppl
lived in cities than in any other part of Europe, made possible key
transformations in Dutch farming, diversified into cultivation of cash
products-tulips, supplied textiles
o
Advanced financial
system: Amsterdam was financial capitol-shares traded easily in the market
o
Commercial empire:
Dutch East Indies Company displaced Portuguese dominance in the spice
trade
2. Economic Decline
o
After death of William III, local provinces prevented emergence of
strong stadtholder- political leadership vanished
o
Naval supremacy steadily passed to British-lost tech superiority in
shipbuilding, fishing industry declined
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o
British used own vessels in Baltic trade with Russia, no need for
Dutch ships
o
Stagnation in domestic industries-disunity of provinces hastened
decline
o
Continued financial dominance in banking saved the Nlands from
being completely insignificant-France and England had horrible stock
speculation
C. France after Louis XIV
o France remained great power after War of the Spanish Succession, largest
European pop,., advanced economy and administrative structure
o Other major states had drained resources after Louis’s wars
o Louis XIV succeeded by Louis XV who was ruled by his regent uncle, Duke of
Orleans, marked by financial and moral scandals
1. John Law and the Mississippi Bubble
o Duke of Orleans was a gambler, turned financial management to John Lawa mathematician and fellow gambler
o Believed increase in money supply would stimulate France’s economic
recovery-established a bank in Paris that issued paper money
o Organized a monopoly, Mississippi Company, on trading privileges with the
French colony of Louisiana in NA
o Mississippi Company took over management of debt, issued shares of own
stock in exchange for gov’t bonds, Law encouraged speculation in
Mississippi Company stock
o Stock rose handsomely, smart investors sold their stock for paper money and
exchanged it for gold, but the bank lacked gold to redeem all the money
o Mississippi Bubble burst, all gold payments halted in 1720, fiasco brought
disgrace on the gov’t, fear of speculation and paper money marked French
economic life for decades
2. Renewed Authority of the Parlements
o Duke of Orleans drew French nobility into decision-making process of the
gov’t, Louis XIV had filled ministries and bureaucracies with non-nobles
o Regent tried to restore a balance setting up a system of councils on which
nobles served along with bureaucrats
o Nobility failed after years of idle domestication at Versailles, but tried to
limit the power of the monarchy
o Parlements-most effective tool in process of limiting power of monarchy,
courts dominated by the nobility, different from English Parliament-had
power to recognize legality of an act of the monarch
o Louis XIV had restricted uncooperative parlements
o Duke approved full reinstitution of the parlements’ power to allow or
disallow laws, allowing aristocratic judicial institutions to reassert authority
becoming centers for resistance to royal authority
3. Administration of Cardinal Fleury
o Cardinal Fleury becomes chief minister of the French court in 1726
o Last of the great clerics who loyally/effectively served monarchy
o Similar to Richelieu and Mazarin, he was a realist working to undue the
nobility’s influence, determined to keep the peace
o Surrounded with able assistance who repudiated part of the national debt,
gave new industries special privileges, expanding infrastructure
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Nation prospered, but not enough tax revenues from the nobles/church put
the state on an unstable financial footing
o Fleury died failing to stop France intervening in the Austria-Prussia War,
undid all his financial growth
o Didn’t train Louis XV to be an effective monarch, was not willing to work
long hours, didn’t choose many wise advisers, led a scandalous, mediocre
life
o The absence of political leadership plagued France
D. Great Britain: The Age of Walpole
o Britain emerged as victor over Louis XIV, needed a period of recovery
1. The Hanoverian Dynasty
o In 1714, the HD designated by the Act of Settlement took the throne
o George I faced a challenge to the throne in Stuart pretender James Edward, the
son of James II
o George I defeated the Scottish forces
2. Whigs and Tories
o
At end of Queen Anne’s reign, sharp divisions between political factions of
Whigs and Tories occurred over whether to end the war with France
o
Tories-urged rapid peace and opened negotiations with France
o
Whigs-sought favor from George I, unsympathetic to Tories peace policy
o
Tories opened talks with Stuart pretender, a few rallied to his cause
o
George I favored Whigs on arrival to Britain
o
Major differences in principle: Tories emphasized strong monarchy, low
taxes for landowners, and firm support of the Anglican Church. Whigs supported
monarchy but with Parliament having final sovereignty, favored urban commercial
interests, and religious toleration toward Protestant noncomformists
o
Organization: not like modern political parties, outside P., parties consisted
of local connections and ECON influence,few nat’l spokesmen, the chief difference
between groups became that one group had access to public office and patronage and
one did not
o
Hanoverian proscription of the Tories was a prominent feature of the
age
3. Leadership of Robert Walpole
o
Political situation after 1715 remained in flux until Robert Walpole took
over
o
Gained prominence after a British financial scandal similar Mississippi
Bubble
o
The South Sea Company crashed in 1720, and P. under Walpole intervened
to save the financial integrity of the country
o
George I gave Walpole his full confidence-regarded as the first prime
minister of Great Britain
o
Originator of the cabinet system of gov’t-demanded consensus b/t ministers
on cabinet on policy
o
Real sources of his power came from personal support from the king, ability
to handle House of Commons, control of gov’t patronage-bought support for himself,
corruption supplied political loyalty
o
Favorite slogan was “Let sleeping dogs lie”-resembled Cardinal Fleury in
support of peace and the status quo
4. Structure of Parliament
o
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o
Structure of the House of Commons aided Walpole in pacific policies
o
Was not democratic or representative body, each county of Britain elected
two members
o
BUT most members elected from boroughs-units of property that were large
enough to elect a member of P.
o
The Pitt family bought up pieces of property attached to boroughs and owned
seats in the House of Commons
o
This structure of P. allowed wealth landowning nobles to dominate the gov’
o
Didn’t represent people/districts but public opinion
o
Suspicious of bureaucracy and dimished noble influence
o
Supremacy of P. gave Britain the unity that a strong monarch provided
elsewhere
o
Helped strengthen financial position of Britain-raised vast sums of tax
revenue and loans, all Britons paid taxes with no exemptions, credit market secured
through the Bank of England-cornerstone of British power
5. Freedom of Political Life
o
Real limits on power of Robert Walpole, P. couldn’t ignore popular
pressure
o
P. maintained independent views, newspapers/public debates flourished,
freedom of speech exercised, no large standing army, Tories openly opposed the
Whigs and Walpole
o
Excise tax-scheme presented by Walpole that resembled a modern sales taxoutcry on public platforms was so great that the measure was withdrawn
o
Traditional political rights raised a real and potent barrier to the power of the
gov.
o
Public outcry over Spanish treatment of British merchants pushed Britain
into a war that Walpole opposed
o
Walpole left office in 1742
II. Central and Eastern Europe and the Ottoman Empire
A. Overview: Changes in power structure of Central and Eastern Europe involved
changes in borders or rulers-the political structure fo this region was “soft”-constant
warfare had let to a habit of shifting political loyalties with princes and aristocracies
unwilling to submit to a central authority. Russia, Austria, and Russia achieved power as a
result of the political decay of Sweden, Poland, and the Ottoman Empire
B. Sweden: The Ambitions of Charles XII
o Under Gustavus Adolphus, Sweden played important role in the TYW, secured
control of the Baltic, possessing one of the better armies in Europe, but with a weak
economy based primarily on the export of iron
o Charles XII comes to throne in 1697, headstrong and insane
o Russia begins drive west against Swedish territory
o Great Northern War-Charles leads vigorous/brillian campaign but eventually leads
to defeat of Sweden-Sweden exhausts resources and loses monopoly of the Baltic
coast
o Prussia and Russia gain territory
o Swedish nobles determined to reassert power, Sweden plays minor role in affairs
C. The Ottoman Empire
o
Largest and most stable political entity to arise in Europe after collapse of the
Roman Empire
o
Achieved power between 11th and 16th centuries
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o
Dominant political power in Muslim world with diverse pop. of Christians and
Jews from Spain
o
Considerable religious toleration
o
Ottoman sultans governed empire through millets- units of officially recognized
religious communities
o
Dhimmis-non-Islamic persons in empire could practice religion through own
religious officials but were 2nd-class citizens who paid a special poll tax (jizyah) and were
restricted in privileges
o
Acquired economic success because they possessed highest level of commercial
skills
o
Dynasty kept itself separate from most powerful families of the empire by
recruiting military leaders and officers who were personally loyal to them
o
Devshirme-practice where Ottomans recruited most elite troops from Christian
communities-boys raised as Muslims and organized into elite units-most famous called
Janissaries-as a result members of elite Islamic families were not part of the gov’t
o
Few people from the socially leading families gained power in the central
institutions, mostly foreigners/slaves who filled government posts that achieved major
political influence and status
o
Strong role of religion in political affairs: dynasty saw itself as protector of
Islamic law-Shari’a and Sunni traditions of the Islamic faith
o
Ulama-Islamic scholars that dominated political matters in the “circle of equity”,
the sultan would consult with Islamic scholars for advice, the Ulama would support the
Ottoman state deferring to their judgements: From the Late 17th century onward, the
Ulama urged Ottoman rulers to conform to traditional life even as the empire
confronted a rapidly changing and modernizing Europe
o
Janissaries also resisted any changes that might undermine their status
o
After defeat at the Battle of Lepanto, the empire made deepest military invasion
to the unsuccessful besiegement of Vienna
o
Authority of the Grand Vizier, 2nd in command to the sultan began to grow,
rivalries for power weakened effectiveness of the government
o
Factors for decline: local elites assert influence, European advances in military
prowess, technology, and wealth that allowed them to take back control of territory from
the Ottomans
o
Russian and a League of European states defeated the Ottomans
o
Isolationalism occurred in the Ottomans-lack of translation, closing of schools
diminished influence of the Ottoman Empire and Islam as a backward religion
D. Poland: Absence of Strong Central Authority
o
Poland failed to maintain competitive political position in Europe
o
King John III Sobieski led Polish army to rescue Vienna from the Turkish
siege, but after that Poland became another name for the dangers of aristocratic
independence
o
Most Polish monarchs were foreigners, divisions among the nobility prevented
election of a king from themselves
o
Sejm-central legislative body of the Polish nobles, excluding representatives
from towns
o
Liberum veto-practice whereby the opposition of any single member of the Sejm
could require the Sejm to disband
o
“Exploding the diet”-practice was often work of a group of dissatisfied nobles
o
Requirement of unanimity was a major stumbling block to effective gov’t
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The price of this noble liberty would be the disappearance of Poland from the
map of Europe during the latter half of the 18th century
E. The Habsburg Empire and the Pragmatic Sanction
o Close of the TYW marked turning point in history of Austrian Habsburgs
o Previously allied with Spain, they hoped to dominate all of Germany, decline of
Spain and failure of this goal meant the Habsburgs were on their own
o After 1648, Austrian Habsburgs retained HRE, but political power depended on
cooperation that the emperor could elicit from 300 political entities in the HRE
1. Consolidation of Austrian Power
o Habsburgs consolidated power and influences with hereditary
Austrian holdings and other hereditary possessions
o Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Hungary, which came under
the Habsburg rule from the Ottoman Empire in Treaty of
Carlowitz
o Habsburgs extended domains receiving Spanish Nlands,
Lombardy and Naples in northern Italy, basing their power and
influence in territories outside of Germany
o Problems in hereditary territories: ruled each by a different
title requiring cooperation of local nobility, no common basis
for political unity among diverse pop.
o Established central councils to char common policies for farflung domains, bargained with nobles to maintain position
o Most difficult nobles were the largely Calvinist Magyar
nobility in Hungary
o Leopold I: rallied domains to resist Ottomans and Louis XIVachieved Ottoman recog. Of Hungary, began suppression of
Magyar rebellion that lasted from 1703-1708
o Conquered Balkan Peninsula and W. Romania, developed
Mediterranean trade and domination over the Ottoman Empire
o Leopold was succeeded by Joseph I who continued his policies
2. The Habsburg Dynastic Problem
o When Charles VI succeeded Joseph, had no male heir
o Charles feared on his death the Austrian Habsburg lands may
fall prey to surrounding powers-devoted reign to seek approval
of the Pragmatic Sanction
o Pragmatic Sanction: provided legal basis for a single line of
inheritance within the H. dynasty through Charles’s daughter
Maria Theresa-nobles and other members of the family recog.
o Failed to protect daughter from foreign aggression-Frederick II
of Prussia invaded the Habsburg province of Silesia
F. Prussia and the Hohenzollerns
1.
Overview: Habsburg achievement had been to draw together into
an uncertain legal unity a collection of separate feudal domains. The achievement of
the Hohenzollerns was to acquire a similar collection and forge them into a centrally
administered unit-subordinated every social class and economic pursuits to the
strength of the army. Term Prussian became synonymous with administrative rigor
and military discipline
2.
A State of Disconnected Territories
Story of the extraordinary Hohenzollern family, ruled Brandenburg since 1417
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Through inheritance and end of the TYW, Hohenzollerns received a scattered
block of holdings second in size only to that of the Habsburgs
3. Frederick William, the Great Elector
o Person forged these separated regions into a modern state was Frederick
William, known as the Great Elector
o “elector”-ruler of Brandenburg, one of the princes who elected the HR emp.
o Established strong monarchy by breaking the noble estates, bureaucracy, and
strong army
o 1655-1660, Sweden and Poland fought a war that endangered the Elector’s
holdings
o Frederick collected taxes through sheer military force, coerced/threatened the
nobility
o Important political/social trade-off: in exchange for nobles’s obedience, the
Hohenzollerns, the Junkers received the right to demand obedience from
their serfs and administer the taxes
4. Frederick William I, King of Prussia
Hohenzollerns didn’t possess a crown, Frederick I the son of the least Elector
was a patron of the arts, built palaces, and lived luxuriously
When War of Spanish Succession broke out, he put his army at disposal fo the
HRE in exchange for the title of “King in Prussia”
Frederick became Frederick I, passed title to son Frederick William I
Frederick William I: political aims: consolidation of bureaucracy and
establishment of a bigger army, Kabinett government: lower officials
submitted all relevant documents to his office, or Kabinett
Ruled alone skirting the influence of ministers
Bureaucracy: organized along military lines, united all dpts. under General
Directory-imposed taxes on nobility, transformed feudal loyalties into duties
to the monarch as a political institution, personal servous to the state was to
be impersonal, mechanical, and unquestioning
5. The Prussian Army
o During Frederick William’s reign, size of army grew from 39,000-80,000
o 3rd/4th largest army in Europe, only 13th in pop. Size
o FWI always wore a uniform-made each canton/local district supply a quota
of soldiers
o Officer Corps became the highest social class of the state
o Military service attracted the sons of the Junkers
o Military priorities and values dominated Prussian life, whereas other
nations possessed armies, the Prussian army possessed its nation
o FWI avoided conflict, the army was a symbol of Prussian power, not foreign
interventionism
o Passed throne to son Frederick II, “the Great”
o Frederick II upset the Pragmatic Sanction, invaded Silesia, and started the
Austrian-Prussian rivalry for control of Germany and dominance in central
European affairs for over a century
III. Russia Enters the European Political Arena
A. Overview: Emergence of Russia as an active European power was a new factor in
European politics, did not send permanent ambassadors to western Europe before 1673 hemmed
in by Sweden on the Baltic and the Ottomans on the Black sea, Russia had no good ports,
possessed vast reserve of natural and human resources
B. Birth of the Romanov Dynasty
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o Reign of Ivan the Terrible followed by anarchy and civil war known as the
“Time of Troubles”
o Nobles elected 17-year-old Michael Romanov as tsar to restore stability
Dynasty ruled Russia until 1917
o Michael Romanov and two successors, Aleksei and Theodore II brough stability
and modest bureaucratic entralization
o country remained weak and poor, bureaucracy still largely controlled by the
boyars-the old nobility
o Administration could barely suppress a revolt of the peasants and Cossacks
(horsemen who lived on the steppe frontier) under Stepan Razin
o Gov’t and tsar faced danger of mutiny from the streltsy, guards of Moscow
C. Peter the Great
o Another 10-year old boy ascended the throne with his half brother
o Peter and sickly Ivan V came to power by the streltsy-expected reward
o Violence and bloodshed surrounded the succession, Sophia, the sister was named
regent-overthrown by Peter’s followers
o Peter ruled personally learning two things: 1-power of tsar must be secure from
the boyars and the streltsy. 2-military power must be increased
o Resembled Louis XIV of France, experienced early turmoil in the Fronde,
resolved to establish a strong monarchy safe from the nobility with strong army
o Northwestern Europe fascinated Peter the Great, Peter imitated modern
civilization, took multiple trips abroad visiting shipyards of other countries
D. Taming the STRETSY and BOYARS
o Prior to Peter’s return from abroad, the streltsy rebelled
o Peter brutally suppressed the revolt with private tortures and public executions1000 rebels put to death and public displayed
o Introduced effective and ruthless policies of drafting-130,000 troops drafted
during the first decade of the 18th century and almost 300,000 troops at end of
reign
o Adopted policies for the officer corps and military discipline patterned on W.
European armies
o Sustained attack on boyars and their attachment to traditional Russian culture:
After European journey, he personally shaved off beards of the court boyars and
sheared off the customary long sleeves of their clothing
o Stopped granting boyar status to new individuals
o Didn’t consult boyars on major policy decisions, balanced one group of nobility
against another to organized Russian gov’t and military
E. Developing a Navy
o Described as “Peter the Great’s most revolutionary innovation”
o Creation of navy was part of Peter’s strategy to secure warm-water ports
o Oversaw construction of ships to protect interests in the Black Sea against Ottom.
o Began war with the Ottomans capturing Azov on the Black Sea
o Construction of Baltic fleet with better warships was essential in the Great
Northern War won by Russia against Sweden
F. Russian Expansion In the Baltic: The Great Northern War
o After TYW, Sweden controlled Baltic, only permitting Polish and German access
o Peter the Great began drive to the west against Sweden, after Charles XII came to
the throne
o
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o Peter defeated Swedes after battle dragged on in Battle of Poltava, Peace of
G.
H.
I.
J.
Nystad confirmed Russian conquest of Estonia, Livonia, and part of Finland
o Possessed ice-free ports and permanent influence on European affairs
Founding St. Petersburg
o Domestic and foreign policies intersected
o On Gulf of Finland, he founded his new capital city of St. Petersburg
o Imitated Louis XIV by constructing smaller versions of Versailles-symbolized
new Western orientation of Russia
o Sent signal that Russia was determined to be involved in European politics,
began construction before victory over Sweden was assured
o Russians saw St. Petersburg as an illegitimate growth on traditional Russian life
and government
Reorganizing Domestic Administration
o Peter created a Senate of nine members replaced the former Privy Chancellery
directed all aspects of gov’t while the tsar was away with the army
o Purpose was to establish a bureaucratic structure that could support an efficient
military establishment
o Senate intended to represent authority of the tsar against court nobles
The Case of Peter’s Son Aleksei
o Born to his first wife, who Peter divorced
o Peter was jealous of the young man, feared leksei might undertake sedition
o Peter was convinced his opponents looked to Aleksei as a possible ally
o Aleksei undertook secret visit to Vienna where he enetered into a military plot
with the Habsburg emperor Charles VI against Peter in the Great Northern War
o Nothing came of the conspiracy, Aleksei returns to Russia surrounded by rumors
and suspicion
o Found that Aleksei was a rallying point for numerous Russian nobles,
administrators and churchmen against him
o Peter discovered Aleksei’s conspiracy with Charles VI, Peter personally
interrogated Aleksei and was condemned to death
o The case of the tsar’s son had enormous ramifications for the rest of his reign
Reforms of Peter the Great’s Final Years
o Interrogations surrounding Aleksei revealed the great degree of court opposition
o Peter undertook radical administrative reforms to bring the nobility and the
Russian Orthodox Church more closely under the authority of persons loyal to
the tsar
o “The case of Aleksei was the greatest spur to Peter’s reform in the history of the
reign, greater even than the Northern War,” historian
1. Administrative Colleges
o Peter reorganized domestic administration to fight rampant corruption
o Colleges-bureaus of people operating according to written instructions rather
than dpts. headed by a single minister modeled after the Swedish
o Colleges, 8 of them were to look after collection of taxes, foreign relations,
war, and economic affairs
o Impact: balanced nobles and persons personally loyal to himself
2. Table of Ranks
o Table of Ranks-reform intended to draw the nobility into state service
o Equated person’s social position with rank in the bureaucracy or military,
rather than with his lineage among the social hierarchy
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o Peter made the social standing of boyars a function of their willingness to
serve the state
Nobility never became perfectly loyal to the state, sought to reassert their
independence
3. Achieving Secular Control of the Church
o Peter moved to suppress independence of the Russian Orthodox Church
o History of the church: in mid-17th century reformist movement led by
Patriarch Nikon introduced changes in church texts and rituals. A group of
Russian Orthodox Christians, Old Believers, opposed changes. Thousands
of Old believers committed suicide rather than submit to the new rituals. In
response to this traditionalist opposition, church leaders advocated popular
preaching and a more Western form of clerical edu. Including the teaching of
Latin. They were modernizers like Peter but moved too slowly to please the
tsar
o Tsar appointed own bishops, mostly Ukrainians trained in European schools,
bishops objected to Peter’s influence on religious matters
o These objections lay behind their sympathy to the tsar’s son
o After Aleksei’s death, Peter curtailed the capacity of the Church to oppose
his interference in its affair
o Abolished position of the patriarch, the bishop who headed the church
o In its place, established a gov’t dept. called the Holy Synod, consisting of
several bishops headed by a layman, called the procurator general
o This body governed the church in accordance with the tsar’s secular
requirements
o This ecclesiastical reorganization drawing on German/Lutheran models was
the most radical transformation of a traditional institution in Peter’s reign
o Produced further opposition from the Old Believers, stood in sharp contrast
to the Ottoman sultan’s contemporary policy of deference to the Muslim
Ulama
o No successor, when he died in 1725 there was no clear line of succession to
the throne
o For more than 30 years, soldiers and nobles again determined who ruled
Russia
o Peter had laid the foundations of a modern Russia, but not the foundation of a
stable state
o
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I. Major Features of Life in the Old Regime
o Socially pre-revolution Europe was based on aristocratic elites possessing privileges,
established churches, labor force organized into guilds, rural peasantry subject to high
taxes-A.K.A. OLD REGIME
A. Maintenance of Tradition
o Social: Past traditions more important than new ideas
o Nobles asserted ancient rights against the monarchical bureaucracies
o Peasants called for revival of manorial rights
o Economic: Outside of the industrial development in Britain, the 18th century economy
was predominantly traditional: quality/quantity of the grain harvest was most important
B. Hierarchy and Privilege
o Medieval sense of rank and degree became more rigid during the century
o Sumptuary laws-regulated the dress of different classes-made social hierarchy easily
visible
o Lack of “individual rights”, emphasis on “community” rights (nobility, church,
guilds)
II. The Aristocracy
A. Overview: The 18th century was the great age of the aristocracy-nobility constituted
about 1-5% of pop., nobility was single wealthiest sector and had the most power, nobility had
their own separate legislative bodies. Land provided aristocrats their most power. Influence of
nobility felt throughout social and economic life: economic innovation, willingness to change.
B. Varieties of Aristocratic Privilege-common thread: to be an aristocrat was a mater
of birth and legal privilege
1. British Nobility
o Smallest, wealthiest, and most socially responsible aristocracy in Europe
o 400 families, eldest males sat in House of Lords, through corruption of electoral system
(boroughs) also controlled seats in House of Commons
o Owned ¼ of all arable land in the country
o Invested in industrial and commercial ventures
o Indirect/direct control of local gov’t gave them immense political and social influence
o Aristocracy dominated society and politics, country houses-centers for local society
2. French nobility
o Division between nobles “of the sword”-derived from military service and
“of the robe”-titles from serving in bureaucracy or purchased
o Two groups cooperated in 18th century to defend their rights
o Division between nobles in favor with royal court and those who did not
o Court nobility: reaped immense wealth, controlled appts to the church, and
established court circles of privilege
o Hobereaux-provincial nobility, no better than wealthy peasants
o Common noble privileges: exemption from taxes (taille, land tax-basic
tax of the Old Regime, but liable for payment of the vingtieme-twentieth,
resembled an income tax but they rarely payed in full, not liable for the royal
corvees either), \collected feudal dues, enjoyed hunting/fishing privileges
3. Eastern European Nobilities
o East of Elbe R., character of nobility is more complicated and repressive
o Military traditions of the aristocracy remained important
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o Poland: Szlachta-thousands of nobles in Poland who were exempt from
taxes, possessed right of life over serfs, most Polish nobles were poor, a few
rich nobles controlled all power
o Austria/Hungary: nobility possessed judicial powers in manorial courts,
exemption from taxation, Prince Esterhazy-wealthiest noble owned >land
o Prussia: After accession of Frederick the Great, the Junker nobles became
much stronger, wars required their support, all officers were from the Junker
class, made up the bureaucracy, judicial authority
o Russia: Creation of the nobility-Peter’s linking of state service and noble
social status through the Table of Ranks established among nobles a selfconscious class identity that had not previously existed, resisted compulsory
state service, in Charter of the Nobility, Catherine the Great legally defined
the rights and privileges of the nobility, exemption from taxes, judicial power
C. Aristocratic Resurgence
o Russian Charter of the Nobility constituted an aspect of the broader Europeanwide development termed the ARISTOCRATIC RESURGENCE-nobility’s
reaction to the threat to their social position and privileges they felt from the
expanding power of the monarchies
o Several forms: First, nobles preserved exclusiveness by making it more difficult
to become a noble; Second, nobles reserved appts to officer corps, bureaucracies,
and gov’t ministries exclusively for the nobles; Third, nobles used
aristocratically controlled institutions against the power of the monarch-British
parliament, French parlements, estates and provincial diets in Eastern
Europe; Fourth, nobility improved financial position by gaining further
exemptions from taxes, collecting feudal dues
III. The Land and its Tillers
A. Overview: Land was the economic basis of 18th century life and foundation ofhe status
and power of the nobility. Over ¾ of Europe lived in the country
B. Peasants and Serfs
o Free peasants-English tenants and French cultivators differed from the serfsGermany, Austria, and Russia who were bound to a particular land and lord
o The class that owned the most land controlled the local gov’t and courts
o GB: all farmers and tenants and legal rights, justices of peace who presided
over county courts/militia were substantial landowners
o Eastern Europe: landowners presided over the manorial courts
1. Obligations of Peasants
o Power of landowners increased from West to East
o French peasants were subject to certain feudal dues-banalites, included
use-for-payment of the lord’s, or seigneur’s, equipment, corvee required
certain number of days of labor
o Prussia/Austria-landowners exercised complete control over serfs,
Habsburg-serfs were required to provide service, robot, to the lords
o Russia-serfs were worst off here, nobles reckoned wealth by the number
of “souls” or male serfs, regarded as commodities. Barschina-six days a
week of labor, Serfdom was compared to slavery
o Ottoman Empire-peasants were free, domain of landlords termed cift,
landlords became more commercial oriented-cash crops
o Scarcity of labor supported independence of SE European peasantspeasants migrated from one landlord to another
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Disorder in Constantinople: landlords offered peasants protection,
peasants became dependent on the landlords
2. Peasant Rebellions
o Russian monarchy influence: further degraded serfs-Peter the Great
gave whole villages to nobility, Catherine the Great confirmed authority
of nobles over serfs
o Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773-1775)-culmination of unrest when
Emelyan Pugachev promised the serfs land of their own and freedom, all
of S. Russia was in turmoil until the gov’t brutally suppressed the
rebellion
o Pugachev’s was the largest peasant uprising in the 18th century
o Smaller disturbances took place in Eastern Europe
o Almost no revolts in Western Europe, only rural riots-violent, serfs
directed wrath against property, conservative in nature
C. Aristocratic Domination of the Countryside: The English Game Laws
o Clearest example of aristocratic domination of the countryside was English
legislation on hunting
o 1671-1831: English landowners had the exclusive legal right to hunt game
animals, killing of game animals became a capital offense if you didn’t have
enough landed property
o Poor excluded because the elite believed hunting would undermine their work
o Merchants excluded because P. wanted to demonstrate landed wealth over
commercial wealth
o Gamekeepers and gentry benefited from laws, shot poachers/protected game
o Poaching and the black market: high demand for luxury meat, poaching for
profit, higglers-also known as coachmen middlemen who would buy the game
from villages and smuggle them into the cities
o English aristocrats began to construct large game preserves, rural poor resented
these/became hunting grounds to organized gangs of poachers
o Penalties against poaching increased-bad economic times put greater burden on
the poor and demand for poaching increased
o Landowners and reformers called for change in the law-landowners could allow
other people to hunt on their land, but still retained their possession of game
IV. Family Structures and the Family Economy
o Household was basic unit of production and consumption
o House hold mode of organization dominated on farms, artisan’s wkshps, merchant’s
shops
o This mode of economic organization became known as the family economy
A. Households-2 basic models, one of NW Europe and E Europe
1. Northwester Europe
o Household consisted of married couple, children through early teens, and
servants-small in size with not more than 5,6 members
o Multiple generations of a family rarely lived under the same roof
o High mortality and late marriage prevented formations of 3 generations
o The family structure of NW Europe was nuclear, not extended
o Children lived with parents only until early teens-left for work/apprenticeship
o Neolocalism- practice of moving away from home, marrying and forming
household of their own
o Premarital sex common, pregnancy at marriage, illegitimate births rare
o
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o Couple would employ a servant-person hired to work for the head of the
o
o
o
o
household in exchange for room, board and wages, usually young but not socially
inferior, integral part of the family
o The young became servants outside of the family-8,10 years, accounted for late
age of marriage in NW Europe
2. Eastern Europe
Earlier marriage, wives were older than husbands
Larger households-more than 9 members, multiple generations under same roof
Marrying wasn’t starting a new household, but expansion of the old
Landholding structure’s impact: lords of the manor wanted serfs to multiply and cultivate
land, inhibiting the formation of independent households
B. The Family Economy
o Impossible for ordinary ppl to support themselves independently
o Ppl outside the household were viewed with suspicion, hostile toward beggars
o Everyone in household worked
o Goods and income went to benefit of the household
o Farm: Men would work outside of farm, women and children on the farm
o Urban artisans: father was chief artisan, employed servants and children, eldest
trained in the trade, wives sold his wares
o Death of father brought disaster to the economy of the household
o Personal, emotional, and economic vulnerability of family emphasized
o E Europe-serfdom and landlord domination caused a village structure that mitigated
the pressures of a family economy with a multi-generational family
o Dependence on the land was the chief fact of life
C. Women and the Family Economy
o Marriage became an economic necessity
o Women could not support herself solely by her own efforts
o By age 7, girl begins to help with the household work
o Farmer’s daughter would leave when her labor elsewhere was more helpful-12/14
o Artisan’s daughter might not leave home until marriage, learned valuable skills
o Women would then work as servants to accumulate a dowry for marriage
o Domestic duties, childbearing were subordinate to economic pressures
o Couples limited # of children-coitus interruptus-withdrawal of male before ejac.
o Wet nurses were hired so the woman could contribute to economic welfare
o Wife became manager of the household business
o Still had less opportunities/lower wages/disabilities worsened as result of the
mechanization of agriculture and the textile industries
D. Children and the World of the Family Economy
o Childbirth was time of fear/vulnerability-contagious diseases and infections
o Immense poverty and wretched housing as a result-child often sent to a wet nurse
o Economic necessity dictated it for the poor, convenience for the wealthy
o Wet-nursing industry-organized, urban children transported to wet nurses in the
country, remained there for months or years
o Infanticide-unwanted/illegitimate births increased, economic hardships
o Paris Foundling Hospital and the London Foundling Hospital expanded caring for
thousands of children
o Only 10% of all abandoned children lived to the age of 10
o New interest arose in the education of children-literacy became more valuable
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o
In Old Regime children were reared to make their contributions to the economy
o Late 19th century, world of childhood was linked to process of education-children
reared to become members of a national citizenry
V. The Revolution in Agriculture
A. The Revolution in Agriculture
o Main goal of traditional peasant society was stability in the local food supply
o Tillers resisted changes that might endanger the sure supply of food of traditional
cultivation
o Countryside was more difficult, city dwellers had reserve supplies
o Poor harvests played havoc with prices-small increases in the cost of food could
exert heavy pressure on peasant or artisan families
o During 18th century-bread prices steadily rose-spurred by pop. growth, this inflation
put pressure on all of the poor
o Rise in grain prices benefited landowners and wealthier peasants with surplus grain
o Gave landlords an opportunity for innovation
o Agricultural Revolution- series of innovations in farm production began by
landlords in western Europe
o Landlords commercialized agri., challenged trad. peasant ways of production
o Gov’t used armies and militias to smash peasants who revolted and defended
practices of the past
1. New Crops and New Methods
o Drive to improve agriculture production began during 16th/17th centuries in the
Low Countries-Dutch landlords and farmers devised better ways to build dikes,
drain land, experimented with new crops to restore soil
o Cornelius Vermuyden-Dutch drainage engineer hired by English landlords to
drain thousands of acres of land around Cambridge
o English landlords-popularized ideas developed in the previous century in Low
Countries and England
2. British Agricultural Improvers
o Jethro Tull- conducted/financed agricultural experiments-used iron plows to
turn the earth more deeply, planted wheat by a drill-methods permitted land to be
cultivated for longer periods of time
o Charles “Turnip” Townsend-learned from Dutch how to cultivate sandy soil
with fertilizer, crop rotation with wheat, turnips, barley, and clover. This new
system replaced fallow field with crop that restored nutrients to soil and supplied
animal fallow-more livestock to be raised=more manure=more food for everyone
o Robert Baker-pioneered new methods of animal breeding-more milk/meat
o Arthur Young-edited the Annals of Agriculture-traveled across Europe
documenting life and innovations during the 18th century
3. Enclosure Replaces Open-Field Method
o Agricultural innovations were incompatible with existing org. of land
o Small cultivators in village communities farmed most of the soil
o Farmers tilled assortment of unconnected strips-left large portions of land
unproductive each year
o Entire system discouraged improvement/favored poorer farmers who used
stubble fields for animals
o Village method precluded expanding land for raising livestock
o Methods of traditional production aimed at a steady, not growing, supply of food
o Appx. Half of arable land was farmed by open-filed method
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o
Rising price of wheat encouraged landlords to consolidate/enclose their lands
o Enclosures-the process of fencing of common lands, reclamation of untilled
waste, and transformation of strips into block fields that was intended to use land
more rationally and achieve greater commercial profits
o Impact-Brought turmoil to Econ/social life of countryside, riots ensued,
permitted extension of farming/innovation and increased food production, but
disrupted small traditional communities and forced off independent farmers,
increased pop. of countryside as services subsidiary to farming increased
o Landlords resorted to P. acts to legalize enclosure of land, which they owned but
rented to the farmers
o 500,000 acres enclosed through acts of P. b/t 1761-1792
o Enclosures displayed an entrepreneurial or capitalistic attitude of the urban
merchant into the countryside-this commercialization of agriculture
strained the paternal relationship between the governing and governed
o Previously landlords looked after welfare of lower orders through price
controls/waivers of rent. Now, landlords became concerned about profits and left
the peasants to the mercy of the marketplace
4. Limited Improvements in Eastern Europe
o Western Europe-efficient Dutch farming, enclosures restricted in France
o Prussia, Austria, Poland, and Russia-agricultural improvements was limited
o Relationships of serfs to lords didn’t encourage innovation
o Chief method of increasing production was to bring untilled lands under the plow
o Landlords sought to squeeze more labor not more productivity from the soil
o Only significant nutritional gain was the introduction of maize and potato
o Livestock production did not increase significantly
B. Expansion of the Population
o In 1700, European pop. was between 100 and 120 million
o By 1800 the figure had risen to almost 190 million
o Expanding pop. fueled demand for agricultural innovation and Industrial Revolution
o Causes of growth: fewer wars, fewer epidemics with improved hygiene and
sanitation and better medical knowledge, changes in the food supply including
expanded grain production and cultivation of the potato
o Potato-product of the New World, on a single acre enough potatoes could be raised
to feed one family for an entire year
o Impact of the Population explosion: created new demands for food, goods, jobs,
and services, provided new pool of labor, traditional methods were revised, migration
increased, social and political discontent rose, society and the social practices of the
Old Regime literally outgrew their traditional bounds
VI. The Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century
o Second half of 18th century-beginning of the industrialization of the European economy
o Industrial Revolution-period of sustained economic growth through industrialization
o Previous-growth would plateau, now-Western economies continue to grow
o At social cost, industrialization made possible the production of more goods/services
o Overcame the economy of scarcity
o New means of production demanded new skills, discipline, and large labor force
o Goods met immediate consumer demand and created new demands
o Impact: raised standard of living, overcame the poverty most Europeans had taken for
granted, gave humans greater control over the forces of nature, lead to environmental
problems as well
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o Term Revolution only applied to British economic phenomenon after the French
Revolution, when writers observed that Industrial Revolution was the economic
equivalent of the political events in France
o Revolutionary less in speed but in its implications for the future of European society
A. Revolution in Consumption
o Invention of new machinery, factories, new kind of work force
o New emphasis on the demand side of process for goods and services
o Inventions increased supply of consumer goods, which was created by an
unprecedented demand for the humble goods of everyday life
o Social Factors: Dutch enjoyed enormous prosperity and desired everyday
consumption and luxury goods, people became to have more disposable incomes
allowing people to buy consumer goods expanding the various domestic markets
in Europe
o Speed-revolution was not automatic, new methods of marketing caused Rev to
happen
o Josiah Wedgwood-porcelain manufacture produced luxury goods for nobility,
less expensive version for middle-class customers, used advertising: showrooms
and had salesppl travel with samples and catalogs equipping them with bilingual
catalogs-no limit to the markets for goods
o Change in style was institutionalized: new fashions/inventions were better,
new kinds of goods always had a market, challenges to social assumptions-new
things became staples of everyday life
o Critics of consumer economy: vision of luxury/comfort contrasted with
asceticism of Sparta and contemporary Christian ethics
o The importance of the desire for consumer goods and the increasing
material standard of living cannot be stressed enough-the presence and
accessibility of goods became the hallmark of a nation’s prosperity
B. Industrial Leadership of Great Britain
o Great Britain was the home of the Industrial Revolution-maintained the industrial
leadership of Europe
o Factors to early start in Britain:
1. London was center of style and fashion-ppl exposed to consumer goods,
newspapers allowed advertising for consumer wants
2. British economy was best-demand from colonies in NA, single largest freetrade area in Europe, good infrastructure, rich deposits of coal/iron ore
3. Stable Political structure-property secure, sound systems of finances,
efficient/fair taxation, no pattern of privileged tax exemptions
4. Mobility of British society-Persons with money could rise socially, persons of
wealth not admitted to the aristocracy could enjoy social prominence
5. Together with the progressive state of agriculture, provided Britain with the
advantage to create a new mode of economic production
C. New Methods of Textile Production
o Industry that pioneered IR was production of textiles for clothing
o Provided key example of industrialism emerging to supply the demands of an evergrowing market for everyday goods
o Earliest industrial change took place in cities not the countryside
o Manufacturing permeated rural areas-peasant family living in a cottage was the basic
unit of production
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o Domestic system of textile production-agents of urban textile merchants took fibers
to homes of peasants who spun the thread, the agent transported thread to other
peasants who wove it into finished product, the merchants sold the wares
o Bottlenecks developed within the domestic system-demand outgrew production
o Inventors devised most famous machines in response to this rising consumer demand
1. The Spinning Jenny
o Invented by James Hargreaves in 1765, allowed multiple spindles of thread to
be spun, increased to as many as 120 spindles
o Spinners didn’t have equipment to produce as much thread as cotton weavers
needed-cotton textile weavers had the technical capacity to produce the quantity
of fabric demanded
o John Kay’s invention of the flying shuttle which increased the productivity of the
weavers had created this imbalance between weavers vs. spinners
2. The Water Frame
o Patented by Richard Arkwright in 1769
o Water-powered device designed to permit the production of a purely cotton
fabric, rather than a cotton fabric containing linen fiber for durability
o Arkwright lost his patent rights, other manufacturers could use his invention
freely-factories sprang up in countryside near streams
o Cotton industry could meet an ever-expanding demand-composed 40% of the
value of British domestic exports
o Full economic and social ramifications of this unleashing of human productive
capacity were not really felt until the early 19th century
o Edmund Cartwright-invented the power loom for machine weaving
o the steam engine, perfected by James Watt could be applied to the running of
textile machinery and vastly increased and regularized available energy making
possible the combination of urbanization and industrialization
D. The Steam Engine
o Provided for 1st time in human history a steady/unlimited source of inanimate power
o Driven by coal, provided a portable source of industrial power
o Could be applied to many industrial/transportation uses
o First practical engine of steam power by Thomas Newcomen-machine was large and
inefficient, but was used by mine operators
o James Watt-experimented with Newcomen machine-separated condenser from
piston and cylinder achieving greater efficiency, by 19th century the steam engine had
revolutionized transportation
E. Iron Production
o Manufacture of high-quality iron was basic to modern industrial development
o Chief element of heavy industry and land or sea transport
o 3 factors held back production of metal: charcoal rather than coke was used to
smelt ore, until perfection of steam engine insufficient blasts could be achieved,
demand for iron was limited
o British ironmakers began to use coke and the steam engine solving the 3rd problem
o Henry Cort-introduced a new puddling process, method for melting and stirring
molten ore, allowed impurities to be removed and purer iron to be produced, also
developed a rolling mill that continuously shaped the still-molten metal into bars,
rails, or other forms
o All innovations achieved better, more versatile product at lower cost-causing
increased demand in iron and steam engines
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o
o
F. Impact of Agricultural/Industrial Revolutions on Working Women
o Diminished importance and role of women in the work force
o Women had important role in traditional European agricultural: worked in fields,
gleaned grain after harvest, managed industries like milking and cheese production
o Commercialization and mechanization eroded these traditional roles-displaced work
of women, mechanized labor favored men
o Nonmechanized labor also favored men: heavy scythes wielded by men replaced
women with sickles, drives to max. profits led Landlords to curtail gleaning
o Working women displaced by spinning jenny/agricultural improvements turned to
cottage industries: knitting, bonnet making
o Domestic service became largest area of female employment
o “Defamation of Women Workers”-shift in female employment, workplaces of men
and women becoming separate and distinct by end of 18th century
o Priscilla Wakefield-English writer who believed kinds of employment open to
women had narrowed
o Impacts: women’s work became associated with the home, laboring life of women
were removed from new technologies causing people to assume women could only
do traditional work, Europeans assumed most women worked only to supplement a
spouse’s income
V. The Growth of Cities
A. Patterns of Pre-industrial Urbanization
o Growth in towns during 18th century due to tumultuous environment/revolutions
o London grew from 700,000-1 million, Paris to 500,000, St. Petersburg to 250,000
o Major urban development had plateaued in 17th century, new growth in 18th century
accelerated during turn of the 19th century
o Change from growth in already large cities to birth of new cities and rapid growth of
smaller cities
1. Growth of Capitals and Ports
o
b/t 1600-1750, capitals and ports grew most quickly, reflected
success of monarchial state and growing bureaucracies and expansion of
European trade
o
Small towns declined, contributed less to centralized political
regimes, rural labor was cheaper than urban and urban workshops moved to
country
2. Emergence of New Cities and Growth of Small Towns
Rate of growth of existing large cities declined, new cities emerged, existing smaller cities grew
Factors for “urban growth from below”: general pop. growth, IR fostered growth of smaller
towns located near factories, new prosperity of agriculture promoted growth of nearby market
towns and urban centers-more accessible to farmers and consumer goods
B. Urban Classes
o Social divisions: visible segregation b/t urban rich and poor, nobles and upper
middle class lived in fashionable town houses, poorest town dwellers lived in single
rooms or by rivers
o Reports on cities emphasized striking grace/beauty of the dwellings of wealth and the
dirt, filth, and stench that filled the streets (no sanitary facilities, no pure water)
o Poverty visible in form of crime, prostitution, begging and alcoholism
o Darkness of London life during mid-century “gin age” when consumption of liquor
killed many poor is evident in engravings of William Hogarth
1. Upper Classes
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o
Top of urban social structure was small group of nobles, large
merchants, bankers, clergy and gov’t officials
o
Upper-class constituted a self-appointed oligarchy that governed the
city
o
Rights of self-gov’t had usually been granted by a royal charter that
gave the city corporation its authority to select its own members
o
Some artisan guilds controlled the corps, but councils usually under
control of local nobility and wealthiest commercial people
2. Middle Class
o
Prosperous, but not immensely wealthy, merchants, tradespeople,
bankers and professional people
o
Most dynamic element diverse and divided
o
Less wealth than nobles, more than urban artisans
o
Merchants, lawyers and small-factory owners benefited from expanding
trade and commerce: saw themselves as economically aggressive and socially
ambitious in the rapid social nobility
o
Fostered revolution in consumption-produced and sold goods and also
expanded the consumer market
o
Relationship between middle class and aristocracy: nobles embraced
commercial spirit of middle, middle class tried to imitate lifestyle of nobles by
purchasing landed estates so the aspirations for social mobility conflicted with
determination of nobles to protect wealth and privileges
o
Middle class found pursuit of profit/prestige blocked by social
exclusiveness of nobility
o
Feared the lower class-potentially violent element, threat to property and
drain on natural resources
3. Artisans
o
Single largest group in any city
o
Conservative politically
o
Contributed to the revolution in consumption
o
Lives centered on hteir work and neighborhoods
o
Primary institution had historically been the guild, but by the 18th century
guilds rarely exercised the influence of their predecessors
o
Guilds played conservative role: tried to preserve jobs/skills of their
members, determined who could pursue a particular craft, provided a F/W for
social/economic advancement, chief protection for artisans against the
commercial market, provided benefits and aid as well
C. The Urban Riot
o Artisans frequently manifested displeasure by rioting against the price of bread
o Artisan leaders would confiscate the bread and sell it for a “just price”, giving money
to the merchants or baker
o Bread riots restrained the greed of merchants
o “just price” was set by the commercial marketplace
o Riot was a way in which the excluded could make their will known
o London Protestant mobs compelled gov’t ministry to withdraw act to legalize
Jewish naturalization
o Gordon riots- Lord George Gordon raised the specter of an imaginary Catholic plot
after the gov’t received military recruits without having to take anti-Catholic plots
o Violence was not irrational or directed to people, but against property
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Toward last half of century, urban riots involved political ends- the “crowd” was
often the tool of the upper class
o In paris the aristocratic Parlement urged crowd action in disputes with monarchy
o In Geneva, middle-class supported artisan riots against local oligarchy
o In GB, the gov. incited mobs to attack English sympathizers of the French Rev.
o Riots indicate the crowd entered European politics before French Revolution
VI. Jewish Population: The Age of the Ghetto
o Jewish communities of Amsterdam and other W European cities known for intellectual
life and financial institutions
o Vast majority of Jews lived in E Europe
o Concentrated in Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine-3 mil Jews dwelled, and Habsburg lands150,000
o Catherine the Great specifically excluded Jews from a manifesto that welcomed
foreigners to settle in Russia
o Jews during her reign felt they needed assurances of imperial protection for their
livelihoods
o After the first partition of Poland, Russian included a larger Jewish pop.
o Jews dwelled in most nations without enjoying the rights and privileges of other subjects,
unless rights were specifically granted to them
o Regarded as a resident alien whose residence might well be temporary or changed
o Ghettos-distinct districts of cities where Jews of Europe under the Old Regime lived
apart from other non-Jewish Europeans
o Treated as distinct people religiously and legally
o In Poland, they were self-governing, in other areas they lived under burden of
discriminatory legislation
o Except in England, Jews did not mix in the mainstream of society
o The Age of the Ghetto-this period which began with the expulsion of the Jews from
Spain at the end of the 15th century
o “court Jews”-financiers of wars of major rulers who became close to the rulers
o Samuel Oppenheimer-court Jew who financed the Habsburg struggle against the Turks
and the defense of Vienna, loans from court Jews were often unpaid
o Most Jews lived in poverty, lowest occupations, all laws kept them apart from Christian
neighbors
o All discrimination was based on religious separateness, Jews who converted into
Christianity were welcomed into society
o End of Old Regime brought major changes in lives of Jews and relationship to society
o
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I. Periods of European Overseas Empires
A. Overview- FOUR phases of European contact with the rest of the world
1. European discovery, exploration, initial conquest, and settlement of the New Worldthis phase included penetration of SE Asian markets by Portugal and the Dutch
2. Mercantile empires-colonial trade rivalry among Spain, France, and Great Britain, by
18th century empires fostered trade and commerce leading to intense rivalry fostering a
series of major naval wars at the mid-century which became linked to warfare on the
continent. The Anglo-French side of the contest has often been compared to a 2nd
Hundred Year’s War
o Fundamental element of slavery-by 18th the slave pop.of the NW consisted almost
entirely of a black pop. of imported slaves from Africa or the children of these slaves
o Creation in Americas of slave-based plantation economy led to over 3 centuries of
involvement in the slave trade-created on American continent extensive communities of
Africans bringing their languages/customs/ ethnic associations
o Creation of Atlantic and American societies were by Africans and Europeans
o Creation of Spanish lands were result of Native Americans and Spanish
o Both British and Spanish colonies emancipated themselves during this period as well
3. In the 19th century European gov’ts created formal empires involving direct European
administration of natives in Africa/Asia: bases of these empires were trade, national
honor, Christian missionaries and military strategy
4. Last period occurred during mid-late 20th century, decolonization of peoples who had
previously lived under colonial rule
o Before the 4th phase, Europeans dominated the rest of the world for 4 and ½
centuries-due to their technological supremacy related to power and gunpowder
II. Mercantile Empires (See Paper Notes, starting on the back)
III. Spanish Colonial System (See Paper Notes, handout)
IV. Black African Slavery, the Plantation System, and the Atlantic Economy
A. Overview: From the 16th century Spanish, Portuguese, and British colonies, slavery
became a fundamental social and economic factor, plantation economies based on
slave labor led to an unprecedented interaction between the peoples of Europe and
Africa-Africa became drawn into the Western experience as never before in history
B. The African Presence in the Americas
o European settlers encountered a shortage of labor after conquering the NW,
Native Americans were killed by disease causing labor to soon become scarce
o Spanish/Portuguese turned to labor of imported African slaves
o Major sources for slaves: slaves markets in central West Africa: the slave trade
had existed there for hundreds of years
o Political and military conditions in the African continent and warfare among
various African nations created a supply of slaves that African societies were
willing to sell
o Europeans encountered dynamic African societies working out their own internal
power relationships
C. West Indies, Brazil, and Sugar
o Over a century of slave trading in the West Indies/SA preceded the first slaves in
the Atlantic seaboard
o “Euro-African phenomenon”-prominence of African immigrant slave
communities in SA/West Indies regions and their impact on the economies and
cultures of these regions
o African slaves = or surpassed the numbers of white European settlers
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o
Native American labor became increasingly a marginal presence
o Slavery became much less fundamental in Spanish SA during the late 17th
Spread through Brazil and the Caribbean through the cultivation of sugar to meet
the demand of the European market
o By end of 17th, Caribbean was the world center for the production of sugar
o During the 18th, a period of major slave importation occurred-sugar, coffee, and
tobacco, and gold accounts for this increase in additional slaves
o Newly imported African slaves needed, because the fertility rate of previous
generations was low and death rate was high
o Impact: restocking through slave trade meant the social life of many areas
included mostly African-born slaves with new cultures and ethnic identities they
infused into already existing slave communities creating a new African presence
throughout the Americas in the 18th century
D. Slavery and the Transatlantic Economy
o Different nations dominated the slave trade in different periods: Spain/Portugal
in the 16th century, Dutch supplanted them during the 17th century, and the
English were the chief traders with the French in the 18th century
o Geographic triangle-European goods (guns) carried to Africa exchanged for
slaves and taken to the West Indies where they were traded for sugar and other
tropical products, which were then shipped to Europe.
o Slavery had a major direct or indirect factor on the prosperity of the economy
o 18th century political turmoil in Africa: Kongo civil wars-originated in dispute
over succession, African leaders conducted slave raids so their captives could be
sold to further finance the purchase of weapons for warfare, similar to political
turmoil in the Gold Coast during the 18th century
o Close relationship b/.t warfare in West Africa and the economic development of
the American Atlantic seaboard
E. The Experience of Slavery
o European slave traders forcibly transported several million Africans to the NWLARGEST EXAMPLE OF FORCED INTERCONTINENTAL MIGRATION IN
HUMAN HISTORY
o Conditions of passage across Atlantic were wretched, bad food, rampant disease,
crowdedness
o Newly arrived stood apart from descendants of earlier generations, whosold for
higher prices
o Seasoning-process that newly arrived slaves were subjected to where they were
prepared for the labor of slavery and made to understand they were no longer free
, involved learning new names/skills/language, some would work in an
apprentice relationship to an older African slave
o Generally, NA plantation owners were willing to purchase recently arrived,
seasoned Africans
F. Language and Culture
o Within restricted confines of slavery, Africans were able to sustain elements of
their own culture and social structures
o More people whose first language was African than European
o Africans on plantations could organize themselves into nations with ethnic ties to
regions of West Africa
o African slaves belonged to variety of religious communities-maintaining a
loyalty to the Islamic faith
o
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Many African nations on plantations organized lay brotherhoods that carried out
charitable work, nations would elect their own kings and queens who might
preside over gatherings of the members of the nation from various plantations
o Shared language of a particular African nation provided a means for exclusive
communication b/t slaves among occasions of revolts
o South Carolina revolt-slave owners believed slaves had communicated by
playing African drums, owners attempted to suppress drum playing
o Haitian Revolution-most successful revolt in the 1790s
G. Daily Life
o Life conditions of slaves differed from colony to colony
o Portuguese areas-fewest legal protections
o Spanish colonies-church attempted to provide protection, but devoted more effort
toward Native Americans
o British and French-developed slave codes, but provided limited protection
assuring dominance to owners
o Slave laws favored the master prevented revolt
o Marriages of slaves unrecognized, children of slaves were still slaves and owned
o Daily life: hard agricultural labor, poor diet, inadequate housing
o Separation of families, difficult lives
H. European Racial Attitudes
o Prejudices against black Africans of Europeans
o Considered to be savages, less civilized, negative connotations to image of
blackness
o Race was an important element in keeping the black slaves in a position fo
marked subservience
o Plantations constituted a vast corridor of slave societies in which socioeconomic
subordination was based on race
o Long-term effects of the plantation institution are still felt today
I. Mid-Eighteenth-Century Wars
o IR-state system of the mid 18th was unstable and lead the major states of Europe
into periods of prolonged warfare
o Statesmen assumed warfare could further national interests
o No forces to prevent war or maintain peace-wars fought by professional armies,
civilian pop. not involved in the conflict
o Periods of peace at conclusion fo war often viewed as times when a nation might
become strong enough to recommence warfare at a later period to seize another
nation’s territory or to invade another empire’s area of trading monopoly
o 2 fundamental areas of great power rivalry: overseas empires and centra/eastern
Europe
A. The War of Jenkins’s Ear
o West Indies became a hotbed of trade rivalry in mid 18th century
o English smugglers, shippers, and pirates attempted to pierce Spain’s monopoly
o Treaty of Utrecht (1713)-gave 2 special privileges to Great Britain in the
Spanish Empire: 30 year Asiento-contract for British to furnish slaves to Spain,
Britain also gained right to send one ship each year to the trading fair at
Portobello-a major Caribbean seaport on the Panamanian coast
o 2 privileges allowed British traders/smugglers inroads into Spain’s market
o Friction arose from rights: Spain took trading monopoly seriously, boarded
and searched English vessels to search for contraband
o
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Chapter 17 Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion
o During a boarding operation, the Spaniards cut off the ear of an English captain
named Robert Jenkins, the ear was preserved in a jar of brandy and in 1738 Jenkins
appeared before the British P. using his ear as an example of Spanish atrocities to
British merchants in the West Indies
o Sir Robert Walpole couldn’t resist pressures on P. to relieve Spanish
intervention on trade
o Late 1739 GB goes to war against Spain, became opening encounter to a
series of European wars fought across the world
B. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
o In 1740 Frederick II seizes Silesia from Austria breaking the Pragmatic
Sanction and upsetting the balance of power established by the Treaty of
Utrecht
o Prussia treated House of Habsburg as another German state
1. Maria Theresa preserves the Habsburg Empire
o Prussian seizure of Silesia led to new political allegiances
o Maria Theresa’s great achievement was not re-conquest of Silesia, but
the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as a major political power
o Maria won loyalty from subjects by granting new privileges to the
nobility
o Recognized Hungary as the most important of her crowns, promised the
Magyars considerable local autonomy
o Preserved the Habsburg state at cost to the power of the central
monarchy
o At times of weakness, troubles monarchy promised concessions to
Magyars
2. France Draws Great Britain into the War
o British Spanish commercial conflict and War over the Austrian
succession could have remained separate
o The role of France united the conflicts-aggressive court aristocrats
compelled Cardinal Fleury to abandon planned naval attack on British
trade and instead support the Prussian aggression against Austria, the
traditional enemy of France
o Bad DECISION: Aid to Prussia consolidated a new and powerful state
in German which later endangered France, this move also brought GB
into the continental war seeking to make sure the Low Countries
remained in friendly hands of Austria, not France
o France decided to support Spain against Britain in the NW, division of
military resources caused France to lose the struggle against GB
o Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle: Prussia retained Silesia and Spain renewed
the asiento agreement with GB, more of a truce than permanent peace
C. The “Diplomatic Revolution” of 1756
o Rivalries erupted again with dramatic shift in alliances
o Convention of Westminster-defensive alliance signed by Prussia and Great
Britain aimed at preventing the entry of foreign troops in to Germany
o Frederick II feared invasions by both Russia and France
o Maria Theresa hated this development, but her foreign minister Prince
Kaunitz long hoped for alliance with France to destroy Prussia
o Convention of Westminster made possible this alliance
o France now fought to restore Austrian supremacy in central Europe
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Chapter 17 Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion
D. The Seven Years’ War
o Unofficial struggles b/t Fr. and GB on colonial front b/t settlers in the ohio
River valley and New England
o Prelude to what is known as the French and Indian War
o Once again Frederick II started it all
1. Frederick the Great Opens Hostilities
o Invaded Saxony as a preemptive strike against a conspiracy by
Saxony/Austria/France to destroy Prussian power
o Frederick regarded invasion as a continuation of defensive strategy of the
C of W
o Invasion itself created the very destructive alliance Frederick feared
o In 1757 France and Austria made a new alliance with Sweden Russian
and many of the smaller German states dedicated to destroy Prussia
o Two Factors saved Prussia: 1. Britain furnished considerable financial
aid, 2. Empress Elizabeth of Russia died and her successor Tsar Peter
III admired Frederick making peace with him allowing Frederick to hold
off Austria and France
o Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763-ended continental conflict with no sig
change in prewar borders-Silesia still Prussian, Prussia still great power
2. William Pitt’s Strategy for Winning North America
o William Pitt the Elder-architect of victories of GB in conflict, colossal
ego and administrative genius, became Secretary of State in charge of the
war in 1757 and pumped money into F the G, diverted French resources
and attention from the colonial struggle
o NA was center of Pitt’s concern, wanted all of the NA east of the
Mississippi for GB and that’s what he won
o Sent 40,000 regular English troops against the French inCanada
o Achieved coop wit the colonies
o French gov’t didn’t direct similar resources, administration was corrupt,
inadequate political command
o Plains of Abraham- General James Wolfe defeats the French under
Louis de Montcalm-signaled end of French Empire in Canada
o Major islands of the French West Indies fell to British fleets
o income from sale from sale of sugar financed British war effort, captured
bulk of the French slave trade
o In India, British forces under command of Robert Clive defeated the Fr.
in 1757 at Battle of Plassey-opened way for eventual conquest of Bengal
in NE India and all of India by the British East India Company
o COMPLETE MILITARY VICTORY ON ALL FRONTS
3. Treaty of Paris of 1763
o Pitt departs after quarrels with George III
o Replacement was Earl of Bute, a favorite of monarch and responsible
for peace settlement
o Britain received all of Canada, the Ohio R. valley, and East half of the
Mississippi R. valley, Britain returned some areas in India and West
Indian islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique to the French
o 7YW had been a vast conflict with major impacts: Habsburg power
shifted to Hungarian domains, Prussia rose as a great power, Power
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Chapter 17 Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion
shifted from France to Britain, Spain declined with penetration of its
markets
o GB became a world power, not a European one
o ¼ century of warfare caused long series of domestic crises among the
European powers: many ppl wanted administrative reform over the
financial burdens of war-search for revenue lead to more far-rangin
consequences in the British colonies of North America
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Chapter 14 Scientific Revolution
I. The Scientific Revolution
A.
Overview: Scientific revolution-the process that established
a new view of the universe, a complex movement formed modern science in the pursuit
of natural knowledge.
B.
Nicolaus Copernicus Rejects an Earth-Centered Universe
o
Polish astronomer educated at the U of Cracow and later
in Italy
o
ON year of his death he published On the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Spheres- a revolution-making text that provided an intellectual springboard
for a complete criticism of the ten-dominant view of the position of the earth in the
universe
1.
The Ptolemaic System
o
Standard explanation of the place of
earth in the heavens combined mathematics of Ptolemy contained in his work entitled
the Almagest-with physical cosmology of Aristotle
o
Geocentrism-assumption that the
earth was the center of the universe
o
Numerous problems: observed
uniform motion of the planets in epicycles-orbit of planets in small circles
2. Copernicus’s Universe
o Challenged Ptolemaic picture in the most conservative way possible
o Transferred many of the elements of the Ptolemaic model to a heliocentric
model-assumed the earth moved about the sun in a circle
o Copernicus kept concept of epicycle, no more accurate than Ptolemy’s
o Copernicus used no new evidence and provided another way of confronting some
of the difficulties inherent in Ptolemaic astronomy
o Impact: allowed others discontented with the Ptolemaic view to think in new
directions
C.
Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler Make New Scientific
Observations
o Tycho Brahe-believed in earth-centered system, constructed scientific instruments
with which he made more extensive observations of planets than anyone, provided
vast body of astronomical data from which his successors could work
o Johannes Kepler-German astronomer, convinced Copernican, more rigorous
advocated of heliocentric model than Copernicus, got a hold of Tycho’s tables,
discovered that planets motions were elliptical, published findings in The New
Astronomy, used Copernicus’s model and Brahe’s empirical data to solve the
problem, still no explanation of why orbits were elliptical
D.
Galileo Galilei Argues for a Universe of Mathematical
Laws
o Italian mathematician and natural philosopher
o Used newly invented telescope to discover new stars and moons
o Used rhetorical skills and patronage of Medicis to advance ideas
o Left University of Padua for Floernce where he became the philosopher to the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, a Medici
o Named the moons of Jupiter after the Medicis
o Popularized the Copernican system
o Articulated the concept of a universe subject to mathematical laws-intellectual shift
of a world of quantities replacing one of qualities
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Chapter 14 Scientific Revolution
E.
Isaac Newton Discovers the Laws of Gravitation
Question of planetary motion and how heavenly bodies moved in an orderly fashion
o Newton established a basis for physics in The Mathematical Principles of natural
Philosophia, Latin title of Principia Mathematica
o Newton reasoned that the planets and all other physical objects in the universe moved
through mutual attraction, or gravity
o Upheld importance of empirical data-as Newton’s own theory of universal
gravitation became accepted, so too was Bacon empiricism
II. Philosophy Responds to Changing Science
A. Overview-the proponents of the new science sought to explain the world in terms of
mechanical metaphors, the drive to a mechanical understanding of nature meant that
the language of science and natural philosophy would become largely that of
mathematics, the new mode of thinking transformed physical nature from a realm
with symbolic meaning to a realm of utility, natural knowledge became the path
toward physical improvement of human beings through their ability to command the
processes of nature
B. Francis Bacon: The Empirical Method
o
Englishmen of universal accomplishment, “Father of Empiricism”
o
Attacked the scholastic belief that most truth had been discovered and only
required explanation and the scholastic reverence for authority/tradition
o
Champion of innovation and change, believed human knowledge should
produce useful results
o
Believed science had a practical purpose of human improvement
o
Although not making any major scientific contribution himself, Bacon
directed investigators of nature to a new method and purpose in science
o
His thoughts opened the way for a strong linkage b/t gov’ts and science
C. Rene Descartes: The Method of Rational Deduction
o Gifted mathematician who invented analytic geometry
o Developed a scientific method that relied more on deduction than empirical
observation and induction
o Published his Discourse on Method-rejected scholasticism and advocated
mathematical model of thought
o Thought human reason could fully comprehend the world
o His deductive methodology lost to scientific induction
D. Thomas Hobbes: Apologist for Absolute Government
o Most original political philosopher of the 17th century
o Presented arguments in a materialistic philosophical framework/regarded as
atheist
o Leviathan-a work of contemporaneous controversy and lasting influence,
concerned with how a strong central political authority might receive rigorous
philosophical justification, Hobbes portrays humans in a materialistic and
mechanical way regarding all human motivation as egotistical intending to
increase pleasure and minimize pain
o Human beings exist for no higher spiritual end or larger moral purpose than those
of meeting the needs of daily life
o Human beings could fulfill these goal only within the confines of a sovereign
commonwealth
o Thought humans were inherently power-hungry and self-centered
o
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Chapter 14 Scientific Revolution
Thought humans escaped their terrible state of nature by entering into a political
contract with a sovereign
o Thought that the rulers should be absolute and unlimited in their power
o Ideals fiercely criticized but their influence grew as political and religious
authority in the West became increasingly separated
E. John Locke: Defender of Moderate Liberty and Toleration
o most influential philosophical/political thinker of the 17th century
o became a major source of criticism of absolutism and provided a foundation for
later liberal political philosophy in Europe and America
o closely associated with the earl of Shaftesbury during the English Restoration
when Shaftesbury organized an unsuccessful rebellion against Charles II, Locke
wrote two treatises on government opposing Charles II rejecting arguments for
absolute government
o First Treatise of Government-cleared the philosophical decks of long-standing
traditional argument on patriarchal model of fathers ruling over a family
extending to absolute government
o Second Treatise of Government-argued gov’t must be responsible for the
concerns of the governed, portrayed the natural human state as one of perfect
freedom/equality where everyone enjoyed the natural rights of life, liberty, and
property
o Contrary to Hobbes, regarded humans as creatures of reason and basic goodwill
o Wanted limitations on both absolutism and religious uniformity, established a
powerful foundation for future religious toleration
o Views of psychology: rejected the Christian understanding of original sin, vision
of mind has been compared to an early version of behaviorism-the human
condition could be improved by changing the environment
III. The New Institutions and Expanding Natural Knowledge
A. Genuinely new knowledge -fundamental feature for the expansion of science was the
idea that new information about nature and humankind could be discovered, the
proponents of the new natural knowledge pursued the advancement of learning compared
the humanistic learning of revisiting classics.
B. Social Implications-opposition to Scholasticism and Aristotelianism, criticized the
learning that was dominant in universities
C. Universities-provided much of the physical and financial support for the teaching and
investigation of new science, slowly new ideas penetrated universities, varied according
to country with Italian universities being far more supportive than French
D. “Institutions of Sharing”
o
Due to reluctance of universities to quickly assimilate the new science,
academies were formed that allowed ideas of the new science to be gathered, exchanged, and
debate.
o
Examples included the Royal Society of London-founded in 1660, preceded by
the Academy of Experiments in Florence, and followed by the French Academy of
Science and the Berlin Academy of Science.
o
Activities--societies provided organizations that met regularly and allowed
experiments to achieve credibility providing for organized publishing of information,
crossroads between the elite literate class and the craftspeople and working people
o
Interaction of the societies with the government and private business
established a distinct role and presence for scientific knowledge in European social life
o
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Chapter 14 Scientific Revolution
These groups became the social base for the 18th century movement, the
Enlightenment
IV. Women in the World of the Scientific Revolution
A.
Causes for Exclusions
o
Institutions of Science-monasteries and universities had been
institutions associated with celibate male clerical culture, woman were not admitted to
universities that became the basis for the Sci Rev
o
Ideas associated with biology, medical practice and philosophy
suggested that women and their minds were inferior to men
o
Pursuit of natural knowledge became a male vocation
B.
Two Exceptions to Exclusion
1. Noblewomen
o Social standing allowed for them to command attention of ambitious natural
philosophers who were part of their husband’s social circle
o Margaret Cavendish-made sig contributions to sci lit., privately tutored and widely
read, criticized the Royal Society and quarreled with the ideas of Hobbes/Descartes
o Only woman in the 17th century to be allowed a meeting with the Royal Society
2. Artisans
o Greater freedom in pursuing the new sciences than noblewomen
o Women took over the biz when their spouse died nad assisted their husbands with
science
o Maria Winkelmann-discovered a comet, assistant to an artisan astronomer, her
husband, worked jointly with her husband and established an official calendar for the
Berlin Academy of Sciences, her application to continue the work of her husband
after he died was rejected by the guild
V. The New Science and Religious Faith
A. Overview-the new science posed a potential challenge to religion, certain
theories/discoveries didn’t agree with biblical statements, question arose of authority of
the church vs. natural philosophers. New science offered a materialistic universe
replacing one of spiritual meaning. Yet most nat. philosophers saw their work as
contributing to a deeper knowledge of the divine. Their efforts allowed the new science
to reconcile faith and constituted a fundamental factor in the spread of science and
widespread acceptance.
B. The Case of Galileo
o Condemnation of Galileo by Roman Catholic authorities is the single most famous
incident of conflict b/t modern science and religious institutions
o Condemnation of Copernicanism and Galileo occurred at a difficult moment for the
RC Church-The Council of Trent had stated only the church possessed the authority
to interpret the Bible
o Roman Catholic Church had adopted a more literalist mode of reading the Bible
o Galileo actions of presenting his views about how scripture should be interpreted to
accommodate the new science resembled that of a Protestant who looked to himself
rather than the church to understand the Bible to Roman Catholic authorities
C. Blaise Pascal: Reason and Faith
o French mathematician and physical scientist
o Aspired to refute both dogmatism and skepticism
o Formulated views on these matters in piecemeal fashion in a provocative collections
on humankind and religion published under title Pensees
o
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Chapter 14 Scientific Revolution
o Allied himself with Jansenists-17th century opponents to the Jesuits who epitomized
dogmatism
o Made a famous wager with the skeptics: Pascal’s Wager
o Sought to counter false optimism of the new rationalism and science
D. English Approach to Science and Religion
o Bacon argued there were 2 books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature
o Natural theology based on scientific understanding of the natural order would thus
support theology derived from scripture
o Scientists sow science and religious faith as mutually supportive
o Natural universe became a realm of law and regularity, swhich supported a Creator
that was rational
o Physico-theology-religious thought associated with deducing of religious conclusions
from nature, allowed new physics and astronomy rapidly
o New science provided the basis for a view of God that might lead away from
irrational disputes and wars over religious doctrine
o New science and innovations associated with its culture came to be interpreted as part
of a divine plan
o This outlook provided a religious justification for the processes of economic
improvement that would characterize much of 18th century western Europe
VI. Continuing Superstition\
A. Overview-traditional beliefs and fears still retained their hold on Western culture, almost
all Europeans believed in the power of demons and were preoccupied with sin, death and
the devil
B. Witch-Hunts and Panic
o B/t 1400 and 1700 courts sentenced an estimated 70,000-100,000 ppl to death for
harmful magic (malificium) and diabolical witchcraft
o Witches were said to attend mass meetings known as sabbats-where they were
believed to fly, accused of indulging in sexual orgies wit the devil, cannibalistic
practices, and ritual acts
1. Causes for Witch Hunts
o Misfortune created by religious division and warfare
o Reformation-ppl felt compelled to protect themselves against the
powerful devil by executing those perceived witches
o Political motives-gov’ts wanted to eliminate competition and painted
their competitors as “devilish”
C. Village Origins
o Cunning folk helped people cope with calamity in villages
o Cunning folk gave people hope that magic could undo natural calamities
o Possession of magical powers made one an important person within village society
o Village Satanism became a substitute for an impossible social revolt, a way of
spurning the values of one’s new masters, reaction against urban Christian society’s
attempts to impose law on the countryside
o Local fertility cults-semipagan practices acquired features of diabolical witchcraft
D. Influence of the Clergy
o Popular belief in magic was the essential foundation of the great witch-hunts
o Christian clergy practiced magic-exorcism of demons, holy sacraments
o Clergy actively encouraged fear of demons and the devil which gave clergy more
moral authority
o Church declared only its priests possessed legitimate magical power
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Chapter 14 Scientific Revolution
Made witch-hunts a life-and-death struggle against Christian society’s worst foesthose with allegiance to the devil
o Attacking witches allowed Christian society to extend its power and influence over
villages or territories
E. Why Women?
o 80% of victims were women-45-60 years of age and single
o Male hatred and fear of women when women threatened to break out from male
control, witch-hunts were simply woman hunts
o Older single women were easy targets-dependent social group in need of public
assistance and became natural targets for the “social engineering” of the witch-hunts
o More women laid claim to supernatural powers
F. End of Witch-hunts
o Emergence of a new scientific worldview disbelieved powers of witches
o Advances in medicine and the beginning of insurance companies allowed people to
rely on themselves more
o Witch-hunts had gotten out of hand, threatened anarchy
o Reformation contributed to an attitude of mind that put the devil in a more
manageable perspective-made devil less fearsome
o Imaginative and philosophical literature suggested human beings have a significant
degree of control over own lives, no need to fear demons
o
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Chapter 18 The Age of Enlightenment
I. The Philosphes
A. Overview-writers and critics who forged the new attitudes favorable to change and reform
in the emerging print culture were the philosophes. Differed from philosophers because they
sought to apply the rules of reason and common sense to all major institutions and social
practices. Most were free agents found in London coffeehouses, Parisian salons, and country
houses of reform-minded nobles. Chief bond among the philosophes was their common
desire to reform religion, political society, and the economy for the sake of human liberty.
No other single set of ideas has done so much to shape the modern world
o Included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, D’Alembert, Rousseau, Hume, Bibbon,
Smith, Lessing, and Kant
 A few were professors, most were free people in London coffeehouses,
Edinburgh drinking spots, and salons of Parisian ladies, country houses
of nobles, and courts of monarchs
 Eastern Europe were bureaucrats
o Were not organized and disagreed on many things and not all respected each
other
• Most readership came from the urban class
o Bourgeoisie and forward looking aristocrats discussed this at local societies,
Freemason lodges, and clubs
o They allowed a place for ideas to grow, and became a place for ideas that
changed societies
o Supported the things that transformed society as expansion of trade, improving
agriculture, and invention of new machinery
o Chief bond was that of their desire to reform for the sake of liberty
B. Voltaire-First among the Philosophes
o Most influential of the philosophes
o Francois-Marie Arouet known to posterity as Voltaire
o Arrested by the French and briefly imprisoned, visited England observing its
tolerance and freedom
o Published Letters on the English-praised virtues of the English/criticized abuses of
French society
o Lived just across the French border and turned the bitter venom of his satire and
sarcasm against one evil after another in French and European life
o Became the literary dictator of Europe
o Candide-most famous satire, attacked war/religious persecution/ optimism about the
human condition
o Believed human society could be improved but was pessimistic about it
II. Formative Influences on the Enlightenment
The Newtonian worldview, the stability and commercial prosperity of Great Britain after
1688, the need for reform in France after the wars of Louis XIV, and the consolidation of
the print culture were the chief factors that fostered the ideas of the Enlightenment and the
call for reform throughout Europe
A. Ideas of Newton and Locke
o
Newton and Locke were major intellectual forerunners of the Enlightenment
o
Newton’s universal gravitation exemplified power of the human mindencouraged Europe to study nature directly through empirical experience
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Chapter 18 The Age of Enlightenment
Newton revealed a pattern of rationality in the physical world
Locke argued all humans enter the world a tabula rasa, or blank page.
o
Theory that human beings were not permanently flawed by sin and that
personality is the product of sensations that individuals experience-possibility of
reforming the human nature, taking charge of their own destiny
B. The Example of British Toleration and Stability
o Domestic stability of GB after SciRev presented an example of a society where
Enlightened reforms succeeded
o Religious toleration to all except Unitarians and Roman Catholics-weren’t actually
persecuted
o Relative freedom of press and speech, authority of monarchy limited by political
sovereignty of Parliament and protection of citizens by the courts
o Less domestic regulation of economic life-liberal policies produced prosperity and
stability
o Contrast of progressive English life with French political and social life
C. Emergence of a Print Culture
o First major intellectual movement to flourish in the print culture-culture in which
books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets achieved significant status
o Printed word had become the chief vehicle for the communication of ideas
o Familiarity with books/secular ideas came to be expected within aristocratic and
middle-class society
o The Spectator by Addison and Steele became the center of polite conversation in
coffeehouses, lodges of Freemasons, and the market
o New status for authors based on merit and commercial competition
o Division b/t high and low literary culture: successful authors were read and
accepted in upper society, others found social and economic disappointment living
marginally and writing professionally for anyone who paid
o This class espoused radical ideas and carried Enlightenement ideas to radical
extremes
o Public opinion-new social force created by expanding literate public that changed
the cultural and political climate in Europe
o Governments couldn’t operate with disregard to the public sphere
o Continentaal Euroepan gov’ts sensed power of the new print culture-regulated book
trade, censored books/newspapers, and imprisoned offending authors
o The eventual expansion of freedom of the press represented an expansion of the print
culture
III. The Encyclopedia
o Mid-18th century-publication of the Encyclopedia-one of the greatest monuments of
the Enlightenment
o Written by Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert
o Collection of more than a hundred authors including the most advanced critical ideas
of the time on religion, gov’t and philosophy
o Hidden ideas under cover of irony and obscure articles to avoid censorship
o Important source of knowledge about 18th century social and economic life:
manufacturing, canal building, improved agriculture
o Designed to secularize learning and to undermine old intellectual assumptions
o Future welfare of humankind lay not in pleasing God but in harnessing power and
resources of the earth and living at peace with one’s fellow human beings in the good
life on earth
o
o
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Chapter 18 The Age of Enlightenment
o Impact: diffusion of Enlightenment thought penetrating German/Russian circles
IV. The Enlightenment and Religion
• For many philosophes, church limited human improvement
o Voltaire’s “Crush the Infamous Thing” described the attitude to church
o Most religions were criticized
o Said that church hindered pursuit of a rational life and science
 Both catholic and Protestant taught humans had original sin
 Also argued against Calvinist predestination
• Philosophes were challenging some of the deepest institutions
o Church was mutually related to existing institutions
 Owned lots of land and could collect taxes
 Clergy were exempt from taxes, higher clergy were politically powerful
• Bishops in British House of Lords
• Cardinals and bishops were rules or advised them
• Protestant landowners appointed clergyman
 Provided intellectual justification for the status quo
A. Deism
•
•
•
Philosophes did not criticisms all religions
o Scotlands enlightened historian William Robertson was the head of the Scottish
Presbyterian Kirk
o Nature was rational, so therefore the creator, god was rational
o Religion and reason born deism
John Toland Christianity not Mysterious 1696
o Religion was natural and rational, rather than supernatural
o Differed from Newton and Locke, who were Christians
 Newton though God could interfere with order
 Deists regarded God as divine watchmaker who left
o Deists were anticlerical so they were radicals
2 main points
o Belief in God
o Afterlife based on the merit on earth
o They were tolerant, empirical and encouraged virtuous living
 Hoped acceptance would end rivalry, fanaticism, conflict and persecution
B. Toleration
•
•
Locke sent precedent with Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
o Toleration only existed in England during 18th century
o Philosophes encouraged toleration
Voltaire took the lead
o Learned of Jean Calas’s torture and execution
o 1763 Treatise on Tolerance and called for investigation
 1765 decision reversed
o Voltaire thought these were the effects of fanaticism
o 1779 Gothold Lessing wrote Nathan the Wise for toleration for all faiths
 Life on earth shouldn’t allow people to persecute one another
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Chapter 18 The Age of Enlightenment
C. Radical Enlightenment Criticism of Christianity
•
•
David Hume “Of Miracles” (1748) said there was no evidence for miracles
o To Hume, it was a miracle that people believed in miracles
o Voltaire questioned truthfulness of priests and morality of Bible
 1764, Philosophical Dictionary pointed out inconsistencies in the bible
o 1776, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon explained
Christianity as a natural cause rather than miracles.
Baron d’Holbach and Julien Offray de La Mettrie were close to atheism
o They were minority, most wanted to transform religion
o Kant’s Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone 1793
D. Jewish Thinkers in the Age of Enlightenment
•
•
•
Philosophes attack on miracles affected Jews and Islamic people
o Some characterized Jews as primitive
o Further stigmatized Jews
o Allowed some Jews to rethink relationship of communities to European affaires,
Baruch Spinoza of Netherlands and Moses Mendelssohm
 Spinoza secularized Judaism
 Mendelssohm outline of assimilationist position
Baruch Spinoza
o Used reason to look at traditional thought
o Ethics made god and nature virtually the same
 People thought he made it too close
o When he was 24 his synagogue excommunicated him
o Theological-Political Treatise (1670)
 Described origin of religion through naturalistic ways
 Believed Hebrew Bible provided divine law, but not theological
knowledge
 Called people to read the bible like an ancient text
o His criticism of religion thought people that he wanted to drive people away from
religion
o Because of his excommunication, philosophes thought of him as a martyr
 Symbolized Jews who separated themselves from traditional beliefs and
entered secular learning
 Made it possible for people in Enlightenment to encourage toleration and
dislike Jews
Moses Mendelssohn, “Jewish Socrates”
o Advocated Jewish integration to modern life
o Could combine Judaism with rationality
o Jerusalem (1783) where he argued for religious toleration and distinction of
communities
 Religious diversity did not harm the government
 Judaism as also another path to got
o Wanted toleration and right to differences.
E. Islam in Enlightenment thought
•
Not much Islamic people in Europe
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Knowledge came from Islamic books and commentaries
 Usually hostile to Islam and misleading
o Seemed as the rival to Christianity
o Authors such as Pascal in Pensees portrayed Islam as false and Muhammed as a
guy who can’t do miracles
 Also a place for sexual freedoms
o Referred to Islam as Muhammedanism
 Muslims thought referring to Muhammed as divine blasphemous
o Did have some study in universities, but agreed to was too entwined with
fanaticism
 Basically all books were hostile
Voltaire’s comedy 1742 Fanaticism, or Mohammed the Prophet
o Islam was too fanatic
Others spoke well, John Toland
o Islam came from early Christian writings and was Christian
o Toland was known as an “Mohametan” Christian
o Gibbon blamed Christianity for fall of Roman Empire, wrote in respect on
Islam’s empire
o Others liked Islam’s tolerance
Some criticized Islam
o Charles de Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws associated Islamic society with
passivity
 The excess influence of the leaders prevented the Ottomans from
advancing
Lady Mary Wortley Mongu lived in Istanbul from 1716 to 1718
o Turkish Embassy Letters praised Ottoman Society
 Also vaccination against smallpox
o Montagu had access to private quarters of women
 Turkish women could move freely
o Also admired the architecture
Basic attitude was a rejection of Muslims
o Muslims were not curious either
 Very few visited the west
 Ulama also enforced this
• Taught that Muslim was the new religion to replace Christianity
o
•
•
•
•
•
VI. The Enlightenment and Society
A. Overview-society was the center of the philosophe’s interest. Philosophes believed
the application of human reason to society would reveal laws in human relationships
similar to those found in physical nature. The idea of social science originated with the
Enlightenment-philosophes hoped to end human cruelty by discovering social laws.
B. Beccaria and Reform of Criminal Law
o 1764, Marquis Cesare Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments applied analysis
punishments being effective and just
 Attacked torture and capital punishment
 Need an speedy trial and certain punishment
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


Deterrence
Purpose of law for the greatest good (Util)
Wanted laws of monarchs and legislatures to conform with rational laws
of nature
B. Physiocrats and Economic Freedom
•
Didn’t like mercantilism, regulation hampered expansion of trade
o In France they were the physiocrats
 Francois Quesnay and Pierre Dupont de Nemours
o Goal of government was to protect property (Locke)
o Agriculture basis of everything
 Liked larger farms, like the spirit of improvement
C. Adam Smith on Economic Growth and Social Progress
•
•
•
Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776)
o Economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system
o Urged mercantile system to be abolished
 Hindered the expansion of wealth
 Best way is for everyone to be selfish and enrich themselves-pursuance
of selfish ends through free market and boundless resources allows
everyone to be rich
• Competition
Mercantilism assumed that resources were limited, and Zero Sum
o Smith challenged it, to hem they were bountiful
 People don’t have to be poor
o Founder of laissez-faire=favoring of limited role of gov. in economic life
o Did not oppose all government activity
 Schools, armed forces, infrastructure, and new trade routes
New 4 stage theory by Smith and Scottish writers
o Primitive to modern, and a economists could evaluate a country
 Hunter, farmer, agricultural, then commercial
 No settled life, some private property, clear cut arrangements, advanced
cities
o Commercial stage was a description of Europe
 Justification for Europeans ego boost and justified imperialism
D. Political thought of the Philosophes
•
Reformist agenda most apparent in political thought
o French philosophes really didn’t like their country
 Corruption in royal court, blundering bureaucracy, mid-century wars,
and too much power of the church
 Divided on how to solve the problems
E. Montesquieu and the Spirit of the Laws
•
Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, was a lawyer, noble of the robe,
member of parlement, Bordeux Academy of Science.
o He saw the need for reform
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o 1721 The Persian Letters satire contemporary institutions
•
o 10 years later visited and admired the English
Spirit of the Laws (1748) said the English was the best for of government
o Empirical method, used experiences of old and new nations
 No method could apply to everyone, depended on size, population,
customs, economy and climate
o Montesquie liked checks on government for France
 IE parlements, which he happened to be in
o Was a conservative, slow reform-championing of aristocratic bodies and general
role of aristocracy
o Impact: profound and lasting effect on constitutional form of liberal
democracies
o Most influential idea was separation of powers
 Executive, legislative, and judicial powers check on another
 However, in truth, aristocrats corrupted the government
F. Rousseau: A Radical Critique of Modern Society
•
•
•
•
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) had a different idea
o Was an isolated genius who didn’t get along with other philosophes
o Only a few friends, and orphaned many children
o Hated the world (kind of emo)
 Impossible to lived morally
1750, Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences, civilization and
Enlightenment corrupted human nature
o 1755 Discourse on the Origin of Inequality says evils of the world came for
uneven distribution of property
o Both challenged the social fabric and questioned the foundling capitalism
o Most philosophes believed life would improve if people could get more stuff
 Rousseau asked ‘What is a good life’?
The Social Contract (1762)
o Little immediate, but by the end of the century it was widely read
 Abstract book compared to Spirit of the Laws Examples
 Outlines political structures that get rid of evils in society
o Regarded humans as evil
o “All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains”
 Then justified the chains
o Society is more important than the members
 Europe was just a place for everyone to advance selfish goals, not
morality
o Each person had freedom while still being a loyal member of society
 Freedom was obedience to the general will, and to obey the general will
was to be free
 Justified direct democracy
Attacked 18th century cult of the individual and selfishness
o Wouldn’t have liked Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations
 Rather have them be good even if that meant poor, loyalty was crucial
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o
o
Only had a little impact at the time but influenced later
 Aristocrats didn’t like his democracy
 Philosophes didn’t like his critique of materialism
Influenced the French Revolution, and other writers
G. Enlightened Critics of European Empires
•
•
Most favored extension of European Empires
o More empire, more civilizations
 Believed themselves superior (4 stage theory) as a whole
o Some did criticize them, Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and Johann Gottlieb
Herder
Human beings are human
o They argued that they were human
o Kant wrote that they empires did not count the inhabitants
o Also that the cultures should be understood, rather than replaced
IV. Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment
•
•
•
•
•
Women, especially France, helped philosophes
o Paris salons such as Marie-therese Geofrin, Julie de Lespinasse, and Claudine de
Tencin, were sort of like English coffee houses
o Being in a salon brought philosophes recognition
o The organizers of the salon could arrange protection and royal pensions for
philosophes
 Marquise de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV helped overcome the
censorship of Encyclopedia
o Madame de Tencin promoted Spirit of the Laws through her friends
Philosophes were not feminists though
o Many wanted better, non-religious education
o However, had traditional views and didn’t want any radical changes
Montesquieu said the status of women was a result of many factors
o Women, were not weak, and should have a wider role
o Didn’t like the value on women’s appearance
o The Persian Letters included repression of women in Persian harem, and
condemned the restrictions in European society
o Had limits
 Retained view that men dominate marriages
 Upheld idea of female chastity
Encyclopedia improved women’s lives, but didn’t emphasizes the need for reform
o Nearly all contributors were men
o Articals on women emphasized weakness
o Mixed views on equality
 General view that women were unconcerned with important issues
o Women in a family context, with motherhoods as most important occupation
 Double standared on Sexual behavior
o Illustrations showed women were involved in activities
 Lower and working class women, which articles didn’t talk about
Rousseau’s Emile established men and women in different spheres
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Women were subordinate (child raising and rearing) and just pleases men
Inferior in all but giving love
Excluded from political life, women were in the domestic sphere
 Roots in Roman Law
o Influenced the French Revolution
o Rousseau had a large following of women
 Persuaded people to breast-feed
• Stressed importance of their emotions
 Gave people a sense that their occupation had a purpose
1792, Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Woman
o Reaction to policies of the French revolution
o Refuted Rousseau
 Narrowing women’s vision and experience
 Separation of spheres to make them slaves of men
 Therefore, they couldn’t have any autonomy
o So women needed education
o Extending male liberty to women
o
o
o
•
VII. Enlightened Absolutism
•
•
Most philosophes looked at existing monarchies to problems with political problems
o Because of Voltaire’s clash with aristocrats, he supported a monarchy
 1759 History of the Russian Empire under Peter the Great “Peter was
born, and Russia was formed”
o Philosophes wanted monarchs to use power to rationalize economy and politics
 Power was good if they could profit from it
Enlightened absolutism Where monarchical governments were strengthened and
rationalized by Enlightenment ideals
o Frederick II (Prussia), Joseph II (Austria), and Catherine II (Russia)
o Frederick II corresponded with philosophes, and wrote history, political tracts,
literary criticism, and music
o Catherine II tried to portray and enlightened ruler, a master at public relations
 Gave compliments of philosophes and got them back
o Joseph II continued reforms of Maria Theresa
o The rulers were more interested in the diplomatic issues than enlightenment
 7 years war convinced states that they needed stronger armies
 So used rationality to pursue irrational militarism
o The monarchs flattery made the philosophes biased
A. Frederick the Great of Prussia
•
•
A state with loyalty of the military, junkers, clergy, a bureaucracy from the middle class,
and professors.
o Frederick could permit Enlightenment ideas due to loyalty
o Therefore, people who liked the enlightenment, liked the state
Promotion through Merit
o Frederick called himself “The First servant of the State”
 His interests were always ‘below’ his subjects
o Protected local social and interests of Junkers, and role in army
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•
•
 But by merit
 1770, Prussian Civil Service Commission oversaw examinations
o Made nobles of people of merit, so there were no conflict between the people and
the king
o Frederick fancied himself a intellectual, and supported universities
 Professors liked him
o Nobles attended universities, so did middle class who trained to be clergy and
bureaucrats
 Nobles, clergy, and bureaucrats had similar education
Religious toleration
o Advocated religious toleration in a continuation of a good immigration policy.
o Allowed Catholics and Jews to settle in a Lutheran country
 Protected Silesia Catholics after he conquered them
o Said he was willing to build mosques
o Tolerance got him support of Kant and Mendelsohn
 Still appointed Protestants in key positions
Administrative and Economic Reforms
o Ordered a new codification of Prussia Law
 Wanted to rationalized the legal system
 Eliminating regional changes
 Reduce aristocratic influence
 Abolishing torture and limiting capital punishment
o Other monarchs had similar concerns as a way to get more power
o Mid century wars inflicted damage to the economy, so Frederick used the power
to foster growth
 Continued to import workers
 Had state agriculture, and peasants were strongly encouraged to migrate
 Potatoes and Turnip became important crops
o However, not much improvement as tax burden fell on peasants
B. Joseph II of Austria
•
•
Embodied impersonal force
o Son of Maria Theresa and co-ruled from 1765-1780
 Ruled alone until 1790
o Most of his life slept on straw and ate boiled beef
 Pride in his narrow, passionless rationality, he imposed on other domains
o Seriously wanted to help the people, but the result was a series of rebellions
Centralization of Authority
o Austria was most diverse in people
o Never made a strong administrative structure or aristocracy loyal to the dynasty
o Maria Theresa guaranteed the aristocracy lots of independence in War of the
Austrian Succession
 Strengthened the crown afterwards with a efficient system of tax
collection
 Taxed clergy and nobles
 Central councils to deal with problems
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Brought education to the service of crown for a supply of educated
officials
o Concerned of welfare of peasants and serfs
 Expanded authority of royal bureaucracy
 Limited robot
 More for military recruits
o Joseph II Extended his territories into Poland, Bavaria, and the Ottoman Empire
 Purpose was to increase authority of Habsburg empire and overcome
pluralism with central authority
 Reduced Hungarian autonomy
• Required German in governmental matters
• Reorganized local government
Ecclesiastical Policies
o Joseph targeted the church
o Maria Theresa was devout, but church didn’t limit her
 Opposed religious toleration
o Joseph was catholic, but encouraged toleration
 Freedom of worship to Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox
 And private worship to Jews, and gave a bit more rights
o Tried to bring the church under the control
 Bishops couldn’t communicate with the pope
 Dissolved orders that didn’t run schools or hospitals as they were
unproductive
 Changed seminaries so they emphasized parish duties, and made them
employees of the state
o His policies Josephinism were like those of the French revolution
Economic and Agrarian reform
o Sought to improve economic life
 Abolished internal tariffs
 Encouraged infrastructure
 Personally inspected farms and manufacturing districts
o Made laws more uniform and rational to lesson the influence of local landlords
 Intended to bring unity to the state and more taxes
o Made the authority of the landlords less on the peasants
 Gave them more freedoms
 To make them more productive
o New lax taxation, in 1789 taxed everyone, not just peasants
 Changed robot to monetary tax
 Died with Joseph in 1790
 Brought turmoil as Peasants revolted against landlords about rights
Succeeded by Leopold II
o Had to repeal most of the things
o Did return voice to nobles as he thought they should have a voice in government
o Retained Religious policies

•
•
•
C. Catherine the Great of Russia
•
Catherine II understood the fragility of the base of power.
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After death of Peter the Great, court nobles determined the Russian succession
Crown went to incompetent people
Married to Peter III
 Lived in time of frequent danger in court of Elizabeth
 Made friends with lots of nobles and read a lot
o After Peter was killed with Catherine’s approval, she was empress
Catherine’s familiarity with enlightenment convinced her that Russia was backwards
o Understood that reform must have a political and social base
 1767 summoned a legislative commission with more than 500 delegate
 Issued a set of instructions and commission considered the constructions
 1768 disbanded, but it was useful and that people saw no alternative to
autocratic monarchy
Limited Administrative Reform
o Strong support to rights of nobility
 1775 reorganized local government to solve issues of the legislative
commission
 Power in hands of nobles rather than bureaucracy
o Favored nobles as they had the real control
o Too small of an educated class to make a good bureaucracy, and couldn’t afford
an army
Economic Growth
o Continued economic development that began with Peter the Great
o Suppressed internal barriers
 Exports grew dramatically
o Maintained friendship with philosophes, who gave her a good reputation
Territorial Expansion
o Russian drive for warm-water ports continued
 Resulted in warfare with Turks
 1769 Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia
o Russian fleet sailed into the eastern Mediterranean and army won alot
 1771 Russia got control of Ottoman provinces on the Danube River and
Crimean coast
 Dragged on until 1774 with Treaty of Kuchukkainardji that gave Russia
a outlet on the Black Sea and access through Bosporus
o Annexed Crimina
 Became protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman with would
cause tensions with the French monarch who was the protector of the
Roman Catholics
o
o
o
•
•
•
•
D. The Partition of Poland
•
Russian military made others in eastern Europe uneasy
o Austria didn’t like Russian victories along Danube who also wanted to expand
that way
o Also Ottomans was trying to ally with Prussia
o Frederick the Great made a compromise
 Russia abandon Danubian, and would receive polish territory
 Prussia would get the territory between east and west Prussia
 Austria got some salt mines
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•
September 1772 helpless Polish aristocracy paid the wages of decentralized state ratified
the seizer
o Did revive national feeling a bit too late
o The French Revolution would partition Poland again, and then yet again
E. The End of the Eighteenth Central in Central and Eastern Europe
•
During last 2 decades, the regimes became conservative and repressive
o Caused by resistance of nobility in Prussia and Austria, and in Russia fear of
peasant unrest
 Frederick the Great grew remote in old age
 Prussian Lutherans reacted to Enlightenment ideas
o Joseph turned to censorship and secret police to repress nobility
o Russia had Pugachev’s Rebellion and Catherine never recovered
 After French revolution, censored books and sent authors to Siberia
o The biggest rejection of enlightenment was the enlightened rules
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I. The Crisis of the French Monarchy
A. Overview
o Turning point in modern European history
o Grew out of tensions and problems that characterized most 18th century nationsmonarchies found themselves lacking adequate revenues and provoked aristocratic
and popular resistance and resentment
o French monarchy emerged from 7YW deeply in debt and further deepened financial
difficulties after supporting the America Revolution
o THE REAL problem lay with the inability of the royal government to tap the wealth
of the French nation through taxes to service and repay the debt
o France was a rich nation with an impoverished government
B. The Monarchy Seeks New Taxes
o failure of French monarchy to come to terms with resurgent aristocratic institutions,
particularly the parlements
o standoff b/t them as royal ministers tried to devise tax schemes that would tap the
wealth of the nobility only to be opposed by both the Parlement of Paris and the
provincial parlements
o Louis XV and Louis XVI lacked character to resolve the dispute, moral and political
corruption of their courts meant the monarchy could not rally the public to their side
o Rene Maupeou: appointed as chancellor by Louis XV in 1770, determined to break
the parlements and increase taxes on the nobility, abolished all parlements and exiled
their members, began an ambitious program to make the administration more
efficient, what ultimately doomed Maupeou was the death of Louis XV, Louis XVI
in an attempt to regain popular support, restored all the parlements and their powers
o Parlements, dominated by the aristocracy, defended their cause in the language of
liberty and reform against an intrusive monarchy drawing on the ideas of many
Enlightenment writers
o Nobility sought to roll back more than a century of monarchical absolutism
o France’s intervention on behalf of colonists worsened financial problems
o Jacques Necker: director-general of finances, a Swiss banker who argued that if
expenditures for the American war were removed the budget was in surplus, report
revealed that a large portion of the budget went to pensions for aristocrats and other
royal court favorites, financial sleight of hand made it more difficult for later
government officials to claim a real need to raise new taxes
C. Calonne’s Reform Plan and the Assembly of Notables
o Charles Alexandre de Calonne-minister of finance of France (1734-1802)
o Encouraged internal trade, lowering of taxes (gabelle on salt), transform peasant’s
services to money payments, urged introduction of a new land tax that would require
payments from ALL landowners
o It his tax had been imposed, the monarchy could have abandoned all other indirect
taxes
o Intended to establish new local assemblies to approve land taxes whose voting power
would depend on the amount of land owned
o These proposals would have undermined both the political and social power of the
aristocracy
o Calonne’s policies and country’s fiscal crisis made clash with nobility inevitable
o Calonne met with an Assembly of Notables-drawn from upper ranks of aristocracy
and church to seek support for his plan, the assembly refused any action and
demanded that the aristocracy be allowed a greater share in the government of the
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kingdom, called for reappointment of Necker who they believed left the country in
sound fiscal condition, finally claimed they had no right to consent to new taxes,
notables believed that the right was vested only in the calling of the Estates
General
D. Deadlock and the Calling of the Estates General
o Louis XVI dismisses Calonne, replaces him with Etienne Charles Lomenie de
Brienne, archbishop of Toulouse and chief opponent of Calonne at the Assembly of
Notables
o Brienne sought to reform the land tax
o Parlement of Paris refused to under grounds that only the Estates General could do so
o Brienne appeals to the Assembly of the Clergy to approve a large subsidy to allow
funding of part of the debt, but the clergy refused and reduced its existing
contribution, or don gratuity, to the government
o Local aristocratic parlements wanted restoration of the privileges before Richelieu
o In 1788 Louis XVI through Brienne convoked the Estates General the next year
o Brienne resigned and Necker replaced him
o The institutions of the aristocracy and the church had defeated royal absolutism and
some kind of political reform was at hand
II. The Revolution of 1879
A. Overview: The year 1789 proved to be one of the most remarkable in the history of
both France and Europe. The French aristocracy had forced Louis XVI to call the
Estates General into session. From the moment the king summoned the Estates
General, the political situation in France changed drastically and social and political
forces that neither the nobles nor the king could control were immediately released.
B. Different historical interpretations of the Revolution of 1789
o 1st Group: Some historians believed the calling and gathering of the Estates
General unleashed a clash b/t the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy
o 2nd Group: Other historians have countered that the 2 groups had much in
common and that members of both groups resented the absolutist monarchy
o This 2nd group contends the fundamental issue of 1789 was the determination of
various social groups to reorganize the French gov. to assure future poltical
influence
o This process caused distrust b/t the aristocracy and increasing radical middleclass leaders who turned to tradespeople building alliances with them to achieve
their goals
o 2nd group thought that differences b/t social groups during the rev’s causes were
immediate not long-term
o 3rd group: believe the faltering of the monarchy created a political vacuum
where various leaders and social groups stepped in challenging each other for
dominance
o Debates and conflicts over political life were made possible by the print
revolution where a large number of authors used their skills to radicalize the
discussion
o Thought the French Revolution illustrates the character of a new political culture
created by changes in the technology and distribution fo print communication
o 4th group: maintains that the events of 1789 through 1795 are one chapter in a
longer-term politica reorganization of France following the paralysis of
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monarchical government concluded at the establishement of the Third Republic
in the 1870s
o Thought the core accomplishment of the REV was to lay down foundations for
a republic that could assure both individual liberty and the safety of property
o Consensus: revolution did not arise entirely from conflict b/t the aristocracy and
the bourgeoisie
C. The Estates General Becomes the National Assembly
o After Estates General was called, the three groups (Estates) clashed
o 1st Estate-nobility, 2nd Estate-clergy, 3rd Estate-everybody else drawn primarily from
wealthy members of the commercial and professional middle classes
o During the meeting of the EG, the 3rd Estate made it clear they would not permit the
monarchy and the aristocracy to decide the future of the nation
1.
Debate over Organization and Voting
o 2 moves by aristocracy to limit the influence of the 3rd Estate
-demanded equal # of representatives per estate
-Parlement of Paris ruled that voting in the Estates General should be conducted
by order rather than by head so that each estate had a vote rather than each
member ensuring that the 1st and 2nd Estates could outvote the Third
o Both moves revealed the aristocracy as a group hoping to maintain its
privileges no matter what gov. reforms might be enacted
o A fundamental social distance separated the members of the 3rd and 1st estate
although they had shared ECON interests and some intermarriage
o Resistance of nobility to voting by head confirmed the suspicions and
resentments of the members of the 3rd Estate
2. Doubling the Third
o Royal council decided the cause of the monarchy and fiscal reform would be
served by strengthening the 3rd Estate
o Announced that the 3rd Estate would elect twice as many representatives as
the other Estates and made it so that it could dominate the EG if voting was
by head rather than order
3. The Cahiers de Doleances
o Representatives brought Cahiers de doleances-list of grievances registered
by the local electors to be presented to the king
o Criticisms of government waste, indirect taxes, church taxes and corruption,
and the hunting rights of the aristocracy
o Included calls for periodic meetings of the EG, more equitable taxes, and
equality of rights among the king’s subjects
4. The Third Estate Creates the National Assembly
o Questions of organization and voting needed to be decide before demands
addressed
o The 3rd Estate refused to sit as a separate order as the king desired
o 3rd Estate invites the clergy and nobles to join them in organizing a new
legislative body called the National Assembly
o Some of the clergy and the 2nd Estate join the National Assembly
5. The Tennis Court Oath
o National Assembly is locked out of meeting place and moves to a tennis
court
o Members took an oath to sit there until they had given France a constitution,
the “Tennis Court Oath”
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Louis XVI unsuccessfully ordered the NA to desist from its actions
A large group of clergy and a significant group of nobles also join the NA
o On 6/27, the king requested the 1st and 2nd Estates to meet with the NA where
voting would occur by head rather than by order
o The monarchy could govern only in coop with the NA and the NA should not
be a legislative body org. according to privileged orders
o The NA renamed the National Constituent Assembly (NCA) composed of
majority of members drawn from all three orders who shared liberal goals for
the administrative, constitutional and economic reform of the country. The
revolution in France against government by privileged hereditary orders,
however, soon extended beyond events occurring at Versailles
D. Fall of the Bastille
o 2 new forces on the scene:
1.
Louis XVI-attempted to regain political initiative by
mustering royal tropps near Versailles and Paris, contemplated disrupting the National
Constituent Assembly, dismissed Necker, marked the beginning of a steady, poorly
executive royal attempt to undermine the assembly and halt the revolution. Impact of
actions: thwarted effort of the majority of the National Constituent Assembly to
establish some form of constitutional monarchy when Louis aligned with the
conservative aristocracy against the emerging forces of reform
2.
Populace of Paris-anxiety from royal troops, bread riots
created atmosphere for Parisians who elected their representatives to the TE to continue
meeting, collecting arms, organizing militia, and regarded the dismissal of Necker as
the opening of a royal offensive against the NCA and the city.
o Fall of Bastille: July 14, 1789-more than 800 commonfolks marched to Bastille in
search of weapons for the militia, the troops in the Bastille fired into the crowd
through miscalculations killing 98, the crowd storms the fortress, releases prisoners
inside and killed several troops and the governor
o Marquis de Lafayette-offered command of the National Guard (militia of Paris),
hero of the American Revolution, gave the guard a new insignia of red and blue
stripes of Paris separated by the white stripe of the king known as the revolutionary
cockade (badge) and eventually the flag of France
o Impact: signaled the NCA alone would not decide the political future of France,
similar disturbances took place in provincial cities, Louis XVI personally visits Paris
wearing the revolutionary cockade and recognized the organized electors and Nat.
Guard as legitimate, the citizens of Paris had established themselves as an
independent political force with which other political groups might ally with
E. The “Great Fear” and the Night of August 4
o Movement of intensification of peasant disturbances when rumors spread that royal
troops would be sent into the rural districts: burning of chateaux, destruction of
records/documents, refusal to pay feudal dues
o Peasants determined to take possession of food supplies and land they claimed were
rightfully theirs
o Reclaimed rights/property they had lost through the aristocratic resurgence
o August 4, 1789-aristocrats in the NCA attempt to halt disorder, by prearrangement
several liberal nobles and clerics rose in the assembly and renounced their feudal
rights, game rights, judicial authority and special exemptions
o After the night of August 4, 1789 all French citizens were subject to the same and
equal laws
o
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Paved way for legal and social reconstruction of the nation
o Attack on Bastille and the Great Fear displayed characteristics of the rural/urban riots
that often occurred in 18th century France.
o Louis XVI thought the turmoil over Bastille was simply another bread riot
o Deep economic downturn struck France in 1787-1788, harvests were poor, food
prices, economic problems helped the REV reach vast proportions
o Political, social, and economic grievances of many sections of the country became
combined, NCA looked to popular forces as source of strength against the king and
conservative aristocrats
o When various elements of assembly fell into quarrels, they appealed for support to
the politically sophisticated and well-organized shopkeeping/artisan classes
F. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
o NCA decided to set forth broad political principles on August 27, 1789
o Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen-proclaimed that all men were born
and remain free and equal in rights, government existed to protect natural rights of
liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, equality under the law, due
process, innocent until proven guilty, freedom of religion, equal taxation according to
capacity to pay, emphasis on property as an “inviolable and sacred right”
o Statements were abstract, but directed against specific abuses of the absolutist regime
o 2 major principles: civic equality and protection of property
o Considered the Death Certificate of the Old Regime
o Specifically applied to men and not to women
o Drew on much of the political language of the Enlightenment
o Men were suited for citizenship, women for motherhood and domestic life
o Some people saw in the declaration a framework within which women might enjoy
the rights and protections of citizenship
G. The Parisian Women’s March on Versailles
o Louis XVI stalled b4 ratifying both declaration and aristocratic renunciation of
feudalism
o On October 5, a crowd of 7000 Parisian women armed marched to Versailles
demanding more bread
o King agreed to sanction the decrees of the assembly after this march
o Parisians demanded Louis and his family return to Paris to keep a watchful eye on
him
o Impact: march was the first example of a popular insurrection employing the
language of popular sovereignty directed against the monarch
o NCA moved into Paris and both Paris and France remain stable until 1792
III. The Reconstruction of France
A. Overview-once established in Paris, the NCA reorganized France: pursued policy of
constitutional monarchy, rationalism, unregulated freedom in economics, anticlericalism
in religion. The religion was determined to protect property in all forms united with the
middle-class. The assembly limited national life of the unpropertied elements of the
nation and possessors of small amounts of property. The assembly spurned social
equality and extensive democracy, but championed civic equality before the law. The
assembly charted a general course that 19th century liberals across Europe would follow.
B. Political Reorganization
o Constitution of 1791, product of the NCA’s deliberations established a constitutional
monarchy
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o The major political authority of the nation would be a Legislative Assembly (LA) in
which all laws would originate
Monarch was allowed suspensive veto that would delay, but not halt legislation
Powers of war and peace were vested in the assembly
1. Active and Passive Citizens
o Citizens divided into active and passive categories
o Intended to thwart direct popular pressure on the gov’t through indirect
elections
o Only active citizens-men paying annual taxes equal to 3 days of local
labor wages, could vote
o Active citizens chose electors who then could vote for the members of
the legislature
o At level of electors or members even further qualifications were imposed
o Only a pop. of 25 million qualified as electors/members of the LA
o Constitutional arrangements transferred political power from aristocratic
wealth to propertied wealth in the nation
o Political authority would no longer be achieved through hereditary
privilege or through purchase of titles, but through accumulation of land
and commercial property
o Allowed more social/economic interests to have a voice in the gov’t
2. Olympe de Gouge’s Declaration of the Rights of Woman
o Laws that excluded women from both voting/holding office noticed
o Olympe de Gouges-butcher’s daughter from Montabaun who became a
major revolutionary radical in Paris composed a Declaration of the
Rights of Woman ironically addressed to Marie Antoinette
o DRW-reprinted DRMC adding words woman to various original clauses,
demanded that woman be regarded as citizens, outlined rights that would
permit women to won property and require men to recognize the
paternity of their children
o Called for equality of sexes in marriage and improved education
o Her declaration illustrated how the simple listing of rights in the DRMC
created a structure of universal civic expectations that it did not meet
o Impact: NA provided a criteria for liberty and those whom it had not
extended full liberties could demand to know why and claim the
revolution was incomplete until they enjoyed those freedoms
3. Departments Replace Provinces
o NCA applied rational spirit of Enlightenment in reconstructing the local
and judicial administration
o Abolished the ancient French provinces like Burgundy and Brittany
o Established in their place 83 departements of generally equal size
named after geographical features
o Departments subdivided into districts, cantons, and communes
o Local elections were indirect
o Permanent achievement of the assembly-exists present day
o All the ancient judicial courts including the parlements were abolished
o Uniform courts with elected judges and prosecutors were org. in their
place with simplified procedures and degrading punishments removed
C. Economic Policy
o
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NCA continued policies formerly advocated by Louis XVI’s reformist ministerssuppressed the guilds and liberated the grain trade, established the metric system to
provide the nation with uniform weights and measures
1.
Worker’s Organization Forbidden
o Assembly placed the burden of proof on the peasants to rid themselves of residual
feudal dues for which compensation was to be paid
o On June 14, the assembly crushed the urban workers to protect their wages by
enacting the Chapelier Law-forbade worker’s associations
o Peasants and workers were left to the free market
o Policies of economic freedom/uniformity disappointed both peasants and urban
workers caught in the cycle of inflation
2.
Confiscation of Church Lands
o Assembly did not repudiate the royal debt, because it was owed to the merchants,
bankers and the commercial traders of the Third Estate
o NCA suppressed many of the old, hated indirect taxes and had substituted new land
taxes, but these were inefficient with not enough officials to collect them
o Assembly decided to finance the debt by confiscating and then selling the land
and property of the Roman Catholic Church in France-one of the most decisive
actions by the assembly
o Results were further inflation, religious schism and civil war, the NCA had opened a
new chapter in the relations b/t church and state in Europe
3.
The Assignats
o NCA authorized the issuance of assignats-gov. bonds, in December 1789, value was
guaranteed by the revenue to be generated from the sale of church property
o Initially a limit was set on the quantity of assignats to be issued
o Bonds proved so acceptable to public they began to circulate as currency
o Assembly issued an even larger number of them to liquidate the national debt and to
create a large body of new property owners with a direct stake in the REV
o Within a few months, value of the assignats began to fall and inflation increased
putting new stress on the lives of the urban poor
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Confiscation of church lands required an ecclesiastical reconstruction
In July 1790, the NCA issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy-transformed the
Roman Catholic Church in France into a branch of the secular state
Legislation reduced the # of bishoprics from 135 to 83 and brought the borders of the
dioceses into comformity with those of the new departments
Provided for the election of priests and bishops who became the salaried employees of
the state
Assembly consulted neither the pope/clergy about changes, king reluctantly approved
MAJOR BLUNDER of the NCA: embittered relations b/t the French church and state
that have persisted to the present day
Immediately created immense opposition within the French Church
The assembly unwisely ruled that all clergy take on an oath to support the CC of the C
Only 7 bishops and half of the clergy did so, in reprisal the assembly designated those
clergy as “refractory” and removed them from their clerical functions
Further reaction: refractor priests attempted to celebrate mass, pope condemned not only
the CC of the C but also the DRMC, marking the opening of a Roman Catholic offensive
against liberalism and the revolution that continued throughout the 19th century
o
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The pope’s action created a crisis of conscience and political loyalty for all sincere
Catholics
o Religious devotion and revolution became incompatible dividing French citizens who
supported the constitutional priests and those who resorted to the refractory clergy
o The king favored the refractory clergy
E. Counterrevolutionary Activity
o As the old political and social order was toppled, many aristocrats left France known as
the émigrés-settled in countries near the French border where they sought to foment
counterrevolution
o The count of Artois-the king’s younger brother was one of them who persuaded Louis
XVI to attempt to flee the country in the summer of 1791
1. Flight to Varennes
o On night of June 20, 1791 Louis and his immediate family disguised as servants
left Paris traveling as far as Varennes on their way to Metz
o At Varennes, the king was recognized and his flight was halted
o ON June 24 a company of soldiers escorted the royal family back to Paris
o Leaders of the NCA determined to save the constitutional monarchy announced
the king had been abducted from the capital
o Such a convenient public fiction could not cloak the realities that the chief
counterrevolutionary in France now sat on the throne
2. Declaration of Pillnitz
o 2 months later on August 27 under pressure from a group of émigrés, Emperor
Leopold II of Austria-brother of Marie Antoinette and Frederick William IIking of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz
o The 2 monarchs promised to intervene in France to protect the royal family and
to preserve the monarchy if the other major European powers agreed
o This provision rendered the declaration meaningless, b/c GB would not have
given consent
o Declaration did have impact in France where revolutionaries saw the nation
surrounded by aristocratic and monarchical foes
o The NCA drew to a close in Sept. 1791
o One of its last acts was the passage of a measure that forbade any of its own
members to sit in the LA, the new body met on Oct. 1 and had to confront the
immense problems that had emerged
o Within the LA, major political divisions developed, the groups whose members
had been assigned passive citizenship began to demand full political participation
in the nation
o Situation both inside and outside of France remained unstable: Louis accepted
the constitution, aristocrats resented loss of position, peasants resisted the rev
changes especially as they affected the church, groups of workers believed the
rev had not gone far enough, women’s groups organized, radical members of the
LA believed the rev should go further, major foreign powers saw the Rev as
dangerous to their own political order
o These unstable elements had begun to overturn the first revolutionary settlement
and led to a second series of revolutionary changes far more radical and
democratically extensive than the first
o
IV. The End of the Monarchy: A Second Revolution
A. Emergence of the Jacobins
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o
o
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o
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o
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Issues raised by the CC of the C and Louis XVI’s uncertainty undermined the unity
of the newly organized nation
Factionalism plagued the LA throughout its short life (1791-1792)
Ever since the original calling of the EG, deputies from the TE had organized
themselves into clubs composed of politically like-minded persons
Jacobins-most famous/best org. of these clubs, name derived from the fact that
Dominican friars were called Jacobins and the group met in a Dominican monastery
Jacobins established network of local clubs throughout the provinces
Most advanced political group in the NCA, pressing for a republic rather than a
constitutional monarchy
Political language drawn from the most RADICAL thought of the Enlightenment
Language/ideas became more effective b/c events of 1789-1791 had destroyed the
old political f/w of the old monarchical political vocabulary
The political language of republic filled that vacuum and supplied the political values
of the day
Events of the summer of 1791 led to reassertion of demands for a republic
Girondists-group of Jacobins in the LA from the department of the Gironde assumed
leadership
Determined to oppose the forces of counterrevolution: passed one measure ordering
the émigrés to return or suffer loss of property and another requiring the refractor
clergy to support the Civil Constitution or lose their state pensions
4/20/1792-Girondists lead the LA in declaring war on Austria governed by Francis
II and allied to Prussia
Girondists believed war would preserve the revolution from domestic enemies and
bring the most advanced revolutionaries to power
Louis and other monarchists also favored the war thinking the conflict would
strengthen the exe. Power, entertained hope that foreign armies might defeat Fr.
forces and restore the Old Regime
Both sides played dangerously foolish politics
War radicalized the REV led to what is usually called the second revolution which
overthrew the constitutional monarchy and established a republic
Pauline Leon-led a group of women that petitioned the LA for the right to bear arms
and fight for the protection of the REV, Leon had led an effort to allow women to
serve in the National Guard earlier, demands to serve voiced in the universal
language of citizenship illustrated how the rhetoric of the REV could be used to
challenge traditional social roles
Pressure of war raised possibility that the military needs of the nation couldn’t be met
unless Frenchwomen did enlist in the army and the ideal of separate spheres was not
upheld
Initial war effort was poor-Duke of Brunswick, commander of Prussian forces
issued a manifesto promising the destruction of Paris if harm came to the Fr. royal
family-statement stiffened support for the war and increased the already significant
distrust of the king
Radical working-class pressure caused the gov. of Paris to pass from the elected
council to a committee, or commune, of representatives from the sections of the city
ON August 10, 1792 a large Parisian crowd invaded the Tuileries palace and forced
Louis XVI and Marie to take refuge in the LA
Crowd fought with royal Swiss guards, several hundred of them nad many citizens
died
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Monarchy itself was casualty-royal family was imprisoned and the king was allowed
none of his political functions: NO CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
B. The Convention and the Role of the Sans-Culottes
1. The September Massacres
o Sept. Massacres-Paris Commune summarily executed about 1,200 ppl in the city
jails, many aristocrats/priests but mostly common criminals
o Paris Commune compelled the LA to call for the election by universal male
voting of a new assembly to write a democratic constitution
o Convention-new assembly met on Sept. 21, 1792
o Previous day the Fr. army had halted the Prussian advance at the Battle of
Valmy in eastern France
o Impact: victory of democratic forces at home confirmed by victory in battle
o First act of Convention-declared France a republic, a nation governed by an
elected assembly w/o a monarch
2. Goals of the Sans-culottes
o Second REV had been the work of Jacobins more radical than the Girondists and
the people of Paris known as the sans-culottes, people without breeches
distinguishing themselves from the knee breeches of the aristocrats
o Shopkeepers, arisans, wage earners, factor workers
o Politics of the Old Regime ignored them, inflation and food shortages burdened
their lives
o Policies of the NCA left them victims of the free market
o From summer of 1792-1794-their attitudes, desires, and ideals were the primary
factors in the internal development of the revolution
o Sought immediate relief from food shortages and rising prices, believed all ppl
had a right to subsistence and resented social inequality
o Intensely hostile to the aristocracy and the original leaders of the REV
o Advocated a community of small property owners who would also participate in
political nation
o Antimonarchichal, strongly republic an and suspicious of even representative
government
o DIRECT DEMOCRACY
o Gained political experience in meetings of the Paris sections, exemplified direct
community democracy similar to a New England town hall meeting
3. The Policies of the Jacobins
o Goals of the sans-culottes were not wholly compatible with Jacobins-republicans
who sought representative gov. whose hatred of the aristocracy did not extend to
a general suspicion of social and economic inequality
o Jacobins favored an unregulated economy
o From time of Louis’s flight to Varennes, more extreme Jacobins began to
cooperate with the leaders of the sans-culottes and the Paris Commune
o These Jacobins, known as the Mountain because of their seats high in the
assembly hall worked with the sans-culottes to carry the REV forward and win
the war during the Convention
o The Mountain’s willingness to coop with the forces of the popular revolution
separated them from the Girondists who were also members of the Jacobins
4. Execution of Louis XVI
o Several issues had brought the Mountain and its sans-culottes allies to
domination of the Convention and the REV
o
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o Louis XVI was put on trial as a mere “Citizen Capet”, the family name of
extremely distant forebears of the royal family in Dec. 1792
Girondists tried to spare his life, but the Mountain defeated them
Louis was convicted by a very narrow majority of conspiring against the liberty
of the people and the security of the state
o Beheaded on January 21, 1793
o The next month, Convention declares war on GB, Holland, and Spain
o Prussians renewed offensive and drove the Fr. out of Belgium
o General Dumouriez- Girondist victor of Valmy deserted to the enemy
o A royalist revolt led by aristocracy and priests erupted in the Vendee in western
France and rouse d much popular support
o The REV found itself at war with most of Europe and much of the French
o Girondists had led the country into the war, but proved incapable
o The Mountain stood ready to take up the task, every major European power was
now hostile to the REV
V> Europe at War with the Revolution
A. Overview: Initially, Europe had been ambivalent toward the REV. Ppl favoring
political reform regarded the revolution as a rational reorganizing of the gov/t and the
major foreign gov’ts thought the REV would not have a lasting impact
B. Edmund Burke Attacks the Revolution
o In 1790 Edmund Burke-Irish-born writer and British statesman argued that the
reconstruction of France was an application of blind rationalism that ignored the
historical realities of political development and the complexities of social relations
o Reflections on the Revolution in France-Burke forcasted further turmoil as people
w/o political experience tried to govern France
o As the revolutionaries proceeded to attack the church, monarchy and all of Europe,
Burke’s ideas came to become popular
o His Reflections and later works became the handbook of European conservatives for
decades
o By the outbreak of war with Austria, other European monarchies recognized the
danger of both the ideas and aggression of the REV, the ideals of the Rights of Man
and Citizen were highly exportable and applicable to the rest of Europe
o Impact: one government after another turned to repressive domestic policies
C. Suppression of Reform in Britain
o William Pitt the Younger-prime minister who had unsuccessfully supported the
moderate reform of Parliament during the 1789s turned against both reform and
popular governments
o Government suppressed London Corresponding Society, founded in 1792 as a
working-class reform group
o In Birmingham, the government sponsored mob action to drive Joseph Priestley-a
famous chemist and radical political thinker out of the country
o In early 1793 Pitt secured parliamentary approval for acts suspending habeas corpus
and making it possible to commit treason in writing
o Pitt attempted to curb freedom of press with less success
o All political groups who dared oppose the government faced being associated with
sedition
D. War with Europe
o French invasion of the Austrian Nlands and revolutionary reorganization of htat
territory roused the rest of Europe to the point of active hostility
o
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IN November 1792 the Convention declared it would aid all peoples who wished to
cast off the burdens of aristocratic and monarchical oppression
o Proclaimed the Scheldt River in the Nlands was open to the commerce of all nations
and thus had violated a treaty that Great Britain had made with Austria and Holland
o British were on the point of declaring war on France over this issue when the
Convention beat them to the punch in February 1793
o By April, the Jacobins began to direct the Fr. gov’t the nation was at war with
Austria, Prussia, GB, Spain, Sardinia, and Holland
o The gov’ts of those nations allied in what is known as the First Coalition were
attempting to protect their social structures, political systems, and economic interests
against the aggression of the REV
o
VI. The Reign of Terror
A. Overview-outbreak of war in 1793 brought new radical political actions within France as
the revolutionary gov’t mobilized itself and the nation for conflict. An internal war for the
defense of the new republic took place with the gov’t taking extraordinary actions intervening
in everyday life and executing thousands. This internal war/period of time became known as
the Reign of Terror.
B. The Republic Defended
o Rev gov’t organized a collective executive in the form of powerful committees
o Sought to organize all Fr. national life on wartime footing
o War effort brought the suppression of many liberties within France and led to a
destructive search for the internal enemies of the revolution
1. The Committee of Public Safety
o In Apr 1973 Convention established a Committee of General Security and a
Committee of Public Safety to carry out the executive duties of the gov.
o C of PS became more important and enjoyed almost dictatorial power
o Most prominent leaders: Jacques Danton-provided heroic leadership in Sept.
1792, and Maximilien Robespierre- became for a time the single most powerful
member of the committee and Lazare Carnot-in charge of military
o These men were all strong republicans opposing the weak policies of Girondists
o Task was to save the REV from enemies within and abroad
o Enjoyed a working political relationship with the sans-culottes of Paris, but was
an alliance of expediency on part of committee
2. The Levee en Masse
o Major problem for Convention was to wage war and at the same time secure
domestic support for the effort
o In early June 1793 the sans-culottes invaded the Convention and successfully
demanded the expulsion of the Girondist members
o Action further radicalized the Convention and gave the Mountain complete
control
o June 22, the Convention approved a fully democratic constitution but delayed
implementation until the conclusion of war (never implemented)
o Levee en masse (THE FRENCH DRAFT)-On August 23, Carnot began
mobilization for victory by issuing this military requisition on the entire
population conscripting males into the army and directing economic production
to military purposes
o Ceiling on prices established in accord with sans-culottes demands
o Armies of the REV successfully crushed many counterREV disturbances
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Impact: First time a nation had been organized this way for war or defended by a
citizen army
o Reign of Terror had begun, months of judicial executions and murders from fall
of 1793 to summer of 1794 probably the most famous period of REV
o Understood only in context of the war and the revolutionary expectations of
the Convention and the sans-culottes
C. The “Republic of Virtue” and Robespierre’s Justification of Terror
o Presence of armies made it easy to dispense with legal due process
o People who sat in the Convention and the C of PS did not see actions simply as
expediency necessary by war, but they believed they were creating a “Republic of
Virtue”-in this republic, civic virtue- the sacrifice of one’s self and interest for the
good of the republic, would flourish instead of selfish aristocratic/monarchical
corruption
o Republic of virtue manifested in many ways: renaming of streets from the
egalitarian vocabulary of the revolution, republican dress copied from the sansculottes or the Roman Republic, absence of powdered wigs, suppression of plays that
were insufficiently republican, attack against crimes such as prostitution that were
supposedly characteristics of aristocratic society
o Core Value of Republic of Virtue-upholding the public over the private good, it
was in the name of the public that the C of PS carried out the policies of terror
o Maximilien de Robespierre: emerged as the leading figure on the C of PS,
embodied the republic of virtue defended by terror, selfless revolutionary figure, “the
Incorruptible,” had favored a republic from start of REV, got power from the Jacobin
Club
o Robespierre had opposed the war in fear that it might aid the monarchy
o Depended largely on the support of the sans-culottes but continued to dress as he had
before the revolution
o The republic of virtue meant wholehearted support of republican government and
renunciation of selfish gains from political life to him
o “Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice; it is therefore an emanation
of virtue”
o Impact: first of a succession of secular ideologues who would bring so much
suffering to Europe, policies associated with terror in the name of republic virtue
included the exclusion of women, de-Christianization of France, and the use of
revolutionary tribunals to dispense justice to alleged enemies of the republic through
the form of countless executions
D. Repression of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women
o Society of Revolutionary Republican Women: institution established by Pauline
Leon and Claire Lacombe in May 1793, purpose was to fight the internal enemies
of the REV seeing themselves as militant citizens
o Initially the Jacobin welcomed the org., it’s members and other women filled the
galleries of the Convention to hear debates and cheer their favorite speakers
o Society of RRW became increasingly radical-sought stricter controls on prices of
commodities and brawled with working market women deemed insufficiently
revolutionary
o Demanded the right to wear the cockade usually worn only by male citizens
o Jacobins disagreed with their economic policies, used Rousseauian language of
separate spheres for men/women to justify exclusion of women from policy
o
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o Examples of exclusion: Olymipa de Gouges, author of the Declaration of the
Rights of Women accused some Jacobins of corruption, tried and guillotined in Nov.
1793. Same year women were formally excluded from serving in the army and the
galleries of the Convention
o Exclusion of women from public political life was part of the establishment of
the Jacobin republic of virtue, because in such a republic men would be active
citizens in the military and political sphere and women would be active in the
domestic sphere
E. De-Christianization
o Most dramatic departure of the republic of virtue was an attempt by the Convention
to de-Christianize France
o Convention proclaimed a new calendar dating from the 1st day of the Fr. Republic
o Every tenth day, rather than every 7th was a holiday, 12 months of thirty days each
with names associated with seasons/climate, most important events of the next few
years became known by their dates on the Revolutionary calendar
o In Nov. 1793 Convention decreed the Cathedral of Notre Dame to be a “Temple of
Reason”
o Legislature sent trusted members, known as deputies on mission, into the provinces
to enforce de-Christianization by closing churches, persecuting believers/clergy,
forcing priests to marry
o Impact: religious policy roused much opposition and deeply separated the French
provinces from the revolutionary gov’t in Paris
o Robespierre opposed de-Christianization because he thought it would be a political
blunder alienating ppl from loyalty to the republic
F. Revolutionary Tribunals
o Revolutionary tribunals-established by the Convention during the summer of 1793,
mandate was to try the “enemies” of the republic, manifested the Reign of Terror
o “enemies”-those who might aid other Europeans, endangered republican virtue, and
good republicans who opposed policies of the dominant factions of the republic
o Terror of the revolutionary tribunals systematized and channeled the popular
resentment that had manifested itself in the September Massacres of 1792
o Those whom the tribunals condemned in Paris were beheaded on the guillotine, other
modes used in the provinces
o First victims of the Terror were Marie Antoinette, other members of royal family,
some aristocrats, followed by certain Girondists
o Executions took place in the same weeks the Convention had moved against the S of
RRW
o By early 1794, Terror had moved to provinces where the deputies on mission
presided over the execution of many peasants who had allegedly supported the
internal opposition to the revolution
o Most famous of these occurred in Nantes-hundreds were tied to rafts and drowned
o Victims of the Terror were now coming from any class including the sans-culottes
F. The End of the Terror
1. Revolutionaries turn against themselves
o During late winter of 1794, Robespierre began to orchestrate the Terror against
republican political figures of the left and right
o He secured the execution of certain extreme sans-culottes leaders known as the
enrages-wanted further measures regulating prices, securing social equality, and
pressing de-Christianization (liberal Republicans)
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o He then turned against more conservative republicans including Danton-accused
of being insufficiently militant on the war, profiting monetarily from the REV,
and rejecting link b/t politics and moral virtue
o Danton executed during the 1st week in April
o Robespierre exterminated the leadership from both groups that might have
threatened his position
o Secured passage of the Law of 22 Prairial on June 10 which permitted the
revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects w/o hearing substantial evidence
2. Fall of Robespierre
o In May 1794 at the height of his power, Robespierre considered the worship of
“Reason”: too abstract for most citizens, abolished it and established the “Cult of
the Supreme Being”-deistic cult that reflected Rousseau’s vision of civic
religion that would induce morality among citizens
o Robespierre did not long preside over his new religion, made an ill-tempered
speech in the Convention declaring that other leaders of the gov’t were
conspiring against himself and the revolution
o Usually such accusations against unnamed persons had preced his earlier attacks
o On July 27, the Ninth of Thermidor-members of the Convention by
prearrangement shouted him down when he rose to make antoher speech, that
night Robespierre was arrested and the next day he was executed
o Sans-culottes didn’t save him, b/c he had deprived them of their leaders and the
other Jacobins turned against him because after Danton’s death they feared
becoming the next victims
o BIG MISTAKE: Robespierre had destroyed rivals w/o creating supporters
o Selfless creator of his own destruction
o Fall of Robespierre might have been one more shift in the turbulent politics of the
REV
o Instincts of self-preservation motivated those who had brought about his demise
o Within a short time the Reign of Terror had claimed more than 25,000 victims
involving the peasants and sans-culottes who joined rebellions against the
revolutionary government
o By late summer of 1794, these provincial uprisings had been crushed and the war
was going well
o These successes combined with the feeling that the revolution had consumed
enough of its own brought the Terror to an end
VII. The Thermidorian Reaction
A. Overview-Thermidorian Reaction: tempering of the revolution beginning in July 1794
consisting of the destruction of the machinery of terror and the institution of a new
constitutional regime as the result of a widespread backlash against the radical direction
of the REV, displayed a weariness of the Terror and a fear the sans-culottes had too much
political influence
B. Shift in Power
o Influence of generally wealth middle-classa and professionals replaced that of the
sans-culottes
o Convention allowed Girondists in prison/hiding to return to their seats within days of
Robespierre’s execution
o General amnesty for political prisoners
o Law of 22 Prairial was repealed and C of PS lost a lot of power
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Leaders of the Paris Commune and certain deputies on mission were executed, the
Paris Commune and Jacobin Clubs were shut down
C. The White Terror
o Executions of former terrorists marked the beginning of the “white terror”
o Throughout country, ppl involved in the R of T were attacked/murdered
o Jacobins executed with no due process in trials approved by Convention
o Gangs of youths who had aristocratic connections roamed the streets beating known
Jacobins known as “Bands of Jesus”-dragged suspected terrorists and mudered them
in Lyons, Toulon and Marseilles
o Republic of Virtue transition to a Republic of Vice or one of frivolous pleasures
o Dress of sans-culottes and the Roman Republic disappeared
o New plays appeared and prostitutes against roamed
o Families of victims of the ROT gave parties in which they appeared with shaved
necks, like the victims of the guillotine with red ribbons tied about them
o Although the Convention continued to favor the Cult of the Supreme Being, it
allowed Catholic services to be held, refractur priests returned to the country, one of
the unanticipated results of the Thermidorian Reaction was a genuine revival of
Catholic worship
o TR repealed legislation passed making divorce more equitable for women
o DID NOT result in any extension of women’s rights, Thermidorians were sick of
political/social change
o Sought to return family life to the status quo before the REV
o Political authorities and church articulated a firm determination to reestablish
separate spheres and enforce traditional gender roles
o Frenchwomen may have less freedom after 1795 than before 1789
D. Establishment of the Directory
o Although there were no social reforms, the TR involved political reconstruction
o Fully democratic Constitution of 1793 which never was in effect was abandoned in
place of the Constitution of the Year III-reflected the TR determination ot reject
both constitutional monarchy and democracy
o Document provided for a legislature of two houses: members of the upper bodyCouncil of Elders were to be men over forty years of age who were either husbands
or widowers, the lower council-Council of Five Hundred consisted of men at least
thirty who were either married or single
o Executive body was to be a 5-person Directory chosen by the Elders from a list
submitted by the Council of five Hundred
o Property qualifications limited the councils, except soldiers who were permitted to
vote
o Thermidor- term associated with political reaction
o A political structure and society based on rank/brith had given way to a society based
on civic equality and social status based on property
o Representation had been established as a principle of politics
o The question before France and eventually all Europe was which new groups would
be permitted
o In the levee en masse the French had demonstrated to Europe the power of the
secular ideal of nationhood
o The post-Thermidorian course of the REV did not void these stunning changes, what
triumph in the Constitution of the Year of III was the idea that property was the new
source of wealth/political power
o
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E. Removal of the Sans-Culottes from Political Life
o Most decisively reactionary element in the TR was the removal of the sans-culottes
from political life
o Convention severed ties wit the sans-culottes, the TR repealed the ceiling on prices,
Convention put down with force food riots that resulted with food shortages proving
the era of the sans-culottes journees had come to a close
o Vendemiaire-sections of Paris led by the royalists-agents aiming to restore the
monarchy that rose up against the Convention
o Gov’t turned the artillery against the royalist rebels and a general named Napoleon
Bonaparte commanded the cannon dispersing the crowd
o Treaties of Basel-Convention concluded peace with Prussia and Spain
o Legislators feared a resurgence of both radical democrats and royalists in the
upcoming elections for the C of 500
o Convention ruled that at least 2/3 of new legislature must have been members of the
older body-did not trust property owners as voters
o Gracchus Babeuf-led the Conspiracy of Equals- called for more radical democracy
and for more equality of property and wanted to complete the Revolution against the
rich
o Directory fully intended to resist any further social changes, arrested Babeuf and
executed him
o Conspiracy of Equals became famous many decades later, when European socialists
attempted to find their historical roots in the REV
o CONCLUSION: suppression of sans-culottes, narrow franchise of Constitution,
rule of the 2/3, and the Catholic royalist revival presented the Directory with
problems it never succeeded in overcoming and it lacked any broad base of support
o the Directory required active loyalty because France remained at war with Austria
and Great Britain-depended on power of the army
o All soldiers could vote and the army was made of officers eager for power and
political conquest
o Results of the instability of the Directory and the growing role of the army held
profound consequences for the entire Western world
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I. The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
A. Fall of the Directory
o Chief danger to Directory came from royalists-hoped to restore Bourbon monarchy
by legal means, many of the émigrés had returned to France drawing support from
devout Catholics and citizens disgusted by excesses of REV
o Spring of 1797 elections replaced most incumbents with constitutional monarchists
o To preserve republic, antimonarchist Directory staged a coup d’etat on Sept. 4 1797
putting their own supporters into legislative seats won by opponents
o Imposed censorship and exiled some of their enemies
o At request of Directors, Napoleon Bonaparte, the general in charge of the Italian
campaign had sent one of his subordinates to Paris to guarantee the success of the
coup
o In 1797 as in 1795, Napoleon and the army had saved the day for the government
o Napoleon Bonaparte Background: born in 1769 to lesser nobles in Corsica, French
artillery officer at first, favored the REV and a fiery Jacobin, during Thermidorian
Reaction his defense of the new regime won him a command in Italy
B. Early Military Victories
o By 1795, French arms/diplomacy had shattered the First Coalition
o France’s annexation of Belgium guaranteed continued fighting w/ GB and Austria
o In a series of lightning victories, Bonaparte crushed the Austrian/Sardinian armies
and on his own initiative concluded the Treaty of Campo Formio
o Treaty took Austria out of the war and crowned Napoleon’s campaign a success with
France dominating all of Switzerland and Italy
o In Nov. 1797 Napoleon returns to Paris a hero and to confront France’s only
remaining enemy Britain
o Chose to attack British interests through the eastern Mediterranean by capturing
Egypt from the Ottoman Empire-hoped to drive British fleet from Mediterranean, cut
off British comm. w/ India, damage trade, and threaten the British empire
o Napoleon overran Egypt, but overall the invasion was a failure
o Admiral Horatio Nelson destroyed the French fleet at Abukir and; the French army
was cut off
o Invasion of Egypt alarmed Russia who had own ambitions in the Near East and the
Second Coalition was formed-Russians, Austrians, and Ottomans joined Britain to
form this coalition that defeated the French in Italy and Switzerland
o Impact of invasion: marked the 1st major west European assault on the Ottomans
occurring after Russian under Catherine the Great had taken control of Crimea,
significantly it was British not Ottoman forces that drove the FRrench out and the
Ottoman Empire came to understand that it must reform if it was to rest other
European encroachments
C. The Constitution of the Year VIII
o Economic troubles/dangerous int’l situation eroded the Directory’s fragile support
o One of the Directors, Abbe Sieyes, proposed a new constitution
o Abbe Sieyes-author of What is the Third Estate, wanted an executive body
independent of the whims of electoral politics based on the principle of “confidence
from below, power from above.”
o This change required another coup d’etat w/ military support
o News of France’s misfortunes had reached Napoleon in Egypt, he left his army and
returned to France to popular acclaim joining Sieyes and ensuring the success of the
coup
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o The proposed constitution divided executive authority among 3 consuls, but NB
quickly pushed it and Sieyes aside issuing the Constitution of the Year VIII
o The new constitution established the rule of one man-the First Consul, Napoleon
Historical analogy to Caesar, Augustus, and the Greek tyrants
First modern political figure to use the rhetoric of revolution and nationalism, to back
it with military force, and to combine those elements into a mighty weapon of
imperial expansion in the service of his own power
II. The Consulate in France (1799-1804)
A. Establishment of the Consulate
o Establishing Consulate ended the revolution in France
o Leading elements of the TE had achieved most of their goals and the peasants were
satisfied with destruction of oppressive feudal privileges
o Bonaparte seemed just the person to give them security
o When he submitted his constitution to the voters, it was overwhelmingly passed
B. Suppressing Foreign Enemies
o NB justified public’s confidence by making peace with France’s enemies
o Campaign in Italy, another victory over Austria, and Russia leaving the Second
Coalition isolated Britain in the war
o Treaty of Amiens-brought peace w/ GB and Fr. and peace to Europe in 1802
o Domestic peace and order: NB used generosity, flattery, and bribery to win over
enemies, issued a general amnesty and employed men from all political factions
requiring only loyalty
o Ruthless suppression of opposition: established a highly centralized administration
in which prefects responsible to the gov. managed all departments, employed secret
police, stamped out the royalist rebellion and made the rule of Paris effective in
Brittany and Vendee for the 1st time in years
o In 1804, NB violated the sovereignty of the German state of Baden to seize the
Bourbon duke of Enghien, accused him in a royalist plot and shot him even though
he knew him to be innocent
o Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord, Bonaparte’s foreign minister later
termed the act “worse than a crime-a blunder” because it sparked foreign opposition
o Stopped the possibility of a Bourbon restoration putting an end to royalist plots
C. The Napoleon Code
o In 1802 a plebiscite-referendum, ratified napoleon as consul for life and he soon
produced another constitution that granted him full power
o Setabout reforming and codifying French law
o Result was the Civil Code of 1804 AKA Napoleonic Code
o Napoleonic Code-safeguarded all forms of property, secured French society against
all internal challenges, privileges based on birth remained abolished, employment
chosen on bases of merit, worker’s organizations remained forbidden, Fathers
granted extensive control over children and husbands over wives, property distributed
among all children, males and females, divorce remained more difficult for women
than for men
o Before the code, French law differed (patchwork), universality of the NC ended that
patchwork
D. Establishing a Dynasty
o In 1804 Bonaparte seized on a bomb attack on his life to make himself emperor
o Argued that establishing a dynasty would make the new regime secure and make
further attempts on his life useless
o
o
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o Another new constitution promulgated in which NB was called Emperor of the
French
Napoleon invited the pope to Notre Dame to take part in the coronation
Napoleon crowned himself and the emperor didn’t allow anyone to think his power
and authority depended on the church
o He was called Napoleon I henceforth
III. Napoleon’s Empire (1804-1814)
A. Overview-B/t his coronation as emperor and final defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon
conquered most of Europe. The wars put an end to the Old Regime and forced the
eastern European states to reorganize themselves to resist NB. Napoleon’s advance
unleashed the powerful force of nationalism, mobilization of the French nation.
B. Conquering an Empire
o Peace of Amiens was merely a truce, Napoleon’s ambitions shattered any hope it
might last
o Sent army to restore the rebellious colony of Haiti to French rule
o Aroused British fears he was planning a new French empire in America
o Interventions in the Dutch, Italy, Switzerland, and reorganization of Germany
were more alarming
o Treaty of Campo Formio required a redistribution of territories along the Rhine,
emergence of fewer/larger German states all dependent on Napoleon
C. British Naval Supremacy
o British sent an ultimatum ignored by Napoleon, Britain declared war in 1803
o William Pitt the Younger returned to office as PM and began to construct the Third
Coalition-convincing Russian and Austria to move against French aggression
o Battle of Trafalgar-great naval victory by the British admiral Horatio Lord Nelson
who destroyed the combined French and Spanish fleets putting an end to all French
hope of invading GB and guaranteed British control of the sea for the rest of the war
D. Napoleonic Victories in Central Europe
o Napoleon marched to the Danube River to attack his continental enemies forcing an
Austrian army to surrender at Ulm and occupied Vienna
o December 2, 1805-Austerlitz-perhaps his greatest victory, Napoleon defeated the
combined Austrian and Russian forces
o Treaty of Pressburg-followed Austerlitz, winning major concessions for Napoleon
from Austria, Austrians withdrew from Italy and left Napoleon in control of
everything north of Rome and as king of Italy
o Victories in Germany: NB organized the Confederation of the Rhine which
included most of the western German princes
o Their withdrawal from the HRE led Francis II to dissolve that ancient political body
and henceforth to call himself Emperor Francis I of Austria
o Neutral Prussia was provoked into war against France
o Napoleon’s forces quickly crushed the famous Prussian army at Jena and Auerstadt
o 2 weeks later Napoleon was in Berlin issuing the Berlin Decrees-forbidding his
allies from importing British goods
o On June 13, 1807-Napoleon defeated the Russians at Friedland and occupied East
Prussia allowing the French emperor to be master of all Germany
E. Treaty of Tilsit
o Unable to fight another battle or retreat into Russia, Tsar Alexander I was ready to
make peace, he and Napoleon met on a raft in the Nieman River and signed the
Treaty of Tilsit
o
o
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Treaty reduced Prussia to half its previous size, Prussia openly and Russia secretly
became allies of Napoleon
o Napoleon organized conquered Europe much like the domain of a Corsican family
o Instituted relatives as heads of state, establishment of the Napoleonic family as the
collective sovereigns of Europe was unpopular and provoked political opposition
F. The Continental System
o Napoleon knew he must defeat the British before he could feel safe
o Continued the economic warfare begun by the Berlin Decrees-planned to cut of all
British trade with the European continent crippling British commercial and finance al
power
o Milan Decree of 1807-attempted to stop neutral nations from trading w/ Britain
o Despite initial drops in exports and domestic unrest, the British ECON survived
,control of seas assured access ot growing overseas markets
o Continental System badly hurt the European economies
o Tariff policies favored France increasing resentment of foreign merchants and
encouraged smuggling, made merchants less willing to enforce the system
o Napoleon invades Spain in 1808 to prevent smuggling eventually bringing on his ruin
IV. European Response to the Empire
o Wherever Napoleon ruled, the NC was imposed and hereditary social distinctions were
abolished as well as feudal privileges
o Guilds and local oligarchies that had been dominant for centuries were
dissolved/deprived of their power
o Established churches made subordinate to the state
o General toleration
o Clear that Napoleon’s policies were intended first for his own glory and France,
Continental System proved this
A. German Nationalism
o Romantic movement began to take hold at beginning of 19th century
o Result was emergence of nationalism which went through 2 distinct stages:
o 1st-nationalistic writers emphasized unique admirable qualities of German culture
o 2nd-German intellectuals began to urge resistance to Napoleon, critical of German
princes who ruled selfishly and who submitted to Napoleon
o Result of German nationalism: Germans sought to solve internal political
problems by attempting to establish a unified German state like the example of
France
B. Prussian Reform
o After Tilsit, only Prussia could arouse such patriotic feelings
o Elsewhere German rulers were either under Napoleon’s thumb or actively
collaborating w/ Napoleon
o Prussia continued to resist, German nationalists from other states fled to Prussia
o Frederick William III and Junker nobility hated reforms
o Defeat at Jena made clear the necessity of new reforms for the Prussian state
o Baron vom Stein and Count von Hardenberg-forces behind new reforms
o Did not try to reduce power of Prussian monarch or put an end to dominance of
Junker but aimed at fighting French power with their own version of the French
weapons
o Stein’s reforms: broke the Junker monopoly of landholding, serfdom abolished,
peasants remaining on the land were forced to continue manorial labor, although they
could leave the land if they chose
o
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Result of reforms: Junker holdings grew larger, some peasants went to cities to find
work, others became agricultural laborers, peasants could obtain ownership of the
land if they forfeited 1/3 of it to the lord
o In Prussia and elsewhere, serfdom had ended, but new social problems had been
created as a landless labor force was enlarged by the population explosions
o Military reforms: sought to increase supply of soldiers and to improve their quality
o Jena had shown that an army of free patriots commanded by officers chosen on merit
rather than by birth could defeat an army of serfs and mercenaries commanded by
incompetent nobles
o Reforms: abolished inhumane military punishments, sought to inspire patriotic
feelings in soldiers, opened the officer corps to commoners, gave promotions on the
basis of merit , and organized war colleges that developed new theories of strategy
o Impact of reforms: Prussia regained its former power, because Napoleon strictly
limited the size of the Prussian army to 42,000 men, universal conscription could not
be introduced until 1813
o Prussians evaded the limit by training one group each year, putting them into the
reserves, and then training a new group the same size boasting an army of 270,000
C. The Wars of Liberation
1. Spain
In Spain more than elsewhere, national resistance to France had deep social roots
Spain had achieved political unity as early as the 16th century
Spanish peasants devoted to ruling dynasty and the RCC
In 1807, a French army came into the Iberian Peninsula to force Portugal to abandon
its traditional alliance with Britain and the army stayed in Spain to protect lines
of supply and communication
When a revolt broke out in Madrid, Napoleon used it to depose the Spanish Bourbons
and to place his brother Joseph on the Spainsh throne
Attacks on the privileges of the church increased public outrage
Peasants urged on by the clergy rose in general rebellion, although nobles were
prepared to collaborate w/ Napoleon
In Spain, Napoleon faced Guerilla warfare, guerilla bands cut lines of
communication, killed stragglers, destroyed isolated units ,and then disappeared
into the mountains
British landed an army under Sir Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington, to support
the Spanish insurgents
This began the long peninsular campaign that would drain French strength from
elsewhere in Europe and play a critical role in Napoleon’s defeat
2. Austria
o French troubles in Spain encouraged the Austrians to renew the war in 1809
o Since defeat at Austerlitz, they sought a war of revenge
o Austrians counted on Napoleon’s distraction in Spain and aid from other German
princes, but NB was fully in command and the German princes did not move
o French army marched swiftly into Austria and won the Battle of Wagram,
resulting Peace of Schonbrunn deprived Austria of much territory and 3.5
million subjects
o Another spoil of victory was the Austria archduchess Marie Louise, daughter of
the emperor
o Napoleon’s wife, Josephine, was 46 and had borne him no children
o
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Dynastic ambitions as well as the desire for a marriage matching his new position
as master of Europe, led him to divorce his wife and marry the 18 year old
Austrian princess
o Initially tried to marry the sister of Tsar Alexander, but NO
D. Invasion of Russia
o Failure of Napoleon’s marriage negotiations w/ Russia emphasized the shakiness of
the alliance at Tilsit
o Alliance unpop. w/ Russian nobles b/c of the liberal politics of France and the
Continental System
o Only French aid in gaining Constantinople could justify the alliance, but NB gave
them no help against the Ottoman Empire
o Organization of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw as a Napoleon satellite on the Russian
doorstep and its enlargement in 1809 angered Tsar Alexander
o Annexation of Holland in violation of the Treaty of Tilsit, recognition of French
marshal Bernadotte as future King of Sweden and marriage to an Austrian princess
further disturbed the tsar
o At end of 1810 Russian withdrew from the Continental System and began to prepare
for the war
o Napoleon determined to end Russian military threat, amassing an army of more than
600,000 men and intended the usual short campaign crowned by a decisive battle
o Russians retreated before his advance and followeod a “scorched-earth” policy,
destroying all food and supplies as they retreated
o The Grand Army of napoleon could not live off the country and supply lines couldn’t
be maintained over the expanse of Russia
o Terrible weather, shortages of supplies, and courage of Russian rear guard eroded the
morale of Napoleon’s army
o Napoleon’s advisers urged him to abandon the venture, but he feared an unsuccessful
campaign would undermine his position in the empire and in France
o He pinned his faith on the Russians’ unwillingness to abandon Moscow without a
fight despite the canny Russian general Kutuzov’s wish to let the Russian winter
defeat the invader
o At Borodino, the bloodiest battle of the era occurred with 30,000 casualties for the
French and the Russian’s almost twice as many
o Fires set by Russians soon engulfed Msocow and left Napoleon far from home with a
badly dimished army lacking adequate supplies and Borodino became a Pyrrhic
Victory
o After capturing burned city, Napoleon addressed several peace offers to Alexander,
but the tsar ignored them
o By October, the Grand Army was forced to retreat and Napoleon returned to Paris
upon hearing about plots against him at home, leaving the remnants of his army to
struggle westward with only 100,000 of the army making it back
E. European Coalition
o Final defeat of Napoleon far from certain, able to put down opponents in Paris and
raise another 350,000 men
o Neither the Prussians/Austrians/Russians were eager to risk war
o Prince Klemens von Metternich, Austrian foreign minister would have been glad to
make a negotiated peace that would leave Napoleon on the throne of a shrunken and
chastened France rather than see Europe dominated by Russsia
o
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In 1813, patriotic pressure/national ambition brought together the last and most
powerful coalition against Napoleon
o Russians drove wetward, and Prussia and Austria joined them all assisted by vast
amounts of British money
o From the west ,Wellington marched his peninsular army into France
o Napoleon’s new army was inexperienced/poorly equipped and his generals and the
emperor himself was worn out and sick
o He still waged a skillful campaign in central Europe and defeated the allies at
Dresden
o In October, he was decisively defeated by the combined armies of the enemy at
Leipzig in what the Germans called the Battle of the Nations
o At the end of March 1814, the allied army marched into Paris and Napoleon
abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba
V. The Congress of Vienna and the European Settlement
A. Overview-fear of Napoleon and hostility to his ambitions had held the victorious coalition
together, but as soon as he was removed, the allies pursed their separate ambitions. The key
person in achieving eventual agreement was Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, the
British foreign secretary. He brought about the singing of the Treaty of Chaumont on
March 9, 1814. It provided for the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne and the
contraction of France to its frontiers of 1792. Even more important was the agreement by
Britain, Austria, Russian, and Prussia to form a Quadruple Alliance for twenty years to
preserve the whatever settlement they agreed on
B. Territorial Adjustments
o Congress of Vienna assembled in Sep. 1814 and concluded in Nov. 1815
o The 4 great powers of Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia conducted the most
important work of the conference
o All victors were determined to prevent the French from dominating Europe
o The restoration of the French Bourbon monarchy and non-vindictive boundary
settlement were designed to keep France calm/satisfied
o Built up a couple of boundary states (Netherlands with Belgium and Genoa in the
south) to keep France from conquering everything again
o Prussia was given important new territories along the Rhine River to deter French
aggression in the west
o Austria given full control of northern Italy
o German’s arrangements were left untouched ,HRE was not revived, congress
established the rule of legitimate monarchs and rejected any hint of the republican
politics that flowed from the FR
o Settlement of Eastern Europe sharply divided victors: Alexander I of Russsia
wanted all of Poland under his rule, Prussia willing to give it to him in return for all
of Saxony, Austria unwilling to surrender its share of Poland or see Prussian/Russian
power grow
o Polish-Saxon question almost caused a new war among the victors, but defeated
France offered a way out
o Charles Talleyrand, Napoleon’s foreign minister representing France at Vienna,
suggested the weight of France added to Britain and Austria might bring Alexander
to his senses
o When news of a secret treaty among the three leaked out, the tsar agreed to become
ruler of a smaller Poland, and Prussia settled for only part of Saxony
o France was included as a fifth great power in all deliberations
o
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C. The Hundred Days and the Quadruple Alliance
o Unity among the victors restored by Napoleon’s return from Elba on March 1, 1815
o French army still loyal to the former emperor and many French people thought the
country would be more safe under his rule than the Bourbons
o Napoleon restored to power when coalition seemed to be dissolving in Vienna
promising a liberal constitution and a peaceful foreign policy
o The allies declared Napoleon an outlaw and sent their armies to crush him
o Wellington with the crucial help of the Prussians under Field Marshal von Blucher
defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium
o Napoleon abdicated and sent into exile on Saint Helena
o The Hundred Days-period of Napoleon’s return, frightened the great powers and
made the peace settlement harsher for France, victors imposed a war indemnity and
an army of occupation on France
o Holy Alliance-proposed by Alexander I of Russia, wherby the monarchs promised to
act together in accordance w/ Christian principles, signed by Austria and Prussia but
Viscount Castlereagh, the British foreign secretary thought it absurd and England
abstained
o Tsar who was then embracing mysticism believed his proposal a valuable tool for IR,
Holy Alliance became a symbol of extreme political reaction
o Quadruple Alliance among the big four was renewed on Nov. 20, 1815 and it was a
coalition for the maintenance of peace henceforth
o New transition in European diplomacy, certain powers were determined to prevent
war and tried to stop upheaval and destruction
o Goals of the Congress of Vienna: prevent a recurrence of Napoleonic nightmare and
to arrange a lasting peace
o Leaders of Europe learned that the purpose of a treaty should be for peace not victory
o Diplomats aimed to establish a F/W for stability, not to punish France
o Through the Vienna Settlement, the great powers framed IRs so the major powers
would respect that settlement and not use military force
o Congress of Vienna achieved its goals: France accepted the new situation because ti
was recognized as the new international order
o Victorious powers settled difficult problems reasonably setting up a new legal F/W
wherby treaties were made b/t states rather than monarchs and lasted beyond a
monarch’s reign
o New calculations of political/economic power: natural resources, educational
systems over mercantilist competition over trade
o Congress has been criticized for failing to recognize and provide for the great forces
of nationalism and democracy that would stir the 19th century, but there were
relatively few of these pressures and the settlement produced an international peace
that remained intact for almost half a century
VI. The Romantic Movement
o Years of the French Revolution and the conquests of Napoleon saw the emergence of a
new and important intellectual movement throughout Europe
o Romanticism, a reaction against the Enlightenment, Romantic writers/artists saw the
imagination or some intuitional intellectual faculty supplementing reason as a means of
understanding the world.
o Many urged a revival of Christianity and the art, literature, and architecture of medieval
times.
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They were fascinated by dreams and other phenomena that suggested the existence of a
world beyond that of empirical observation, sensory data, and discursive reasoning
VII. Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy of Reason
o Romantic movement had roots in the individualism of the Renaissance, Protestant
devotion and personal piety, sentimental novels of the 18th century and dramatic German
poetry of the Sturm and Drang movement
o 2 writers closely related to the Enlightenment provided the immediate intellectual
foundation for romanticism: Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant
A. Rousseau and Education
o Opposed many facets of the Enlightenment while sharing its reformist spirit
o Romantic writers drew from Rousseau’s conviction that society/material
prosperity had corrupted human nature
o Rousseau set forth his view on the individual’s development toward the
good/happy life not corrupted by society in his novel Emile-stressing the
difference b/t children and adults, distinguishing the stages of human maturation
and urged that children be raised with max individual freedom
o The parent or teacher would help most by providing the basic necessities of life
and stay completely out of the way like a gardener
o Also thought men and women would naturally grow into social roles with
different spheres of activity
o Impact: Rousseau’s concept of human development vindicated the rights of
nature over those of an artificial society, believing that a form of open education
would eventually lead to a natural society
o In its fully developed form, romantics valued the uniqueness of each individual
and say humankind, nature, and society as interrelated
B. Kant and Reason
o Immanuel Kant wrote the 2 greatest philosophical works of the late 18th century:
The Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and the Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
o sought to accept rationalism of the Enlightenment and still preserve a belief in human
freedom, immortality, and the existence of God
o against Locke and other philosophers who saw knowledge rooted in sensory
experience alone, Kant argued for the subjective character of human knowledge
o thought the mind actively imposes on the world of sensory experience” forms of
sensibility and “categories of understanding”
o human mind perceives world as it does because of own internal mental categories
meaning that sensory experience is a product of the mind’s own activity
o believed in a “noumenal” world-world as a sphere of moral and aesthetic reality
known by practical reason and conscience
o Kant thought all human beings possess a categorical imperative-an innate sense of
moral duty/awareness referring to an inner command to act in every situation as one
would have all other people always act in the same situation
o used the categorical imperative to prove humankind’s natural freedom, God, eternal
life, and future rewards and punishments
o he believed that these transcendental truths could not be proved by discursive
reasoning
o To Romantic writers-Kantian philosophy constituted a decisive refutation of the
narrow rationality of the Enlightenment
o Romantics believed in the presence of a special power in the mind that could
penetrate beyond the limits of passive human understanding
o
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Most of them also believed poets and artists possess these powers in abundance
Other romantic writers appealed to the limits of human reason to set forth new
religious ideas/political thought that was often at odds with the Enlightenment
VIII. Romantic Literature
o Term romantic appeared in English/Fr. lit as early as the 17th century, neoclassical writers
used the word to describe literature they considered unreal or excessively fanciful
o In 18th century, English writer Thomas Warton associated romantic lit w/ medieval
romances
o In Germany, a major center of the romantic lit movement, Johann Herder used the
terms romantic and gothic interchangeably
o In both England/Germany the term was applied to all literature that did not observed
classical forms and gave free play to the imagination
o August Wilhelm von Schlegel praised the “romantic” literature of Dante, Petrarch,
Boccacio, Shakespeare, the Arthurian legends, Cervantes, and Calderon
o Comparing romantic lit to classical lit as organic were to mechanical
o Romantic movement peaked in Germany and England before it became a major force in
France under the leadership of Madame de Stael and Victor Hugo
o Classical tradition maintained hold in France that not until 1816 did a French writer
declare himself a romantic
o This was Henri Beyle who wrote under the pseudonym Stendhal-praised Shakespeare
and criticized his own countryman, the 17th century classical dramatist Jean Racine
A. The English Romantic Writers
o Believed poetry was enhanced by freely following the creative impulses of the
mind directly opposing Lockean psychology regarding the mind as passive
o Samuel Taylor Coleridge-the artist’s imagination was God at work in the mind,
expressing his views of imagination as “a repetition in the finite mind fo the
eternal act of creation in the infinite I AM”, master of Gothic poems of the
supernatural
o Wrote “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”
o Relates the story of a sailor cursed for killing an albatross, who repents and
discovers the unity//beauty of all things
o Wordsworth-William Wordsworth was Coleridge’s closest friend, together they
published Lyrical Ballads in 1798 as a manifesto of a new poetry that rejected the
rules of 18th century criticism
o Wrote “Ode on Intimations of Immortality” and “the Prelude” presenting a long
autobiographical account of the growth of the poet’s mind
o Held theory of the soul’s preexistence in a celestial state before its creation
o Poetry became the highest of human acts, self-fulfillment
o Lord Byron-rebel among the romantic poets, most of the other romatic writers
distrusted them
o Byron was regarded outside of England as the embodiment of the new person fo
the FR
o Rejected the old traditions and championed the cause of personal liberty
o Outrageously skeptical/mocking
o Wrote Harold’s Pilgrimage and Don Juan
B. The German Romantic Writers
o Almost all major German romantics wrote at least one novel
o Romantic novels often were highly sentimental and borrowed material from medieval
romances
o
o
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o
Symbols for larger truths of life, and realistic description was avoded
o Ludwig Tiek’s William Lovell contrasts Lovell, love and imagination, with
o
o
the rational people
 Concluded with two women that Lovell naively loves destroys him
Schlegel
o Friedrich Schlegel made a progressive Romantic novel, Lucinde that attacked
prejudices against women
 Reviled the ability to be involved in social issues of the day
 Depicted Lucinde as the perfect friend and companion
Goethe
o Johann Wolfgang von Goethe may be the greatest German writer
 Both embodied and criticized the romantic mold
o Sorrows of Young Werther is a series of letters and experiences living outside
the bounds of polite society
o His masterpiece is Faust a long dramatic poem
 Tells the story of Faust who made a pact with the devil
VIII. Romantic Art
o The romantic Era was a reaction to the eighteenth century
o Rococo looked to Renaissance and Neoclassical to ancients, Romantic
looked to medieval life which was stability and religious reverence
The Cult of the Middle Ages and Neo-Gothicism
o English landscape painter John Constable was conservative
o Salisbury Cathedral, from the Meadows was a stable world where there were
no challenges
 Nature and humankind depicts stability
o Religious institutions were sort of with conservatives as they were barred
from radicalism
 Constable associated liberal reformers with the devil
o Idealized rural life that no longer existed
o Neo-Gothic revival in architecture came
o Many cathedrals were restored
o The Houses of Parliament was in the Neo-Gothic style
 Town halls, schools and railroad stations were designed to look like
medieval buildings
o The most remarkable was the Neo-Gothic structure of the Castle of
Neuschwanstein 1869-1886 for King Ludwign II of Bavaria
Nature and the Sublime
o Sought to portray nature in majestic power
o Drawn to the mysterious side of nature
 Brought forward the sublime, subjects that aroused emotions and
questions about humans
o Painters traveled to remote areas to portray things that would grip the viewer
o Nature overwhelmed humankind
o 1824 German artist Casper David Friedrich in The Polar Sea painted a ship
crushed by a polar ice field
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 In contrast to sunny Enlightenment, Friendrich painted dark scenes
o William Turner made Rain, Steam and Speed- The Great Western Railway in
1844 that depicted a railroad part and dominating nature
o Symbolized the contradictory forces, the awe of nature and industry.
Religion in the Romantic Period
o During the middle ages, the religion was based on the authority of the church, the
Reformation, authority of the bible, the Enlightenment tried to get from nature.
o Romantic thinkers tried to get religion from the inner emotions of humankind
o They saw religion faith and experience as central to human life
 Methodism was an example and became a powerful force
Methodism
o Originated in 18th century as a revolt against deism and rationalism in church of
England
o Important part of background of English romanticism
o Leader of the Methodist movement was John Wesley
o Organized a religious group known as the Holy Club, while crossing the
Atlantic a group of German Moravians deeply impressed him wit their
unshakeable confidence during a storm
o Wesley underwent a conversion experience with Moravians back in London
o Wesley created the Methodist separate church stressing inward, heartfelt
religion
o Many people, weary of the dry rationalism of deism found Wesley’s ideal
relevant to their own lives
o Methodist preachers emphasized the role of enthusiastic emotional
experience as part of Christian conversion
New Directions in Continental Religion
o After Thermidorian Reaction, a strong Roman Catholic revival took place in France
o Followers disapproved of both the religious policies of the Enlightenment and the anticlericalism of the Enlightenment
o Most important book to express these sentiments was The Genius of Christianity by
Viscount Francois Rene de Chateaubriand, this book which became known as the “bible
of romanticism” argued the essence of religion is passion
o Foundation of faith in the church was the emotion that its teachings inspired in the heart
o Romantics found God immanent in nature compared to the view of a rational God
VIIII. Romantic Views of Nationalism and History
Distinctive feature of romanticism in Germany was its glorification of both the individual
person and individual cultures
German idealism-understood the world as the creation of subjective egos
J.G. Fichte-important German philosopher who identified the individual ego wit the
Absolute that underlies all existing things
According to him, the world is the creation of humankind, because strong persons conceive
of it in a particular way and impose their wills on the world
Napoleon served as the contemporary example of such a great person
A. Herder and Culture
o Johann Gottfried Herder-early leader in reaction against the FR and Napoleon,
resented French cultural preponderance in Germany, published an essay “On the
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Knowing and Feelings of the Human Soul” vigorously rejecting the mechanical
explanation of nature
o revived German folk culture by urging the collection and preservation of
distinctive songs and sayings
o his most important followers in this work were the Grimm Brothers famous for
their collections of fairy tales
o Herder opposed the concept of the use of a “common” language and “universal”
institutions imposed on Germany by France
o He believed in the identification of German origins and a broad revival of interest
in history and philosophy
B. Hegel and History
o Most important philosopher of history in the romantic period was the German, Georg
Willhelm Friedrich Hegel
o Believed ideas develop in an evolutionary fashion that involves conflict
o At any given time a predominant set of ideas, termed the thesis holds sway and are
challenged by other conflicting ideas termed the antithesis. As these patterns of
thoughts clash, a synthesis emerges that eventually becomes the new thesis
o Several important philosophical conclusions: belief that all periods of history have
almost equal value, because they were necessary to the achievements that came later,
all cultures were valuable because each contributes to the clash/evolution of ideas
C. Islam, the Middle East, and Romanticism
o Romantic period modified the European understanding of the Arab world
o Energized Christianity associated with Methodist-like forms of Protestantism and
Chateaubriand’s emotional Roman Catholicism renewed the traditional sense of
necessary conflict b/t Christianity and Islam
o Medieval crusades against Islam fired the romantic imagination, Romantic artists and
poets saw the Middle Ages as a better period than their own times
o Romantic emphasis on lit drawn from diff cultures allowed many European readers
to enjoy the Thousand and One Nights and the Arabian Nights
o Herder’s/Hegel’s concepts of history gave both the Arab ppls and Islam distinct roles
in history
o For Herder-Arab culture was one of the numerous communities that composed the
human race
o For Hegel-Islam represented an important stage of the development of a world spirit
o Thomas Carlyle-British historian/social commentator attributed new, positive
qualities to Muhammad, disliked the Enlightenment’s disparagement of religion and
spiritual values
o Carlyle presented Muhammad as a hero and prophet
o Napoleon’s impact: with his Egyptian expedition, the modern study of the Arab
world became an important activity within French intellectual life, perosonally met
with many ulama and Arabic scholars, discovered the Rosetta Stone and the
deciphering of ancient Egypt’s hieroglyphic writing
o Napoleon’s invasion demonstrated for the first time the military/tech superiority of
Europe
o Eventually, the political leaders of the OE and Egypt would undertake reforms
imitating Europe
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I. The Challenges of Nationalism and Liberalism
o 19th century=great age of isms
o Secular ideologies began to oppose the sociopolitical status quo
o Nationalism, liberalism, republicanism, socialism, and communism
A. The Emergence of Nationalism
o
Nationalism-based on relatively modern concept that a nation is composed of
people who are joined together by the bonds of a common language, culture, history and
should be administered by the same government
o
Believed that political and ethnic boundaries should coincide and be
defined/governed clearly
o
Proved to be the single most powerful European political ideology of the
19th/early20th century
1. Opposition to the Vienna Settlement
o Nationalism directly opposed the principle upheld at the CofV that legitimate
monarchies/dynasties provide the basis for political unity rather than ethnicities
o Nationalists protested multinational states such as the Austrian and Russian
empires, also objected to peoples of the same ethnic group, such as Germans and
Italians dwelling in political units smaller than that of the ethnic nation
o Challenged both the domestic/international order of the Vienna settlement
o Behind concept of Nism lay idea of popular sovereignty emphasizing qualities
of peoples rather than rulers
o This aspect of Nism caused confusion because of the presence of minority ethnic
enclaves scattered throughout countries
2. Creating Nations
o Nationalists actually created nations in the 19th century
o During the 1st half of the century, small groups of nationalistically minded
intellectual elites spread the nationalistic concept of the nation
o These groups were frequently historians or literary scholars who chronicled a
people’s past and national literature by collecting and publishing earlier writings
in the people’s own language
o They gave a people a sense of their past and a literature of their own
o Schoolteachers imparted a nation’s official language/history and played an
important role in spreading Nism
o These small groups of early nationalists established the cultural beliefs/political
expectations on which the later mass supported Nism of the 2nd half of the
century would grow
o Language to be used in schools/government offices was always a point of
contention for nationalists: In France and Italy official versions of the national
language were imposed in the schools and replaced local dialects
o In parts of Scandinavia/Eastern Europe nationalists attempted to resurrect from
earlier times purer versions of the national language
o Led to far more linguistic uniformity in European nations
o Yet even in 1850, less than ½ of the French spoke official French
o Emergence of the print culture was influential in making language a cornerstone
in the foundation of Nism
o Spoken and written proficiency in the official printed language became a path to
social and political advancement
o Growth of a uniform language helped people think of themselves as constituting
a nation
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3. Meaning of Nationhood
o Nationalists used a variety of args/metaphors to express nationhood
o Argued that gathering Italians into a unified Italy eliminating petty dynastic
states would promote economic/administrative efficiency
o Claimed that nations were distinct creations of God
o Significant difficulty for nationalism was determining which ethnic groups could
be considered nations with claims to territory and political autonomy
o Nationhood came to be associated with groups that were large enough to support
a viable economy, had a significant cultural history, possessed a cultural elite that
could spread trhe national language, and had the capacity to conquer other
peoples and protect their own independence
o Many smaller ethnic groups could not effectively achieve independence but did
create domestic unrest within the political units they inhabited
4. Regions of Nationalistic Pressure
o Nationalist challenged political status quo in six major areas of Europe
o Irish nationalists wanted independence from Britain and the “Irish problem”
would haunt British politics for the next 2 centuries
o German nationalists sought political unity for all German-speaking peoples
challenging the multinational structure of the Austrian Empire and pitting Prussia
vs. Austria
o Italian nationalists sought to unify Italian-speaking peoples on the peninsular
and drive out the Austrians
o Polish nationalists struggeled to restore Poland as independent from their
Russian rulers
o In Eastern Europe a host of national groups (Hungarians, Czechs, Slovenes)
sought their independence within the Austrian Empire
o In Southeastern Europe on the Balkan (Greeks, Albanians, Romanians) sought
independence from Ottoman and Russian control
B. Early Nineteenth Century Political Liberalism
o Word liberal applied to political activity entered the vocabulary during the 19th
century
o 19th century European conservatives regarded as liberal almost anyone or anything
that challenged their own political, social, or religious values
1. Political Goals
o Liberals derived their political ideas from the writers of the Enlightenment,
English liberties, French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
o Sought to establish a political F/W of legal equality, religious toleration, and
freedom of the press
o Goal was a political structure that would limit the arbitrary power of the
government against the persons and property of individual citizens
o Believed the legitimacy of the gov. emanated from the freely given consent of the
governed
o Basis of government was through representative/parliamentary bodies
o Most important, free government required state or crown ministers to be
responsible to the representatives rather than to the monarch
o Liberals sought to achieve these political goals through a written constitution
o Responsible constitutional government existed nowhere in Europe in 1815 and
that was the liberal’s goal
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Liberals were often educated, relatively wealthy people, associated w/
commercial life who were excluded from the existing political processes
o Liberals were often academics who felt their exclusion by monarchical and
aristocratic regimes failed to recognize their new status sufficiently was
unjustified
o Liberals did not advocate democracy but wanted to extend representation to
the propertied classes
o Second only to their hostility to the privileged aristocrats was their general
contempt for the lower, unpropertied classes
o Liberals transformed the 18th century of aristocratic liberty into a new concept of
privilege based on wealth and property rather than birth
C. Economic Goals
o Goals served to divide liberals from working people
o Liberals followed the Enlightenment ideas of Adam Smith, seeking the removal of
economic restraints associated with mercantilism
o Favored removal of international tariffs and internal barriers to trade
o Disliked government regulation of wages and labor practices and guild privileges
o Liberals wanted free market that would produce more goods and services for
everyone at lower prices and provide the basis for material progress
o Sociopolitical structures of countries that favored liberalism: GB-monarchy was
already limited with individual liberties secured and Parliament could provide more
nearly a representative government, France-Napoleonic Code gave them modern
legal system, “principles of 1789” (established by the Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen) were already in place
o Complex political situation in German speaking Europe: monarchs and aristocrats
offered stiffer resistance, social divide b/t bureaucracies from middle class, freedom
in Germany meant conformity to a higher moral law
o German liberals favored a united Germany and looked to Austria or Prussia as the
instrument of unification
o More tolerant of strong state and monarchical power than other liberals were
o Believed a freer social and political order would emerge once unification had been
achieved
o Austria and Prussia refused to cooperate leaving Germans liberals frustrated and
forcing them to be satisfied by modest achievements such as the lowering of internal
trade barriers
D. Relationship of Nationalism to Liberalism
o Nationalism was not necessarily or even logically linked to liberalism
o Many aspects of Nism were directly opposed to liberal political values
o Nationalists wished their own particular ethnic group to dominate minority ethnics
within a certain region (Hungarian Maygars sought political control over nonMagyar peoples living within Hungary)
o Nationalists might seek political autonomy for their own ethnic group, but would
have no intention of establishing liberal political institutions thereafter
o Lism and Nism were often compatible-nationalists groups could gain support of
liberals elsewhere by espousing the cause of representative government, civil
liberties, and economic freedom
o Nationalists took symbolic steps toward liberalism to arouse sympathy (Nationalists
in Greece made Athens their capital because they believed it would associate their
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struggle for independence with ancient Athenian democracy which English and
French liberals revered)
II. Conservative Governments: The Domestic Political Order
A. Overview
Despite challenges of liberalism and nationalism, the domestic political order established
by the restored conservative institutions of Europe, particularly in GB and eastern Europe
showed remarkable staying power and ended only with World War I
B. Conservative Outlooks
o Major pillars of 19th century conservatism-legitimate monarchies, landed
aristocracies, and established churches
o Self-conscious alliance of throne, land, and altar was new
o Upheavals of the FR and Napoleonic era transformed them into reluctant
allies
o Conservatism as an articulated outlook and set of cooperating institutions
was as new a feature on the political landscape as nationalism and liberalism
o Theoretical political and religious ideas associated w/ Burke and Hegel
o Revolutionary experience forged conservative attitudes: execution of
Louis convinced most monarchs they could trust only aristocratic
governments and the wealthy
o European aristocracies believed their property and influence would not be
safe under any form of genuinely representative government
o Conservatives spurned the idea of a written constitution unless they were
permitted to promulgate the document themselves
o Church-apprehensive of popular movements, ecclesiastical leaders regarded
themselves as supporting the sociopolitical SQUO, feared ideas of
Enlightenment
o Aristocrats-saw themselves surrounded by enemies, standing permanently
on the defensive against the forces of liberalism, nationalism, and popular
sovereignty, understood spillover effect of revolutions
o Nations-faced problems after entering an era of peace after 1815, war had
fueled economies, onset of peace meant citizens could raise new political
issues and economies were no longer geared to supplying military needs,
unemployment rose, conservative statesmen confronted new pressures that
would cause various degrees of domestic unrest and would lead them to use
differing degrees of repressive action
C. Liberalism and Nationalism Resisted in Austria and Germany
o Early 19th century statesmen who epitomized conservatism was the Austrian
prince Metternich. This devoted servant of the Habsburg emperor along with
Britain’s Castlereagh had engineered the Vienna settlement and exercised chief
control over the forces of the European reaction
o Metternich exercised chief control over the forces of the European reaction to the
Vienna Settlement
1. Dynastic Integrity of the Habsburg Empire
o Austrian gov. could make no serious compromises with new political forces
in Europe
o Liberalism and nationalism were potentially more dangerous to this country
than others
o Many ethnic groups peopled the domains (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks)
o Puppet governments on the Italian peninsula were dominated by Austria
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Metternich thought recognition of self-determination to these groups would
mean the dissolution of the empire fearing that internal battles b/t national
groups would cost Austria international influence
o Pursuit of dynastic integrity required Austrain domination of the newly
formed German Confederation to prevent the formation of a German national
state that might absorb the heart of the empire
o Congress of Vienna had created the GC to replace the GRE consisting of 39
states under Austrian leadership
o Each state remained autonomous, but Austria was determined to prevent any
movement toward constitutionalism in as many of them as possible
2. Defeat of Prussian Reform
o Important victory for this holding policy of Austria’s came in Prussia after
the C of V
o Frederick William III caught up in the exhilaration that followed the War
of Liberation (German name for the last part of their conflict with
Napoleon), had promised some mode of constitutional government
o He formally reneged on this promise in 1817 by creating a Council of State
that wasn’t constitutionally based
o Replaced chief reform-minded ministers with hardened conservatives and
established 8 provincial estates or diets dominated by the Junkers and
exercised only an advisory function
o Re-established old bonds linking monarchy, army, and landholders
o This alliance opposed the aspirations of German nationalists threat to the
conservative order
3. Student Nationalism and the Carlsbad Decrees
o Three southern German states-Baden, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg had
received constitutions after 1815 as their monarchs tried to secure wider
political support
o None of these constitutions recognized popular sovereignty and all defined
political rights as the gift of the monarch
o In minds of many young Germans, nationalist and liberal expectations
fostered by the defeat of the French armies remained alive
o Most important of these groups was composed of university students who
had grown up during the days of the reforms of Stein and Hardenberg
o Many of them had fought Napoleon and dreamed of a united Germany
o They formed Burschenschaften, or student associations that functioned to
sever old provincial loyalties replacing them with loyalty to the concept of a
united German state
o Karl Sand-Bursch member assassinated the conservative dramatist
Kotzebue-Sand was tried and executed becoming a matyr in the eyes of
nationalists
o Metternich used the incident to suppress the student clubs persuading
representatives of the major German states to issue the Carlsbad
Decrees which dissolved the Bursch-provided for university inspectors and
press censors
o Final Act-promulgated by the German Confederation limiting the subjects
that might be discussed in the constitutional chambers of the 3 German
states-asserted the right of monarchs to resist demands of constitutionalists
o Secret police of German states harassed potential dissidents
o
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D. Postwar Repression in Great Britain
1. Lord Liverpool’s Ministry and Popular Unrest
o The Tory ministry of Lord Liverpool was unprepared for problems of
postwar dislocation
o It sought to protect the interests of the landed and other wealthy classes
o In 1815 Parliament passed a Corn Law to maintain high prices for
domestically produced grain through raising tariffs on foreign grain
o The next year, Parliament abolished the income tax paid by the wealthy and
replaced it with excise or sales taxes on consumer goods paid by both the
wealthy and the poor
o Parliament also passed the Combination Acts outlawing worker’s unions
o Laws continued a legislative trend that marked the abandonment by the
British ruling class of its traditional role as the protector of the poor
o Lower social orders began to call for reform-reform clubs organized , radical
newspapers like William Cobbett’s Political Registrar demanded political
change
o Government ministers saw the seeds of the French Revolution in these
radicals and Government ministers regarded leaders such as Cobbett, Major
John Cartwright, and Henry “Orator” Hunt as demagogues who were
seducing the people away from allegiance to their natural leaders
o Government’s answer to discontent was repression
o In Dec. 1816 an unruly mass meeting took place near London, giving
Parliament an excuse to pass the Coercion Act-measures temporarily
suspended habeas corpus and extended existing laws against seditious
gatherings
2. “Peterloo” and the Six Acts
o Radical reform campaign culminated on August 16, 1819 with a meeting in
Manchester at Saint Peter’s Fields
o Royal troops and local militia were there to ensure order, as the speeches
were about to begin, a local magistrate ordered the militia into the audience
resulting in panic and death causing at least 11 ppl to be killed
o Impact: event became known as the Peterloo Massacre, a phrase that drew
a contemptuous comparison to Waterloo
o Liverpool ministry wanted to support local Manchester officials arresting the
radical leaders and passing a series of laws called the Six Acts
o 1) forbade large unauthorized public meetings, 2) raised fines for seditious
libel, 3) sped up trials of political agitators, 4) increased newspaper taxes, 5)
prohibited the training of armed groups, and 6) allowed local officials to
search homes
o In effect the Six Acts attempted to remove the instruments of agitation from
the hands of radical leaders and to provide the authorities with new powers
o Cato Street Conspiracy-plot by a group of extreme radicals under the
guidance of a possibly demented figure called Thistlewood who plotted to
kill the entire British cabinet two months after the passage of the 6 Acts
o Conspiracy further discredited the movement for reform, leaders
arrested and tried, 4 executed
E. Bourbon Restoration in France
o Abdication of Napoleon opened way for a restoration of Bourbon rule
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o Louis XVIII, former count of Provence and brother of Louis XVI, the son of the
executed monarch had died in prison-Louis XVIII agreed to become a
constitutional monarch under a constitution of his own making
1. The Charter
o Constitution of the French restoration
o Provided for hereditary monarchy and two house legislature
o Upper house apptd by monarch, lower house- Chamber of Deputies-elected
according to a very narrow franchise with a high property qualification
o Guaranteed most of the rights of the DRMC
o Religious toleration w/ Roman Catholicism as the official religion
o Promised not to challenge the property rights of current owners of land that
had been confiscated from aristocrats and the church
o Louis hoped to reconcile those who had benefited from the REV
2. Ultraroyalism
o Moderate spirit did not penetrate into the ranks of royalist supporters whose
families had suffered at the hands of the REV
o Count of Artois-rallied royalists into demanding their revenge
o Royalists carried out a White Terror against former revolutionaries that the
king could not halt
o Chamber of Deputies contained extreme royalist sentiment and the
ultraroyalist majority elected in 1816 proved so dangerously reactionary that
the king dissolved the chamber
o Duke of Berri, son of Artois and heir to the throne was murderedultraroyalists persuaded Louis that the murder was the result of his minister’s
cooperation with liberal politicians and the king responded with repressive
measures
o Elector laws revised to give wealthy electors 2 votes, press censorship
imposed, easy arrests, secondary education under the control of the Roman
Catholic bishops
o By the early 1810s the veneer of constitutionalism had worn away and
liberals were driven out of politics
III. The Conservative International Order
A. Overview-at the Congress of Vienna the major powers-Russia, Austria, Prussia, and
GB had agreed to consult w/ each other from time to time on matters affecting all of
Europe-this new arrangement for resolving mutual foreign policy issues was known
as the Concert of Europe-goal was to maintain the balance of power against new Fr.
aggression and against the military might of Russia, Concert functioned on large and
small issues to maintain peace
B. The Congress System
o First congress took place in 1818 at Aix-la-Chapelle-results were that the
4 major powers removed their troops from France, readmitted the
nation to good standing
o Disagreement b/t Tsar and Castlereagh over whether the Quadruple Alliance
could have power to uphold the borders and existing gov. of all European
countries (Tsar Alexander I supported it)
C. The Spanish Revolution of 1820
o When Bourbon Ferdinand VII of Spain was placed on his throne following
Napoleon’s downfall, he had promised to govern acc. to written constitution
o Once in power, he ignored his pledge dissolving the Cortes and ruling alone
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In 1820, a group of military officers revolted and Ferdinand announced he would
abide by the constitution
o Almost at the same time, revolution erupted in Naples where the king of the Two
Sicilies quickly accepted a constitution
o These two events frightened Metternich-Austria hoped to dominated Italy to
provide a buffer against the spread of REV on its own southern flank
o Britain opposed joint intervention in either Italy or Spain, Metternich turned to
Prussia and Russia for support and the 3 eastern powers met at the Congress of
Troppau
o Led by Tsar Alexander the members of the Holy Alliance issued the Protocol of
Troppau-declaration asserted that stable gov. might intervene to restore order in
countries experiencing revolution
o European nations agreed to intervene and the French and Austrian armies
restored Spain’s government and the Two Siciles ot nonconstitutional
government
o George Canning replaces Castlereagh as foreign minister who had commited
suicide, Cannign sought to prevent European reaction from suppressing Spanish
revolts, wanted to use SA revolutions to break the Spanish trading monopoly
with its colonies
o Britain soon recognized the Spanish colonies as independent states and
Britain dominated commercial interests in Latin America
D. Revolt Against Ottoman Rule in the Balkans
1. The Greek Revolution of 1821
o 3rd Mediterranean revolt erupted in Greece-attracted the support of many
illustrious literary figures (Lord Byron)
o Liberals imagined the ancient Greek democracy reborn and nationalists
wanted independence from the Ottoman Empire
o Great powers sympathetic to nationalistic aspirations in OE due to desire to
weaken the empire
o Powers concluded that an independent Greece would benefit their strategic
interests and they signed the Treaty of London-demanding Turkish
recognition fo Greek independence and sent a joint fleet to support the revolt
o In 1828, Russia sent troops into Ottoman holdings in what is today Romania
gaining control of the territory with the Treaty of Adrianople
o Second Treaty of London declared Greece and independent kingdom with
Otto I, the son of the king of Bavaria as the first king
2. Serbian Independence
o 1830 also saw the establishment of a 2nd independent state on the BalkanSerbia had sought independence from the OE
o Karageorge-remarkable leader had led a guerilla war against the OE,
ultimately unsuccessful revolution of his had helped build national selfidentity and attracted the interest of the great powers
o A new leader Milos succeeded in negotiating greater autonomy and
ultimately recognition of independence
o Russia became Serbia’s formal protector and Serbia came under collective
protection of the great powers
IV. The Wars of Independence in Latin America
o
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Chapter 21 The Conservative Order
The Conservative Order Shaken in Europe
What crises did the conservative order face in Russia and what was the end
result? What did Charles X hope to accomplish? How much support did he
have? What were the causes of the Revolution of 1830? What did this
revolution achieve and at what cost? Before 1820, Britain appeared to be
moving down the same reactionary road as the other major powers. What
factors led to a different outcome in Britain? What was the purpose of the
Great Reform Bill? What did it achieve? Would you call it a “revolutionary”
document? By approximately 1830 how had European political ambitions and
the ideas of liberalism and nationalism begun to undermine the control of the
Ottoman Empire over Greece, Serbia, and Algeria?
Overview: only in Greece & Latin America did liberalism defeat conservatism
in early 1820s. After early 1820s, Russia suppressed liberalism, Fr. found
itself in revolution, & GB resulted with accommodation.
Russia: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825
• Tsar Alexander I successfully suppressed liberalism/nationalism & ↑
autocracy until his death
• The Russian army, when invading Fr, was exposed to Enlightenment
ideals. The army saw how repressed they were; wntd reform. Officer
Pestel advocated rep gov’t & Ø serfdom in S. Society. N. Society was
more moderate & wntd const. monarch & Ø serfdom. Coup d’etat in 1826
w/ both soc.
1st Dynastic Crisis: Alex. I died & gave throne to younger bro, Nicholas. The older bro, Constantine recognized his younger
bro as next tsar, but Nicholas blvd Constantine was tsar. So, Ø ruler for 3 weeks until…
Nicholas received word of a conspiracy among officers. Nicholas then became tsar. The 2nd crisis then arose: troops wntd
reform but most recognized Nicholas. Moscow officers, however, wntd constitutions; so reject Nic. in favor of Constantine.
Nicholas attacked the insurgents @ the Senate Square in St. Petersburg. The Decembrist Revolt failed and the plotters were
exiled to Siberia. Symbolized the desire for const. gov’t & abolition of serfdom.
•
•
The Autocracy of Nicholas I. He was afraid of change. If he abolished
serfdom, nobles may Ø support him anymore. Since he was afraid, he
rejected all reforms and censorship & secret police increased.
Nicholas created the program Official Nationality. Its slogan:
“Orthodoxy, Autocracy, & Ntnlism”. The Russian Orthodox would provide
education & moral standards (young ppl taught to accept soc. status).
Next, it argued autocracy was the only way to hold the ppl tog. & tht only
during times of autocracy (e.g. Peter the Gr8), did Russia have int’l
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Chapter 21 The Conservative Order
influence. Finally, Russian nationality was praised over the “corrupted”
West morals & political turmoil.
• Revolt & Repression in Poland. Constantine (big bro of Nicholas) ran the
Polish gov’t even tho Nicholas was technically Poland’s ruler. Both
monarchs violated Poland’s constitution. Soldiers & students were 1st to
rebel; soon, nationwide rebel began. Diet deposed Nicholas as ruler, but
tsar suppresses revolt w/ troops & then issues Organic Statute declaring
Poland as integral part of Russia. > this, Nicholas ready to use army
anytime
Revolution in France (1830)
• > Louis XVIII died, his ultraroyalist brother became king as Charles X, a
firm believer in divine right.
• Charles X Reactionary Policies were disapproved of by middle class &
liberals. 1) Chamber of Deputies to pay the aristocrats $ for their lost land
during. 2) Sacrilege against RCC = death or imprisonment. 3) Liberals
gained enuf seats in Chamber of Deputies to ask for reform; Charles eased
some laws against press & gov’t dom. over education, but liberals wntd
const. gov’t. Charles then created an ultraroyalist ministry led by Prince
de Polignac while liberals allied w/ the liberal Orléans.
• July Revolution: during elections, liberals gained lots of seats. Charles
decided for a coup d’etat. > news tht Polignac created Fr. Empire in the
pirate-infested N. Africa, Charles created 4 Ordinances (the royal coup
d’etat) on July 25, 1830 which dissolved the Chamber of Deputies,
restricted franchise to the rich, & new election based on new franchise.
Liberal news incited popular pol rxn. Troops unable to secure order in
Paris, so Charles exiled in Eng. Chamber of Dep. appointed the duek
d’Orléans, Louis Philippe, as the new king, ending the Bourbon dynasty.
Since liberals reacted too quickly, Paris Ø able to create a republic.
Tension b/w middle class & working class began.
• Monarchy under Louis Philippe
o Pol: constitution gave rights to the people. Censorhip abolished.
Franchise ↑. King to work w/ Chamber of Dep; monarch Ø able to
make laws on own.
o Relig: RCC = relig. of majority of ppl instead of the “official religion”.
o Soc: conservative; still, those who had $ had power. The landed
oligarchy had most influence.
o Ignored the poor who wntd job protection & better wages. A workers’
revolt was put down to decrease disorder. Strikes & an uprising was
crushed. Temp. had peace, but under the surface…
o Foreign policy: Algiers (the captured pirate state) created new trade
ties. Fr. also expanded their rule via Algeria and thru the Sahara.
France considered Algeria a prt of Fr even tho Muslim population dom.
it
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Chapter 21 The Conservative Order
Belgium Becomes Independent (1830)
• Cause: Belgium & kingdom of Holland were merged. Belgian upper class Ø
accept the Dutch (Holland citizens) rule. Action: Soon, rioting broke out
against Dutch. Upper class formed temp. ntnl gov’t. Reaction: Dutch sent
troops to Belgium but failed. Thus: Belgium adopts a constitution.
• Major powers Ø intervene even tho it upset boundaries est. by Congress of
Vienna b/c they were: too busy suppressing revolts/uprisings, in favor of
an indpndnt Belgium to dominate it, or indifferent.
• The Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgians as neutral & indpndnt.
The Great Reform Bill in Great Britain (Accommodation b/w forces of
conservatism and reform)
• Political & Econ Reform: Reasons for accommodation. 1) Commercial class
dom. so, Brit. Econ dpdn on thm. 2) Liberals favored only moderate
reforms (Whigs). 3) Respect for civil liberties. Liverpool changed his
cabinet to ↑ accommodative to soc/econ life. ↑ econ freedom, Combo
Acts repealed.
• Catholic Emancipation Act: Act of Union b/w Ireland & Eng. created, but
only Prot. Irishmen became reps. in Parl (even tho Ireland=RCC). Irish
ntnlists create Cath. Assoc. to ↑ Cath. in Parl. Cath. Eman. Act let RCC
become members of Parl to prvnt Irish revolt. Also ended Anglican dom.
on Brit. pol life. The fall of Tories followed since Wellington=Anglican & he
was the one who issued the Act.
• Legislative Change: Whigs brought two goals: make boroughs more
representative of their district & increase voter number by 50%. Earl
Grey, leader of the Whigs got the House of Commons to pass the reform
bill, but House of Lords reject = riots. William IV (king) got the bill passed
in the end. (Aka Great Reform Bill). Property still det. who could vote.
Accommodation = avoid revolution.
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I. Toward an Industrial Society
A. Britain’s Industrial Leadership
o IR had begun in GB-natural resources, adequate capital, technological skills,
growing food supply, mobile social structure, and strong foreign/domestic demand
for goods gave Britain an edge in manufacturing
o FR, Latin American wars of independence disrupted continental economic life and
Spanish/French Atlantic trade allowing Britain ot take control of South America and
SE Asia
o Textile industry provided economic foundation for British dominance
o Continental nations lagged economically and were slow to imitate Britain’s example
C. Population and Migration
o Pop. of Europe continued to grow on the base of the 18th century pop. explosion
o More and more urbanization occurred putting pressure on the physical resources of
cities
o Existing housing, water, swers, and food supplies were inadequate causing slums
with filth and disease
o Crime increased and became a way of life for those who couldn’t make a living
o City life was filled with misery and degradation
o Countryside: commercialization of landholding caused peasants to become
conservative landholders w/o land to make agricultural innovations
o Pace of industrialization was slower in Germany and eastern Europe than in England
and France
o Irish Potato Famine of 1845-1847-half a million Irish peasants w/ no land or small
plots simply starved when disease blighted the potato crop and hundreds of thousands
emigrated
o Trend of countryside providing workers for the new factories-emigration to
cities
D. Railways
o 1830s and 1840s were great age of railway building
o Stockton and Darlington Line opened in England in 1825
o another major line built b/t Manchester and Liverpool had hundreds of passengers
o Belgium, France, and Germany entered the railway age
o Railroads with canals and improved roads meant people could leave place of their
birth more easily than ever before, improvement in transportation allowed cheaper
and more rapid passage of raw materials and finished products
o Railways epitomized the character of the industrial economy representing investment
in capital goods rather than in consumer goods
o Consequently there was a shortage of consumer goods at cheap prices
o Favoring of capital over consumer production was the reason the working class often
found itself able to purchase little for its wages
o Railways brought about more industrialization as the most dramatic application of the
steam engine and increased demand of iron and steel
o Capital industries of iron, steel, railroads, and ship-making led to the formation of
vast industrial fortunes that would be invested in still newer enterprises
II. The Labor Force
o Varied workforce composed of persons ranging in job choice and wage status
o Only the textile-manufacturing industry became thoroughly mechanized and moved into
the factory setting
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Far more of the nonrural, nonagricultural work force consisted of skilled artisans living in
cities
o All these working ppl faced possible unemployment with little security
A. Proletarianization of Factory Workers and Urban Artisans
o Proletarianization-term indicated the entry of workers into a wage economy and their
gradual loss of significant ownership of the means of production and control over the
conduct of their own trades
o Process occurred rapidly wherever factory systems arose-factory owner provided the
financial cap to construct the factory, purchase machinery and raw materials with the
factory workers contributing hteir labor for wage
o Factory workers submitted to factory discipline like closing of factory gates to late
workers, fines for lateness, dismissal for drunkenness
o Urban artisans experienced proletarianization more slowly-many artisans prospered
under development of factories
o Artisans lost guild and organizing power
o Increasingly, artisans became lifetime wage laborers whose skills were bought and
sold in the marketplace
B. Working-Class Political Action: The Example of British Chartism
o By the middle of the century, artisans proud of skills and frustrated in social
expectations became the most radical political element of the English working class
o British working class linked the solution of their economic plight to a program of
political reform known as Chartism
o In 1836, William Lovett and other London radical artisans formed the London
Working Men’s Association and in 1838 the group issued the Charter demanding
six specific reforms
o Included universal male suffrage, annual election of the House of Commons, secret
ballot, equal electoral districts, abolition of property quals for House of Commons,
and payment of salaries to the House of Commons
o For more than 10 years, Chartists agitated for reforms, Feargus O’Connor-most
important Chartist leader made speeches across Britain
o Chartism as a national movement failed-ranks split b/t those who favored violent and
peaceful tactics
o As prosperity returned, Chartist’s demonstrations stopped and many working ppl
abandoned the movement
o Impact: first large-scale European working-class political movement-eventually
several of the Six Points were enacted into law, Continental working-class observers
saw in Chartism the kind of mass movement that they could model
III. Family Structures and the Industrial Revolution
A. The Family in the Early Factory System
o Adoption of new machinery and the factory did not destroy the working-class family
o Mechanization of weaving took the father to the factory separating him from the
family life
o Skilled men could pay for children to go to school and allow wife to not work
o Men became the supervisors and dominant wage-earners
B. Concern for Child Labor
o Workers became concerned about the plight of child laborers, b/c parents were no
longer supervising their own children
o
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o English Factory Act of 1833 forbade the employment of children under 9 and
limited the workday of children aged 9-13 to 9 hours requiring these children receive
2 hrs. of edu. Per day paid for the factory owner
o Effect of Act further divided work and home life, parental link was broken as the
teacher rather than the parents was in charge of education
o Many British working class demanded shorter working days desiring to reunite the
workday of adults with that of their children so adults could spend more time with
their children
o In 1847 Parliament mandated a ten-hour workday-allowed parents and children more
hours together as a domestic unit
o Roles of men as breadwinners became distinct
o Concerns raised by working conditions of women came from the new view that the
place of a woman was in the home
C. Changing Economic Role for the Family
o Family unit became the chief unit of consumption alone instead of the chief unit of
both production and consumption
o Wage economy meant families were less closely bound together than the past
IV. Women in the Early Industrial Revolution
A. Opportunities and Exploitation in Employment
o Women’s labor had been involved in textile production (hand spinning, weaving)
o When spinning was moved into factories involving large machines, men replaced
women and the higher wages commanded by male cotton-factory workers
allowed many married women not to work
o Women in Factories-unmarried women rapidly became employed in the
factories, level of skills of jobs was lowered as many new jobs were opened with
supervisors as men, women in the factories were young, single, or widows
o Work on the Land and in the Home-largest group of employed women in
France continued to work on the land, all work by women commanded low
wages and involved low skills, low wages led to them becoming prostitutes to
supplement their wage income
o Radical transformation of the economy made many women vulnerable to sexual
exploitation
B. Changing Expectations in Working Class Marriage
o Moving to cities and entering the wage economy gave women wider opportunities for
marriage
o Parents had less to do w/ arranging marriages and cohabitation b4 marriage was
common
o Marriage in the wage economy involved the starting of a separate household and was
less of an economic partnership, because the husband’s wages might be able to
support the entire family
o Working-class women became homemakers and domestic duties were an essential
factoring the family wage economy
o Married women created the environment outside of work and managed the finances
V. Problems of Crime and Order
o Political/economic elite were extremely concerned about social order in the 19th century
o Revolutions, urbanization, and industrialization were threats to order
o Cities became places associated with criminal activity as thousands of Europeans
migrated to the towns and cities finding poverty and unemployment
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o Throughout the first 60 years of the 19th century, crime increased slowly before reaching
a plateau
o Statistics murky, not uniform between nations and no statistics kept
A. New Police Forces
o New concept of a policed society-presence of paid, professionally trained group
of law-enforcement officers keeping the order
o Distinct from the army/charged specifically with domestic security
o Visible presence of law-enforcement officers
o Professional police forces had not existed until the early 19th century-appeared in
Paris in 1828 and in London after legislation passed sponsored by Robert Peel,
the London police were known as bobbies after the sponsor
o Europeans held friendly views toward the police as protectors
B. Prison Reform
o Before the 19th century, European prisons were local jails or state prisons, or prison
ships
o Prisoners lived in wretched conditions, persons guilty of minor offenses left in the
same room with those guilty of the most serious ones, women with men
o Transportation-penalty of the British government for persons convicted of the most
serious offenses to the colony of New South Wales in Australia as an alternative to
capital punishment
o Reformers: John Howard and Elizabeth Fry in England, and Charles Lucas in
France, exposed the horrendous conditions in prisons and demanded change
o IN the 1840s, the French and English undertook bold efforts at prison reform
marking a shift in opinion whereby crime was seen not as an assault on order but as a
mark of a character fault in the criminal
o Part of the goal of imprisonment was to rehab/transform the prisoner
o Europeans used various prison models originally established in the U.S. known as the
Auburn system and the Philadelphia System
o Chief characteristics of these systems were an individual cell for each prisoner and
long periods of separation and silence among prisoners
o Most famous example was Pentonville Prison near London
o Imprisonment became more repressive as the century passed-vast increase in repeat
offenses led the French to declare transportation the penalty for repeated serious
crimes sending offenders to Devil’s Island off the coast of South America
o Attempts to create a police force and reform prisons illustrate the new post-French
Rev concern about order and stability on the part of European elites
VI. Classical Economics
o Economists whose thought derived largely from Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations
dominated private and public discussions of industrial and commercial policy
o Ideas associated with the phrase laissez-faire
o Thought the gov. should perform many important functions, but favored economic
growth through competitive free enterprise
o Believed economic decisions would be made through the mechanism of the marketplace
o Government should maintain sound currency, enforce contracts, protect property, and
impose low tariffs/taxes
A. Malthus on Population
o Contended pop. would outstrip the food supply
o Contended immediate plight of the working class could only become worse
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If wages were raised, the workers would simply produce more children, who
would in turn consume both the extra wages and more food
o Later, Malthus suggested that if the working class could be persuaded to adopt a
higher standard of living their increased wages might be spent on consumer
goods rather than on more children
B. Ricardo on Wages
o Principle of Political Economy-Ricardo transformed the concepts of Malthus into the
“Iron Law of Wages”-if wages were raised, more children would be produced,
entering the labor market, expanding the # of workers and lowering wages, causing
working people to produce fewer children, causing workers to rise and the cycle to
start over again
o Arguments that wages would always tend toward a minimum level in the long run
supported employers in their natural reluctance to raise wages
o Provided strong theoretical support for opposition to labor unions
o Ideas of economist spread to public during the 1830s through journals, newspapers,
and even short stories
C. Government Policies Based on Classical Economics
o Working classes resented the attitudes of economists, but governments embraced it
o Louis Guizot economic mister of Louis Phillipe told the French to go forth and
enrich themselves
o In Germany, the middle classes made less headway
o Prussian reformers abolished the internal tariffs that impeded economic growth, in
1834 all German states except Austria formed the Zollverein- free trading union
o Classical economists had less influence in G., b/c of tradition dating from the
enlightened absolutism of state direction of ECON, German economist Friedrich
List argued for this approach to ECON growth
o Britain was the home of the major classical economists and their policies were widely
accepted
o The utilitarian thought of Jeremy Bentham increased their influence, sought to
create codes of scientific law founded on the principle of utilitarianism-the greatest
happiness for the greatest number
o In his Fragment on Government and The Principles of Morals and LegislationBentham explained the application of utility would overcome the special interest of
privileged groups who prevented rational government
o Regarded existing legal/judicial systems as burdened by traditional practices
o Bentham gathered political disciples who combined his ideas w/ classical economics
o IN 1834, the reformed House of Commons passed a new Poor Law prepared by his
followers, established a Poor Law Commission that set out to make poverty the
most undesirable of all social situations
o Government poor relief was to be disbursed only in workhouses-designed to be more
unpleasant than the outside, husbands/wives separated, enforced work was
distasteful, social stigma was worse
o Repeal of the Corn Laws-Anti-Corn Law League sought this goal for more than 6
years abolishing the tariffs that protected the domestic price of grain leading to lower
food prices
o Actual reason for Sir Robert Peel’s repeal of the CL was the Irish famine-had to open
British ports to foreign grain in order to feed the starving Irish
o Repeal marked an era of free trade
VII. Early Socialism
o
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o During the 20th century, the socialist movement constituted one of the major political
forces in Europe
Less than 150 yrs. Ago, socialism lacked any meaningful political following w/
confusing doctrines
o Early socialists generally applauded the new productive capacity of industrialism,
however they denied that the free market could adequately produce and distribute goods
o In the capitalist order, socialists saw primarily mismanagement, low wages,
maldistribution of goods, and suffering from un-regulation
o Socialists thought human society should be org. as a community
A. Utopian Socialism
o Utopian socialists-group of writers who were the earliest people to define the social
question, considered utopian b/c their ideals were visionary and advocated the
creation of ideal communities
o Called socialists b/c they questioned the structures and values of the existing
capitalist framework
o Radical ideas in regard to sexuality and the family
o Ppl who might’ve been sympathetic to their economic concerns were profoundly
unsympathetic to their views on free love/open family relationships
1. Saint-Simonianism
o Claude Saint-Simon was the earliest of the socialist pioneers, young liberal Fr.
aristocrat who fought in the AR
o Believed modern society would require rational management-private wealth,
property, and enterprise should be subjected to an administration other than that
of its owners
o Ideal government would have consisted of a large board of directors organizing
and coordinating the activity of individuals and groups to achieve social harmony
o Ideological father of technocracy-Not the redistribution of wealth, but its
management by experts would alleviate poverty/ social dislocation
o Saint-Simonians became well known for advocating sexuality outside of
marriage
2. Owenism
o Major British contributor to the early socialist tradition was Robert Owen
o Self-made cotton manufacturer who became a partner in one of the largest cotton
factories in Britain
o Firm believer in the environmentalist psychology of the Enligtenment
o If human beings were placed in the correct surroundings that their character
could be improved
o Ideas put in practice: workers were provided with good quarters, recreational
possibilities abounded, children received an education, and several churches with
various rewards given for good work
o Owen pleaded for reorg. Of industry based on his successful model envisioning a
series of communities in which workers might live together and produce their
goods in cooperation
o Became the moving force behind the org. of the Grand National Union
3. Fourierism
o Charles Fourier was the Fr. intellectual counterpart of Owen
o Commercial salesperson who believed the industrial order ignored the passionate
side of human nature-ignoring all the pleasures human beings naturally seek
o
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o Advocated the construction of communities called phalanxes- in which liberated
living would replace the boredom of industrial existence
Agrarian rather than industrial production would predominate these communities,
sexual activity would be relatively free, and marriage was reserved only for later
life
o Fourier urged that no person be required to perform the same kind of work for
the entire day
o Saint-Simon, Owen, and Fourier expected some existing government to carry out
their ideas, they failed to confront the political difficulties of their social
transformations
o Louis Blanc-Fr. socialist writer who paid attention to the politics of the situation
o Demanded an end to competition, called for reform that would give the vote to
the working class, who once empowered would turn the political process to their
own economic advantage
o Recognized the power of the state to improve the life and conditions of labor,
would become the great employer of labor
B. Anarchism
o Rejected both the industry and dominance of government-usually included in the
socialist tradition, although they didn’t exactly fit there
o Some favored violence/terrorism, while some were peaceful
o Auguste Blanqui-major spokesman for terror, sought the abolition of both CAP and
the state-urged development of professional revolutionary vanguard to attack CAP
o Pierre-Joseph Proudhon-represented the other strain of anarchism, in most famous
work, What is Property?- attacked the banking system, which rarely extended credit
to small-property owners or the poor, wanted credit expanded to allow such people to
engage in economic enterprise
o Society should be org. on the basis of mutualism-amounted to a system of small
businesses and other cooperative enterprises
o Anarchists would later favor a wide variety of cooperative businesses whose point
was to favor the community good over that of the individual as well as to afford an
essential fairness in exchange
o Ideas later influenced the Fr. labor movement
C. Marxism
o Marxist socialists ideas did eventually triumph over much, though not all, of Europe,
but only through competition w/ other socialist formulas and largely as a result of the
political situation in Germany
o Marxism differed from its competitors in its claims to scientific accuracy, it’s
rejection of reform, and its call for revolution
o Set the emergence of the industrial work force into the context of a world historical
development from which he drew sweeping political conclusions
o Karl Marx was born in the Rhineland, family Jewish, but father converted to
Lutheranism
1. Partnership with Engels
o In 1844 Marx met Friedrich Engels-another young middle-class German whose
father owned a textile factory in England
o Published The Condition of the Working Class in England- presented a
devastating picture of industrial life
o Two men were asked to write a pamphlet for a newly org. and short-lived secret
Communist League, The Communist Manifesto appeared in 1848 and the league
o
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had adopted the name communist b/c the term was much more self-consciously
radical than socialist
o Communism implied the outright abolition of private property
2. Sources of Marx’s Ideas
o Major ideas of the Manifesto were derived from German Hegelianism, French
socialism, and British classical economics
o Marx applied to concrete historical, social, and economic developments Hegel’s
abstract philosophical concept that thought develops from the clash of thesis and
antithesis into a new intellectual synthesis
o Marx fashioned a philosophy that gave a special role to the new industrial work
force as the single most important driving force of history
o Marx equated the fate of the proletariat-new industrial work force w/ the fate of
humanity itself
o According to Marx, as the proletariat came to liberate itself from its bondage to
the capitalist mode of industrial production, such liberation would eventually
amount to the liberation of all humanity
o This utopian vision of human emancipation
3. Revolution through Class Conflict
o In the Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels contended that human history
must be understood rationally and as a whole-thought that the struggle b/t the
industrial proletariat and the capitalistic bourgeoisie would culminate into a new
society free of class conflict through a socialist revolution
o Scientific claim of Marxism helped spread the ideology as science became more
influential, at its core the attraction of ideology was its utopian vision of ultimate
human liberation
VIII. 1848: Year of Revolutions
o Series of liberal and nationalistic revolutions erupted across the continent in 1848\
o Causes: widespread unemployment, famines and severe food conditions, wretched living
conditions in cities
o Dynamic force for change originated in political liberals drawn from the middle classes
o Liberals pushed for their program of representative gov., civil liberty, and unregulated
economic life
o Repeal of English Corn Laws and peaceful agitation by the Anti-Corn Law League
provided a model for similar tactics
o To put additional pressure, they began to appeal for the support of the urban working
classes
o Goals of working class were improved working/economic conditions not liberal f/w of
gov., but the tactics of the working class were frequently violent
o Temporary alliance of liberals and workers overthrew old order; then the allies fought
o Outside of France, nationalism was an important common factor in the uprisings
o Immediate Results: never in a single year had Europe had so many major uprisings, Fr.
monarchy fell along with other thrones badly shaken
o Long-term Results: served as a false spring for progressive Europeans, liberals failed to
establish genuinely liberal or national states, conservative order proved stronger and more
resilient than expected, liberal middle-class political activists in each country discovered
they couldn’t push for political reform w/o raising the social question
o Liberals refused to follow the political revolution w/ social reform and isolated
themselves from the working class, once separated from mass support, the liberal
revolutions became an easy prey to the armies of the reactionary classes
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A. France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon
o Liberal political opponents of the corrupt regime of Louis Philippe and his
minister Guizot had org. a series of political banquets used to criticize the gov.
and demand forther middle-class representation in the political process
o Poor harvests of 1846, 1847 brought the working class support
o On Feb. 21 the gov. forbade further banquets
o On Feb. 22, disgruntled Parisian workers paraded through the streets demanding
reform and Guizot’s resignation
o Next morning Guizot resigned, crowds erected barricades and clashed with the
guard
o On Feb. 24, 1848 Louis Philippe left France to England
B. The National Assembly and Paris Workers
o Liberal opposition led by the poet Alphonse de Lamartine org. a provisional gov.
o Intended to call an lection for an assembly that would write a republican constitution
o Working class in Paris had other ideas, wanted a social as well as a political
revolution
o Led by Louis Blanc they demanded representation in the cabinet and Blanc and two
other radical leaders were made ministers
o Provisional gov. org. national workshops to provide work and relief for unemployed
workers
o Election based on universal male suffrage chose the new National Assembly
dominated by moderates and conservatives-much resentment expressed against the
Paris radicals and the church/nobles held considerable influence
o Conservative NA closed workshops and planned to remove workers, resulted in
barricades again in Paris
o “June Days”-General Cavaignac moved to destroy the barricades under the
government’s orders
o Drive for social revolution ended after over 3,000 people killed in street fighting
during the June Days
C. Emergence of Louis Napoleon
o June Days confirmed the political predominance of conservative property holders
who wanted a state htat was safe for small property
o Victor in the presidential election was Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the
great emperor, disorder of 1848 gave him a new opportunity, after the corruption and
turmoil of the Second Republic, voters turned to his name as a source of stability
o Election of “Little Napoleon” doomed the Second Republic-dedicated to his own
fame rather than institutions, quarreled with the NA, personally seized power through
a military coup
o More than 26,000 people arrested and 10,000 were transported to Algeria
o First of modern dictators who played on unstable politics and social insecurity
o In plebiscite of Dec. 21, 1851, majority of voters supported actions of Louis
Napoleon and approved a new constitution that consolidated his power
o Louis Napoleon proclaimed an empire and became Emperor Napoleon III
D. Frenchwomen in 1848
o years b/t February Revolution of 1848 and Napoleonic coup had major feminist
activity on the part of Frenchwomen
o women seized opportunity of the collapse of the July Monarchy to voice demands for
reform of their social conditions
o joined political clubs that emphasized women’s rights
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o most radical group of women called the Vesuvians after the volcano-deamnded full
domestic household equality b/t men and women, right of women to serve in the
military, similarity in dress for both sexes
o radical character of Vesuvians lost the support of more moderate women
o Voix des Femmes (The Women’s Voice), a daily newspaper organized by the
society with the same name-relatively conservative feminists that cooperated w/ male
political groups
o Embraced the maternal role for women, but tried to use that social function to
raise the importance of women in society
o Argued that b/c motherhood/childrearing are so important to society, women must
receive better civil rights, property rights, and the right to vote
o Fate of Fr. feminists was similar to that of the radical workers-thoroughly defeated,
new gov. expressed no sympathy, closing of the national workshops adversely
affected women workers, conservative crackdown on political clubs closed another
arena in which women had participated
o At this point, women associated with the Women’s Voice attempted to org. worker’s
groups,
o Jeanne Deroin and Pauline Roland were arrested, tried, and imprisoned for trying
to improve the economic situation for working women
o By 1852, the entire feminist movement had been thoroughly eradicated
E. The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted
1. Vienna Uprising
o Louis Kossuth, a Magyar nationalist and member of the Hungarian diet attacked
Austrian domination of Hungary, called for the independence of Hungary and
demanded a responsible ministry under the Habsburg dynasty
o Students led a series of major disturbances in Vienna inspired by Kossuth
o Army failed to restore order, Metternich resigned and fled the country
o Emperor Ferdinand promised moderately liberal constitution-unsatisfied
radical students formed democratic clubs to press the revolution further
o Habsburg government feared uprising of serfs in combination with REV
o Result: Habsburg government emancipated the serfs in much of Austria,
abolished serfdom in March 1848 and smothered the most serious potential threat
to order in the empire
o Emancipated serfs had little reason to support the revolutionary movement in the
cities
2. The Magyar Revolt
o Vienna revolt further encouraged the Hungarians
o Magyar leaders of the Hungarian March Revolution were primarily liberals
supported by nobles who wanted their aristocratic liberties guaranteed against the
central gov.
o Hungarian diet passed the March Laws-series of law s that ensured equality of
religion, jury trials, election fo a lower chamber, a relatively free press, and
payment of taxes by the nobility
o Emperor Ferdinand approved these measures (feeble-minded, nothing else he
could do)
o Magyars hoped to establish a separate Hungarian state within the Habsburg
domains-retain considerable local autonomy while Ferdinand remained their
emperor
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o Policy of annexation-tried to annex other easter territories of the Habsburg
Empire bringing Romanians, Croatians, and Serbs under Magyar governmentnationlist groups resisted the drive toward Magyarization the most important
element of which was the imposition on them of the Hungarian language
o National groups repressed by the Hungarians thought they could maintain their
identity under Habsburg control
o Vienna gov. sent Count Joseph Jellachich to aid the national groups who were
rebelling against the Magyars-lead an invasion force against Hungary w/ strong
support of the national groups who were resisting Magyarization
3. Czech Nationalism
o With Vienna and Budapest in revolt, Czech nationalists demanded that Bohemia
and Moravia be permitted to constitute an autonomous Slavic state within the
empire similar to that just constituted in Hugary
o Conflicet developed b/t Czechs and the Germans living in these regions
o Under leadership of Francis Palacky, this first Pan-Slavic Congress issued a
manifesto calling for the national equality of Slavs within the Habsburg empire
o Manifesto protested the repression of all Slavic peoples, document raised the
vision of a vast east Euroepan Slavic nation or federation of Slavic states
o Prospect of a unified Slavic people was an important political factor in later
European history-Pan-Slavism would become a toll that Russia would use in
attempts to gain support of nationalist minorities in eastern Europe and the
Balkans to bring pressure against both the Habsburg Empire and Germany
o On June 12, the day the Pan-Slavic Congress closed, a radical insurrection broke
out in Prague, General Prince Alfred Windischgraetz moved his troops against
the uprising
o Czech nationalism smothered, approved by local middle class and Germans
4. Rebellion in Northern Italy
o Habsburg gov. faced war in norther Italy
o Revolution against Habsburg domination began in Milan
o Austrian commander General Count Joseph Radetzky retreated from the city
o King Charles Albert of Piedmont who wanted to expand the influence of his
kingdom in Lombardy of which Milan is the capital aided the rebels
o Radetzky reinforced by new troops defeated Piedmont and suppressed the REV
o Vienna and Hungary remained to be recaptured
o At the capital, a newly elected assembly was trying to write a constitution and
within the city the radicals continued to press for further concessions
o The imperial gov. decided to reassert its control-imperial army bombarded
Vienna and crushed the revolt
o Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his young nephew Francis Joseph
o Real power lay with Prince Felix Schwarzenberg who intended to use the army
with full force
o On January 4, 1849 troops occupied Budapest, by March the triumphant Austrian
forces had imposed military rule over Hungary and repudiated the recent
constitution
o Magyar nobles attempted one last revolt, but Austria troops reinforced by
200,000 soldiers furnished by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia crushed the revolt
o Habsburg gov. survived its gravest internal challenge b/c of divisions among
enemies and its willingness to use military force with a vengeance
F. Italy: Republicanism Denied
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o Brief Piedmont-Austrian war of 1848 marked the 1st stage of the Italian revolution
o
Liberal and nationalist hopes shifted from King Charles of Piedmont to the pope
o Pope Pius I X had a liberal reputation-reformed the administration of the Papal
States, nationalists believed some form of a unified Italy could emerge under his
leadership
o Political radicalism was on the rise in Rome-Count Pelligrino Rossi, the liberal
minister of the Papal States was assassinated and forced the pope to appoint a radical
ministry
o Pius IX fled to Naples for refuge
o In Feb. 1849, radicals proclaimed the Roman Republic-republican nationalists from
all over Italy including Mazzini and Garibaldi two of the most prominent flocked to
Italy
o Hoped to use the new republic as a base of operations to unite the rest of Italy under a
republican government
o Radicals in Piedmont forced Charles to renew the patriotic war against Austria
o After the almost immediate defeat of Piedmont at the Battle of Novara, the king
abdicated the throne
o The troops that attacked Rome and restored the pope cane from France, wanted to
prevent the rise of a strong, unified state on their southern border
o Protection of the pope was good domestic politics for the French Republic and Louis
Napoleon
o Roman Republic dissolved after 10,000 Fr. troops laid siege to Rome
o Garibaldi attempted to lead an army north to Austria but was defeated
o Pope Pius IX returned having renounced his previous liberalism, became one of the
arch conservatives of the next quarter century
G. Germany: Liberalism Frustrated
o Revolutionary contagion spread through numerous states of Germany
1. Revolution in Prussia
o Large popular disturbances erupted in Berlin in 1848-Frederick William IV refused
to run troops on Berliners and announced certain limited reforms b/c he believed
trouble stemmed from foreign conspirators
o King called for Prussian constituent assembly to write a constitution-implied that
Prussia would aid the movement toward German unification
o Frederick WIlliam IV appointed a cabinet headed by David Hansemann, a widely
respected moderate liberal
o Prussian constituent proved to be radical and democratic-king and supporters decided
they would ignore the assembly
o Liberal ministry resigned and was replaced by a conservative one
o Assembly dissolved and the monarchy proclaimed his own constitution
o Three-class voting: all adult males allowed to vote, but according to 3 classes
arranged by ability to pay taxes, largest taxpayers, who constituted only about 5 % of
the pop. received 1/3 of the Parliament
2. The Frankfurt Parliament
o Representatives gathered from all the German states in St. Paul’s Church in
Frankfurt in 1848 to revise the org. of the German Confederation
o Frankfurt Parliament intended to write a moderately liberal constitution for a
united Germany
o Liberal character of the FP alienated both conservatives and the working class
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FP lost support of workers by refusing to restore protections of guilds, liberals
too attached to concept of free labor market to offer meaningful change for
workers
o Failure marked the beginning of a profound split b/t German liberals and the
working class
o German conservatives would be able to play on that division
o FP called in troops of the GC to suppress a radical insurrection in the city-wanted
nothing to do with workers who erected barricades and threatened safety of
property
o FP floundered on the issue of unification-members differed over whether to
include Austria in the projected united German
o The “large German (Grossdeutsch) solution” favored inclusion whereas the
“the small German (kleindeutsch) solution” advocated exclusion
o Latter prevailed b/c Austria rejected the notion of Gemran unification
o FP looked to Prussian rather than Austrian leadership
o On mar. 27, 1849 FP produced its constitution and offered the crown of a united
Germany to Frederick William IV of Prussia
o He rejected the offer, asserting that kings didn’t rule by man-made constitutions
o On his refusal, FP began to dissolve, troops drove off remaining members
o Impact: liberals never fully recovered from this defeat, FP alienated the
working class w/o gaining support from the conservatives
o Liberals proved ultimately dependent on the armies of monarchies, failed to unite
German
o Various revolutions did achieve an extension of franchise and the establishment
of conservative constitutions
o
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I. The Crimean War (1853-1856)
o Impetus for change originated in war
o Causes: Crimean War rooted in the desire of Russia to extend its influence over the
Ottoman Empire
o Two disputes led to conflict: 1st- OE declared protective oversight for RCs not
Orthodox Christians, Russia occupied OE to protect Orthodox Christians; 2nd-weak OE
made Russia want to expand influence at the cost of Ottoman demise through the eastern
Mediterranean but opposed by Fr. and Britain who declared war on Russia in alliance w/
the Ottomans to protect their commercial interests
o Austria and Prussia remained neutral
o CW was first war covered by the press, but both sides conducted the conflict ineptly w/
poorly equipped/commanded armies bogged down along the Crimean coast of the Black
Sea
o Finally, the Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell to the Fr. and British
1. Peace Settlement and Long-Term Results
o Treaty of Paris required Russia to surrender territory near the mouth of the Danube
recognizing the neutrality of the Black Sea, renounce its claims of protection over
orthodox Christians in the OE
o Russian image of invincibility shattered- Austria forced Russia to withdraw from
Moldavia and Walchavia
o Concert of Europe as a means of dealing w/ IR was shattered, great powers feared
revolution less than earlier in the century and for 25 years after European affairs were
unstable producing a period of adventurism
II. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire
o Short-lived Napoleonic invasion of OE province of Egypt sparked a drive for change
o Sultan issued a decree called the Hatt-i Sharif that attempted to reorganize the empire’s
administration and military along European lines and opened the Tanzimat
(reorganization of the era of the OE)
o Reforms liberalized the economy, ended the practice of tax farming, and sought to
eliminate corruption
o Hatt-i Sharif also extended civic equality to OE subjects regardless of religion
o Made it easier for Muslims to enter into commercial agreements with non-Muslims
o Another reform decree called the Hatti-I Humayun promulgated at the end of the
Crimean War and under the influence of Britain and France spelled out rights of nonMuslims more explicitly giving them equal opportunity for edu., employment, and
military service
o Decree abolished torture and allowed foreigners to acquire some property
o OE tried to copy European legal/military institutions and secular values of liberalism
o Imperial gov’t took these steps to elicit loyalty of Christian subjects at a time when
nationalism was making inroads
o OE broke down the millet system and defined all citizens as subjects rather than as
members of religious communities
o Difficult to implement reforms: local rulers were virtually independent of Istanbul,
power struggles developed among countries and leaders, and the ulema tried to maintain
the rule of Islamic law
o OE failed to achieve genuine political strength and stability –implementation problems,
traditional institutions, nationalism
o Inability of OE to retain power was demonstrated by the Balkan Wars that resulted in
Russian or Austrian dominance over most of the empire’s European holdings
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Response to these defeats was greater efforts to modernize the army and the
economy to build infrastructure
o In 1876, reformers persuaded the sultan to proclaim an Ottoman constitution calling for a
parliament consisting of an elected chamber of deputies and an appointed senate but left
the sultan’s power intact making the arg that European political arrangements as well as
tech accounted for European strength
o New sultan soon rejected these steps toward constitutionalism-military officers carried
out a revolution against the authority of the sultan
o Young Turks-group of reformist officers came to power w. another program to
modernize the empire, they were in charge when WWI broke out and their decision to
enter the war on the side of the Central Powers led to the empire’s defeat and collapse
o Increasing secularization of the government occurred which south less to question
the Islamic foundations of society than to reduce the influence of the Muslim
religious authorities on the state
III. Italian Unification
o Nationalists had long wanted to unite the small, absolutists principalities of the Italian
peninsula into a single state
A. Romantic Republicans
o After the Congress of Vienna, secret republican societies were founded
throughout Italy, the most famous of which was the Carbonari
o Following failure of nationalist uprisings in 1831, the leadership of romantic
republican nationalism passed to Giuseppe Mazzini-most important nationalist
leader in Europe, declaring “Nationality is the role assigned by God to a people
in the work of humanity.”
o In 1831, he founded the Young Italy Society to drive Austria from the peninsula
and establish an Italian republic
o During the 1830s and 1840s, Mazzini and his fellow republican Guiseppe
Garibaldi led the insurrections, involved w/ Roman Republic of 1849
o Throughout the 1850s, they conducted guerilla warfare
o Republican nationalism frightened moderate Italians, who wanted to rid
themselves of Austrian domination, but not establish a republic
o Looked to papacy to sponsor unification, but the solution became impossible
after the experience of Pius IX with the Roman Republic
o By 1860, the Italian peninsula was transformed into a nation-state under a
constitutional monarchy, process carried out not by romantic republican
nationalists, but by Count Camillo Cavour-moderately liberal prime minister of
Piedmont
o His method was force of arms tied to secret diplomacy
B. Cavour’s Policy
o Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia) in northwestern Italy was the most independent
state on the peninsula
o Congress of Vienna restored the kingdom as a buffer b/t Fr. and Austria
o King Albert of Piedmont twice unsuccessfully fought Austria and after 2nd defeat he
abdicated the throne in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II who chose Count
Cavour as his prime minister
o Cavour begun political life as a strong conservative, but moved toward moderate
liberal position
o Made a fortune by investing in railroads, editing newspaper, and reforming ag
o
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Nationalist of a new breed who had no respect for Mazzini’s ideals rejecting
republicanism
o It was economic/material progress that required a large, unified state on the Italian
peninsula
o Cavour formed the nationalist Society-established chapters in other Italian states to
press for unification under the leadership of Piedmont
o PM believed Italy could be unified only w/ help of France, accession of Napoleon III
in France opened the way for aid
1. French Sympathies
o Cavour used CW to bring Italy into European politics, Piedmont joined the conflict
on the side of France and Britain and sent 10,000 troops to the front
o Small but significant participation in the war allowed Cavour to raise the Italian
question at the Paris conference-left w/o diplomatic reward, but his
intelligence/political capacity impressed everyone, including Napoleon III
During rest of decade, he achieved further int’l respect for opposing plots of mazzini,
who was still attempting to lead nationalist uprisings
o Cavour represented a moderate liberal alternative to both republicanism and
reactionary absolutism in Italy
o In 1858, an Italian attempted to assassinate Napoleon III causing the Fr. emperor
newly concerned about the Italian issue
o Saw himself continuing his more famous uncle’s liberation of the peninsula
o Saw Piedmont as a potential ally against Austria
o In July 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III met in southern France-plotted to provoke a
war in Italy that would permit them to defeat Austria
o Formal treaty in Dec. confirmed the agreement-France was to receive Fr.-speaking
Nice and Savoy from Piedmont for its aid
2. War with Austria
o In early 1859, tension grew b/t Austria and Piedmont as Piedmont mobilized its army
o Austria demanded demobilization, Piedmont used demand as claim that Austria was
provoking a war and France intervened to aid its ally
o Austrians were defeated at Magenta and Solferino and revolutiosn broke out in
Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Romagna provinces of the Papal States
o With the Austrians in retreat and the new revolutionary regimes calling for union w/
Piedmont, Napoleon III feared too extensive a Piedmontese victory
o He independently concluded a peace with Austria: Piedmont received Lombardy, but
Venetia remained under Austrian control
o Cavour felt betrayed by France, but the war had driven Austria from most of N. Italy
o Later that summer, the other states voted to unite w/ Piedmont
3. Garibaldi’s Campaign
o At this point, forces of romantic republican nationalism compelled Cavour to pursue
the complete unification of N. and S. Italy
o Garibaldi landed in Sicily w/ more than 1,000 troops outfitted in the north
o Garibaldi hoped to form a republican Italy and attacked the mainland controlling the
city and kingdom of Naples
o Cavour rushed Piedmontese troops south to confront Garibaldi, conquering the rest of
the Papal States except the area around Rome, protected fro the pope by the Fr.
o Garibaldi’s nationalism won out over his republicanism, and he accepted
Piedmontese domination
C. The New Italian State
o
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In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy-Cavour died 3 months
later
o Italy had been more nearly conquered than united by Piedmont
o Republicans resented the treatment of Garibaldi, clericals resented the conquest of
the Papal States. In the south, armed resistance against the imposition of the
Piedmontese administration continued
o Economies of N. and S. Italy were incompatible-S. was rural, poor and backward
while the N. was industrializing and linked to that of the rest of Europe
o Social structures of the 2 regions reflected those differences with large
landholders/peasants dominant in the S. and an urban working class emerging in the
N.
o Political F/W of united Italy couldn’t overcome problems, constitution provided for a
conservative constitutional monarchy-Parliament consisted of 2 houses: a senate
appointed by the king and a chamber of deputies elected on a narrow franchise
o Ministers responsible to the monarch, not to Parliament
o Political leaders often avoided major problems, in place of efficient, progressive
gov’t such as Cavour had brought to Piedmont, a system called transformismo
developed-political opponents were “transformed” into government supporters
through bribery, favors, or a seat, Italian ptix=corruption
o Unification was incomplete, many Italians believed other territories should be added
(Venetia and Rome). Venetia was gained in return for Italy’s alliance w/ Prussia in
the Austro-Prussian War. Rome and the papacy continued to be guarded by French
troops until they were withdrawn during the Franco-Prussian War
o Italian state then annexed Rome and made it the capital, papacy confined itself to the
Vatican and remained hostile to the Italian state
o By 1870, only the small province of Trent and the city of Trieste, both ruled by
Austria remained outside Italy
o These areas were not significant, but they fueled the continued hostility of Italian
nationalists toward Austria
o The desire to liberate Italia Irredenta, or “unredeemed Italy,” was one reason for the
Italian support of the Allies against Austria and Germany during WWI
IV. German Unification
o The most important political development in Europe b/t 1848 and 1914
o Transformed the balance of economic, military, and int’l power
o Method of its creation determined the character of the new German state-united by the
conservative army, the monarchy, and the PM of Prussia wanting to outflank Prussian
liberals
o A unified Germany was achieved for the most illiberal of reasons
o During the 1850s, German unification seemed remote-major states traded w/ each other
through the Zollverein (tariff union) and railways linked their economies, Frederick
William IV of Prussia had given up thoughts of unification under Prussian leadership and
Austria continued to oppose the union
o Liberal nationalists had not recovered from the humiliating experiences of 1848 and 1849
o Domestic political changes and problems within Prussia quickly modified this situation
o In 1858 Frederick William IV was judged insane and his brother William I became king,
was less idealistic and more of a Prussian patriot
o In usual Hohenzollern tradition, his first concern was to strengthen the Prussian army
o
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The Prussian Parliament refused to approve the necessary taxes, the liberals who
dominated P. sought to avoid placing additional power in the hands of the monarchy and
for 2 years, monarch and Parliament were deadlocked
A. Bismarck
o In Sept., William I turned to help for the person who more than any other single
individual shaped the next thirty years of European history: Otto von Bismarckcame from a Junker stock, attended a U, displayed interest in German unification
o During the 1840s, Bismarck was elected to the diet where he was so reactionary
as to disturb even the king
o Bismarck became PM for William I
o Although, Bismarck entered public life as a reactionary, he had mellowed into a
conservative-oopposing parliamentary government, b ut not a constitutionalism
that provided for a strong monarch
o He understood that Prussia must have a strong industrial base
o Prussian patriot who was pragmatic placing more trust in power than in ideas
o Bismarck immediately moved against the liberal P. upon becoming PM
o Contended that even w/o new financial levies, the Prussia constitution permitted
the gov. to carry out its functions on the basis of previously granted taxes
o Thus, taxes could be collected and spent despite the parliamentary refusal to vote
for them
o The army and most of the bureaucracy supported this interp
o In 1863, new elections sustained the liberal majority in the Parliament-Bismarck
had to find some way to attract popular support away from the liberals and
toward the monarch and the army
o He set about uniting Germany through the conservative institutions of Prussia
B. Danish War
o Bismarck pursued a Kleindeutsch (Small German) solution to unification
o Austria was to be excluded from a united German state
o This goal required complex diplomacy: the Schleswit-Holstein problem gave
Bismarck the handle for his policy
o These 2 northern duchies had long been ruled by the kings of Denmark w/o being
part of Denmark itself
o Mixed population of Germans and Danes, Holstein, where Germans predominated
belonged to the German Confederation
o In 1863, the Dutch moved to incorporate both duchies in to Denmark-the smaller
states of the German Confed proposed an all-German war to halt his move
o Bismarck wanted Prussia to act alone or only in cooperation w/ Austria-Together the
two large states easily defeated Denmark
o Danish defeat increased Bismarck’sz personal prestige and over the next 2 years he
maneuvered Austria into war w/ Prussia
o In August 1865, the two powers negotiated the Convention of Gastein, which put
Austria in charge of Holstein and Prussia in charge of Schleswig
o Bismarck then moved to mend other diplomatic fences by gaining Russian sympathy
in supporting g the suppression of a Polish revolt, and he persuaded Napoleon III to
promise neutrality in an Austro-Prussian conflict
o Bismarck also concluded a treaty w/ Italy promising that Italy would get Venetia if it
attacked Austria in support of Prussia when war broke out
C. Austro-Prussian War and the German Empire
o Constant Austro-Prussian tension had arisen over the administration of S and H
o
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Bismarck ordered Prussian forces to be as obnoxious as possible to the Austrians
Austrian appealed to GC to intervene in the dispute-Bismarck claimed this violated
the 1864 alliance and the Convention of Gastein
o This Seven Weeks’ War which resulted in the summer of 1866, led to the decisive
defeat of Austria at Koniggratz in Bohemia
o The Treaty of Prague was lenient toward Austria, which only lost Venetia, ceded to
Napoleon III, who in turn ceded it to Italy. Habsburgs were permanently excluded
from German affairs-Prussia had established itself as the only major power among
the German states
D. The North German Confederation
o In 1867, Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and the city of Frankfurt who had all supported
Austria during the war were annexed by Prussia and their rulers were deposed
o All Germany north of the Main R. now formed a federation known as the North
German Confederation
o Each state retained its own local gov’t, but all military forces were under federal
control
o President of the federation was the king of Prussia represented by his chancellor,
Bismarck
o Legislature consisting of 2 houses: a federal council (Bundesrat) composed of
members appointed by the gov’ts of the states, and a lower house (Reichstag) chosen
by universal male suffrage
o Bismarck didn’t fear this broad franchise, because he sensed peasants would vote for
conservatives and the Reichstag had little real power, because ministers were
responsible only to the monarch
o All laws had to be proposed by the chancellor
o The constitution of the confederation which later became the constitution of the
German Empire possessed some of the appearances, but none of the substance of
liberalism
o Germany was in effect a military monarchy
o Success of Bismarck’s policy overwhelmed liberal opposition in Prussian P.
o Liberals split b/t those that prized liberalism and those who prized unification and in
the end nationalism proved more attractive
o In 1866, P. approved the military budget, Bismarck ahd crushed the Prussial liberals
by making the monarchy and the army the most popular institutions in the country
o The drive toward unification had achieved his domestic political goal
E. The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871
o Bismarck wanted to complete unification by bringing the states of southern Germany
into the confederation
o Spain gave him the excuse
o In 1868, a military coup deposed the corrupt Bourbon queen of Spain, Isabella II
o To replace her, Spain chose Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a
Catholic cousin of William I of Prussia
o Leopold accepted the Spanish crown w/ Prussian blessings and Bismarck knew that
France would object to a Hohenzollern Spain
o France reacted by sending its ambassador Count Vincent Benedetti to consult with
William I and Leopold’s father renounced his son’s candidacy for the Spanish throne
o Bismarck wanted war w/ France to complete unification and he edited the king’s
telegram insulting the Fr. ambassador goading France to declare war on July 19
o
o
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Napoleon III was sick, but his gov. believed victory over the NGC would give the
empire renewed popular support
o Once conflict erupted, the southern German states honoring the treaties of 1866
joined Prussia against France and beat the Fr. army at the Battle of Sedan capturing
Napoleon III
o German Empire proclaimed, w/ German princes requesting William to accept the title
of emperor-princes remained heads of their respective states w/I the new federation
o Peace settlement: Germany annexed Alsace and part of Lorraine
o Long-range impacts: powerful new state created in north central Europe rich in
natural resources and military and economically strong, huge blow to European
liberalism b/c the new state was a conservative creation and conservative politics was
now backed by the strongest state on the continent, emergence of the Italy and
Germany exposed French and Habsburg weakness causing each to change
V. France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic
o The reign of Napoleon III is divided into the years of the authoritarian empire and those
of the liberal empire
o The year of division is 1860
o Before 1860, Napoleon III had controlled the legislature, censored the press, and harassed
political dissidents-supported by arm, Church and property owners, popular b/c of CW
o From the late 1850s and onward he had relaxed censorship, permitted labor unions, and
concluded a free trade policy w/ Britain
o Napoleon also made liberal concessions by allowing leaders in the legislature to form a
ministry and a liberal constitution that made the ministers responsible to the legislature
o Liberal concessions made to shore up domestic support to compensate for his failures in
foreign policy: lost control of Italian unification, supported disastrous military
expedition against Mexico, and war of 1870 against Germany
o Second Empire came to an end w/ the Battle of Sedan where the emperor was captured
and allowed to go to England to die
o After Sedan, in Paris a republic was proclaimed and a gov’t of national defense
established-Paris was under Prussian siege and the gov’t moved to Bordeaux
A. The Paris Commune
o Division b/t provinces and Paris became sharp after fighting stopped
o Monarchists dominated the new NA elected in February and the assembly gave
executive power to Adolphe Thiers-negotiated a settlement w/ Prussia, The
Treaty of Frankfurt-parts of Fr. would remain occupied by Prussian troops until
a large sum had been paid, Fr. also lost Alsace and part of Lorraine
o Parisians resented what they regarded as a betrayal by the monarchist NA sitting
at Versailles
o Parisians elected a new municipal government, called the Paris Communeintended to administer Paris separately from the rest of France, radicals and
socialists participated in the Commune
o In April, the NA surrounded Paris w/ an army and bombarded the city killing
about 20,000 inhabitants
o Impact: PC became a legend throughout Europe-Marxists regarded it as a
genuine proletarian gov’t that the French bourgeoisie had suppressed
o False interpretation-Commune was dominated by bourgeois members who had
their socialist roots in anarchism rather than class conflict-Commune wanted a
nation of relatively independent radically democratic enclaves
o Its suppression represented the triumph of the centralized nation-state
o
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Just as Piedmont and Prussia had united the small states of Italy and Germany,
the Fr. NA had destroyed the particularistic political tendencies of Paris and by
implication those of any other Fr. community
B. The Third Republic
o NA backed into a republican form of government against its will
o Monarchist majority was divided b/t the House of Bourbon and the House of
Orleans
o Problem could have been surmounted, b/c the Bourbon claimant, the Count of
Chambord had no children and agreed to accept the Orleanist heir as his successor
o Chambord refused to become king if France retained the revolutionary tricolor flag
o Even the conservative monarchists would not return to the white flag of the
Bourbons which symbolized extreme political reaction
o By Sep. 1873, the payment was paid and Prussia left
o Thiers was ousted from offices due to republican sentiments and the monarchists
wanted a more sympathetic executive electing as president a conservative army
officer Marshal Macmahon who prepared for a monarchist restoration
o The NA was unable to find a king and decided to regularize the political system by
adopting a law that provided for a Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male
suffrage, a Senate chosen indirectly, and a president elected by the 2 legislatures
o This simple republican system had resulted from the bickering of the monarchists
o After quarrels w/ the Chamber of Deputies, Macmahon resigned-this meant that
dedicated republicans controlled the national government
o Political structure of the Third Republic proved strong surviving challenges from
General Georges Boulanger-who would have imposed stronger executive authority,
and scandals of corruption, b/c the institutions of the republic allowed new ministers
to replace those whose corruption was exposed
C. The Dreyfus Affair
o Greatest trauma of the Third Republic occurred over the Dreyfus Affair
o On Dec. 22, 1894, a Fr. military court found Captain Alfred Dreyfus guilty of
passing secret info to the German army
o Evidence was flimsy and revealed to have been forged
o Someone in the officer corps had been passing docs to the Germans and the army
investigators accused Dreyfus who was Jewish
o After Dreyfus was sent to prison, docs were still leaked and a new head of Fr. CI
reexamined the Dreyfus file and found evidence of forgery
o The affair had provoked a near-hysterical public debate
o The army, Fr. Catholic church, political conservatives, and anti-Semites contended
that Dreyfus was guilty and anti-Dreyfus opinion was dominant at the beginning
o Liberals, radicals, and socialists began to demand a new trial for Dreyfus-Emile Zola
published a newspaper article entitled “I accuse” in which he contended the army ahd
denied due process to Dreyfus
o Forces of the political left portrayed the conservative institutions of the antion as
having denied Dreyfus the rights belonging to any citizen of the republic and claimed
that Dreyfus had been singled out so the guilty persons in the army could be
protected
o Dreyfus case divided France as no issue had done since the PC and by its conclusion
the conservatives were on the defensive-they had allowed themselves to persecute an
innocent person and to manufacture false evidence to protect themselves displaying
violent Anti-Semitism
o
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The political left used the Dreyfus case to form an informal alliance and realized that
republican institutions must be supported if the political left was to achieve its goals
o Political, racial, and religious divisions hurt France until its defeat by Germany
VI. The Habsburg Empire
o After 1848, the HE remained dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian in the age of national
states, liberal institutions and industrialism
o Francis Joseph reasserted absolutism in response to the 1848 revolutions
o During the 1850s his ministers attempted to impose a bureaucracy on the empire, but the
system amounted to a military and bureaucratic regime dominated by German-speaking
Austrians
o Vienna gov’t abolished internal tariffs in the empire
o It divided Hungary which ahd been so revolutionary into military districts
o RCC controlled education and national groups who had supported the empire against the
Hungarians received no rewards for their loyalty
o Although this provoked resentment, it was foreign setbacks the caused the HE to flounder
o Austrian refusal to support Russian during the CW meant the new tsar would no longer
help preserve Habsburg rule in Hungary as Nicholas I had in 1849 and an important
external prop of Habsburg power had disappeared
o Austrian defeat at the hands of France and Piedmont and loss of territory in Italy
confirmed the need for a new domestic policy
A. Formation of the Dual Monarchy
o
In 1860, Francis Joseph issued the October Diploma which created a federation
among states and provinces of the empire-there were to be local diets dominated by the
landed classes and a single imperial parliament
o
The Magyar nobility of Hungary rejected the October Diploma
o
Consequently, in 1861, the emperor issued the February Patent which set up an
entirely different form of government establishing a bicameral imperial parliament
(Reichsrat) with an upper chamber appointed by the emperor and an indirectly elected
lower chamber
o
Again the Magyars refused to cooperate in a system designed to give power to
German-speakign Austrians and the Magyars sent no delegates to the legislature
o
For 6 yrs. The February patent governed the empire and it prevailed in Austria
proper until WWI-ministers responsible to the emperor and civil liberties not guaranteed
w/ armies levied and taxes raised w/o parliamentary consent
o
Emperor could rule when Reichsrat was not in session by decree
o
Secret negotiations b/t the emperor and the Magyars produced no concrete result
until the Prussian defeat of Austria in 1866 and the consequent exclusion of Austria from
German affairs
o
Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867 transformed the HE into a dual monarchy
known as Austria-Hungary w/ Francis Joseph at the head
o
Austria and Hungary became almost wholly separate states and the Magyars had
achieved the free hand they had wanted in Hungary
B. Unrest of Nationalities
o Compromise of 1867 had introduced 2 diff principles of political legitimacy into the
2 sections of the HE
o In Hungary, political loyalty was based on nationality, Hungary was a Magyar nation
under the HE
o In Austria-the principle of legitimacy meant dynastic loyalty to the emperor
o
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Many of the other nationalities wished to achieve the same type of settlement that the
Hungarians had won including the Czechs, Romanians, and Croations
o These groups had opposed the C of 1867, b/c it allowed Hungarian Magyars and
German-speaking Austrians to dominate the other nationalities w/I the empire
o CZECHS: most vocal critics advocating a policy of trialism-triple monarchy in
which the Czechs would be given a position similar to that of the Hungarians.
Francis Joseph was willing to accept this concept, but the Magyars vetoed it b/c they
didn’t want to make similar concessions to their own subject nationalities. Czechs
were placated by generous patronage and posts in the bureaucracy but by the 1890s
Czech nationalism became more strident and FJ gave the Czechs and Germans
equality of language in various localities. Thereafter, the Germans in the Reichsrat
opposed these measures by disrupting Parliament (playing music loudly), Czechs
responded in kind causing chaos in the Reichsrat
o Nationalism-became stronger during the last quarter of the 19th century-language
became the single most important factor in defining a nation due to expansion fo
education, racial thinking became important maintaining there was a genetic basis for
ethnic and cultural groups defined by a common history and culture
o Once language/race became ways to define a group, the lines b/t group became
sharply drawn
o Unrest of various nationalities w/I the HE not only caused internal political
difficulties but also became a major source of political instability for all of central
and eastern Europe
o Out of these tensions emerged much of the turmoil that would spark WWI
o Dominant German population of Austria was generally loyal to the emperor, however
a part of it yearned to join the new GE hating the non-German national groups of the
empire
o Nationality problems touched all 4 of the great central and eastern European empiresthe German, the Russian, the Austrian, and the Ottoman
VI. Russia: Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings
o Russian changed remarkably during the last ½ of the 19th century
o Gov’t finally addressed long-standing problem of serfdom and undertook reforms
o During the same period, radical revolutionary groups began to org., gov’t responded by
repression
A. Reforms of Alexander II
o Russian defeat in CW and humiliation in the Treaty of Paris compelled change
o Nicholas I had died and his son Alexander II took the throne when the war had
made reform both necessary and possible
o Alexander II instituted the most extensive restructuring of Prussian society since
Peter the Great
B. Abolition of Serfdom
o Profound cultural gap separated Russian from the rest of Europe-most apparent in
serfdom, this institution had changed little since the 18t h century although every
other nation on the Continent ahd abandoned it
o Serfdom was economically inefficient-threat of revolt, and the serfs forced into army
performed poorly
o Moral opinion condemned serfdom and only Russia, Brazil, and certain portions of
the U.S. retained such forms of slavery
o Actual emancipation law was disappointment-freedom was not accompanied by land,
Serfs immediately received the personal right to marry, rights to purchase/sell
o
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C.
D.
E.
F.
property freely, engage w/ court, and pursuer trades, BUT they didn’t get free title to
their land and had to pay the landlords over a period of 49 yrs for allotments of land
that were frequently too small to support them
o Serfs would not received title to land until debt was paid
o Procedures were so complicated and results so limited that gov’t forced to cancel
remaining debts after widespread revolutionary unrest following Japanese defeat of
Russia in 1905
Reform of Local Government and the Judicial System
o Abolition of serfdom required reform of local gov’t and judiciary
o Authority of village communes replaced that of the landlord over the peasant
o The village elders settled quarrels, imposed fines, and collected taxes
o Village communes owned the land often
o Nobility permitted larger role in local administration through a system of provincial
and country Zemstvos, or councils that oversaw local matters such as infrastructure,
education ,and ag improvement
o Western European legal principles were introduced into Russia: equality before the
law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, trial by jury and JI
o Courts were more efficient and less corrupt than the old system
Military Reform
o Russia possessed the largest military force, but it had floundered badly during the
CW
o Period of service was overwhelming at 2 yrs, villages had to provide quotas of serfs,
life in the army was harsh
o Army lowered period of service to 15 yrs and eventually 6 yrs
Repression in Poland
o In 1863, Polish nationalists attempted to overthrow Russian dominance
o Once again the Russian army suppressed the rebellion
o Alexander II moved to “Russify” Poland-he emancipated the Polish serfs, imposed
Russian law, language and administration
o Poland was treated as merely another Russian province
o Polish suppression demonstrated that Alexander II was a reformer only w/I the limits
of his own autocracy
o Changes in Russian life failed to create new loyalty to the gov’t-serfs felt
emancipation had been inadequate, nobles resented tsar’s refusal to allow the ma
meaningful role in policy making
o Alexander II was never popular, after an attempt was made on his life Russia
increasingly became a police state and the new repression fueled the activity of
radical groups w/I Russia
Revolutionaries
o Tsarist regime had long had its critics-one of the most prominent was Alexander
Herzen who lived in exile in London publishing a newspaper called The Bell in
which he set forth reformist positions
o Intellectuals and students became discontented w/ the limited character of the reforms
and drawing on the ideas of Herzen and other radicals, these students formed a
revolutionary movement known as populism
o Sought a social revolution based on the communal life of the Russian peasants
o Chief radical society was called Land and Freedom
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In the early 1870s, hundreds of young Russians took their revolutionary message into
the countryside to live w/ the peasants, gain their trust ,and to teach them about their
role in the coming revolution
o Peasants turned most of the youths over to the police where students were tried but
most were acquitted or given light sentences, b/c the court believed a display of
mercy might lessen public sympathy for the young revolutionaries
o Tsar publicly let it become known that he favored harsher sentences
o Thereafter, the revolutionaries decided the tsarist regime must be attacked directly
and developed a policy of terrorism
o Vera Zasulich attempted to assassinate the military governor of St. Petersburg
o Land and Freedom split into 2 groups: 1 advocated educating the peasants and it
soon dissolved, the other known as the People’s Will was dedicated to the overthrow
of the autocracy and attempted to assassinate the tsar itself
o On March 1, 1881 a bomb hurled by a member of the PW killed Alexander II
o Emergence of such dedicated revolutionary opposition was as much a part of the
reign of Alexander II as were his reforms-the limited nature of his reforms convinced
many Russians that the autocracy could never truly redirect Russian society
o The reign of Alexander III strengthened that pessimism possessing all the autocratic
and repressive characteristics of his grandfather Nicholas I
o Alexander III sought primarily to roll back his father’s reforms
o Favored the centralized bureaucracy over the Zemstvos, strengthened the secret
police and increased censorship of the press
o Confirmed all evils that the revolutionaries saw in autocratic government
o His son, Nicholas II would discover that autocracy would not survive the pressures of
the 20th century
VII. Great Britain: Toward Democracy
o While the continental nations became unified and struggled toward internal political
restructuring, GB continued to symbolize the confident liberal state
o GB dealt w/ difficulties and domestic conflicts through existing political institutions
o Prosperity in 3rd quarter of century mitigated social hostility of the 1840s as all classes
shared a belief in capitalism
o Leaders of trade unions asked mainly to receive more money and to be respected
o P. remained an institution through which new groups and interests were absorbed into the
existing political processes
o Britain did not have to create new liberal institutions
A. The Second Reform Act (1867)
o Prosperity and social respectability of the working class convinced many
politicians that the workers deserved an expansion of franchise in the 1860s
o Org. such as the Reform League led by John Bright moved for P. action
o In 1866, Lord Russell’s liberal ministry introduced a reform bill that was
defeated by a coalition of traditional Conservatives and antidemocratic Liberals
o Russell resigned and the Conservative Lord Derby replaced him
o Surprisingly the Conservative ministry led by Benjamin Disraeli introduced its
own reform bill in 1867-Disraeli accepted one amendment after another to the
bill and expanded the electorate well beyond the limits proposed earlier by the
Liebrals
o When the final measure was passed the number of voters had almost been
doubled-large numbers of male working-class voters had been admitted
o
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Disraeli hoped that by sponsoring the measure the C. would receive the gratitude
of the new voters, he realized reform was inevitable but that the C. needed to
enjoy the credit for it
o The C. dominated British politics in the 20th century because of this
o Immediate election of 1868 of William Gladstone as Prime Minister dashed
Disraeli’s hopes as he was a strong liberal who had supported Robert Peel
o As finance minister during the 1850s/1860s he had lowered taxes and
government expenditures
o He continued to oppose a new reform bill until the early 1860s and had been
Russell’s spokesperson in the House of Commons for the unsuccessful Liberal
reform bill
B. Gladstone’s Great Ministry
o Ministry of 1868 to 1874 was the culmination of classical British liberalism
o Institutions that remained the preserve of the nobility and the church were opened to
people from all classes and religious denominations
o IN 1870, competitive exams replaced patronage for civil service
o In 1871, the purchase of officer’s commissions in the army was abolished
o Anglican religious requirements for the faculties of Oxford and Cambridge
Universities were removed
o Ballot Act of 1872 introduced voting by secret ballot
o Most momentous measure of Gladstone’s first ministry was the Education Act of
1870-for the 1st time in GB history the gov’t assumed the responsibility for
establishing and running elementary schools
o Previously GB education had been a task relegated to the religious denominations w/
state support
o Henceforth, the gov. would establish schools where the efforts of religious
denominations proved inadequate
o Reforms were typically liberal-sought to remove abuses w/o destroying institutions
and to permit all able citizens to compete on the grounds of ability and merit
o Tried to avoid the potential danger to a democratic state of an illiterate citizenry
o Reforms constituted a new mode of state building, because they created new bonds of
loyalty to the nation by abolishing many sources of discontent
C. Disraeli in Office (1874-1880)
o Liberal policy of creating popular support by extending political liberties and
reforming abuses had its conservative counterpart in concern for social reform
o Disraeli succeeded Gladstone as PM in 1874 when the election produced sharp
divisions among Liberal Party voters over religion, education and alcohol
o Two men differed on most issues: Gladstone looked to individualism, free trade, and
competition to solve social problems, while Disraeli believed in paternalistic
legislation to protect the weak and alleviate class suffering
o Disraeli had few specific programs or ideas
o Significant social legislation of his ministry stemmed primarily from the efforts of his
home secretary Richard Cross who did The Public Health Act of 1875 that
consolidated previous legislation on sanitation and reaffirmed the duty of the state to
interfere w/ private property on matters of health and physical well-being
o Artisan Dwelling Act- the gov’t became actively involved in providing housing for
the working class
o Conservative majority in P. gave new protection to British trade unions and allowed
them to raise picket lines
o
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D. The Irish Question
o In 1880 a 2nd Gladstone ministry took office after an ag depression and unpopular
foreign policy undermined the Conservatives
o In 1884, a third reform act gave the vote to most male farm workers
o Major issue of the decade was Ireland
o From the late 1860s and onward, Irish nationalists sought home rule for Ireland, by
which they meant Irish control of local government
o During his 1st ministry, Gladstone had addressed the Irish question through 2 major
pieces of legislation
o 1. he had disestablished the Church of Ireland, the Irish branch of the Anglican
church and Irish Roman Catholic would not pay taxes to support the hated Protestant
church to which few of the Irish belonged
o 2. the liberal ministry sponsored a land act that would compensate those Irish tenants
who were evicted and loans for those who wished to purchase their land
o Throughout the 1870s the Irish Question festered as land remained the center of the
agitation
o The org. of the Irish Land League led to intense agitation/intimidation nof landlords
who were often English
o Leader of the Irish movement for a just land settlement and for home rule was
Charles Stewart Parnell
o In 1881, the 2nd Gladstone ministry passed another Irish land act that strengthened
tenant rights but it was accompanied by a Coercion Act to restore law and order
o By 1885, Parnell had org. 85 members of the House of Commons into a tightly
disciplined party that often voted as a bloc
o They frequently disrupted P. to gain attention for the cause of home rule
o They bargained w/ the 2 English political parties and in the election of 1885, the Irish
Party emerged holding the balance of power b/t liberals and conservatives
o Irish support could decide which party took office
o In Dec. 1885, Gladstone announced support of home rule for Ireland and Parnell gave
his votes to a liberal ministry
o The home rule issue split the Liberal Party and in 1866, a group known as the
Liberal Unionists joined the conservatives to defeat home rule
o Gladstone called for a new election, but the Liberals were defeated they remained
divided and Ireland remained firmly under the English administration
o The New Conservative ministry of Lord Salisbury attempted to reconcile the Irish
through public works and administrative reform tied to further coercion w/ only
marginal success
o IN 1892, Gladstone returned to power, a 2nd Home Rule Bill passed the H of C but
was defeated in the H of L
o The Irish question stood until after the turn of the century
o Conservatives sponsored a land act in 1903 that carried out the final transfer of land
to tenant ownership
o Ireland became a country of small farms
o In 1912 the Liberal ministry passed the Home Rule Bill, under the provisions of the
House of Lords Act of 1911 which curbed the power of the Lords, the bill had to
pass the Commons three times over the Lord’s veto to become law
o The 3rd passage occurred in the summer of 1914, but the implementation of home rule
was suspended for the duration of WWI
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The Irish question affected British politics, b/c normal British domestic issues could
not be resolved due to political divisions created by Ireland, the split of the Liberal
Party proved harmful to the cause of further freeform, and people who could agree
about reform couldn’t agree about Ireland
o B/c the two traditional parties failed to deal w/ social questions, a newly organized
Labour Party began to fill the vacuum
o
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I. Population Trends and Migration
o Proportion of Europeans in the world’s total pop. was apparently greater around 1900 at
about 20% than ever before or since
o Number of Europeans had risen from approximately 266 million to 447 million in 60 yrs.
o After, birth and death rates declined or stabilized in Europe and other developed regions
and population growth began to slow in those areas but not elsewhere
o Result ahs been the demographic differential b/t the developed and undeveloped world
o Stable/slowly growing pop. in developed vs. large, rapidly growing pop. in undeveloped
regions contributing to the world’s present food and resource crisis
o Europe’s people were on the move in the latter half of the century as never before
o Mid-century emancipation of peasants lessened authority of landlords and made legal
movement/migration easier
o Railways, steamships, and better roads increased mobility
o Cheap land and better wages accompanied economic development in Europe, NA, LA
and Australia enticing movement of people
o More than 50 mill Europeans left their continent b/t 1846 and 1932
o Outward movement of Europeans in conjunction w/ economic/tech superiority
contributed heavily to the Europeanization of the world
II. The Second Industrial Revolution
o During 3rd quarter of the 19th century, the gap that had existed b/t British and continental
economic development closed
o Basic industries of Belgium, France and Germany underwent major expansion,
particularly the growth of all areas of German industry
o German steel production was nearly twice that of Britain by the outbreak of WWI
o Emergence of an industrial Germany was the major fact of European economic/political
life at the turn of the century
o
Initially economic expansion involved the spread of industries similar to those
pioneered earlier in GB-expansion of railway systems spurred ECON
o
Wholly new industries emerged as well, this latter development is usually termed
the Second Industrial Revolution-associated w/ steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil
o
Henry Bessemer: English engineer in the 1850s discovered a new process for
manufacturing steel cheaply in large quantities
o
GB, Belgium, France and Germany produced over 32 million tons of steel by
1913
o
Chemical industry also came of age-Solway process of alkali production replaced
the older Leblanc process allowing the recovery of more chemical by-products
o
Process permitted increased production of sulfuric acid/laundry soap, new
dyestuffs and plastics were also developed
o
Formal scientific research played an important role in this growth of the chemical
industry marking the beginning of a direct link b/t science and industrial dev
o
Germany was a leader in forging this link in the 2nd IR
o
Most significant change for industry and daily life involved the application of
electrical energy to production-electricity was the most versatile and transportable source of
power ever discovered
o
1st major public power plant was constructed in 1881 in GB
o
Internal combustion engine was invented in 1886-German engineer Gottlieb
Daimler put it on four wheels and obtained patent for the automobile
o
France initially took the lead in auto manufacturing, but the car remained a
novelty item until Henry Ford did his thing
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Automobile and new industrial/chemical needs for petroleum created the 1st
significant demand for oil
o
Europe depended on imported supplies and the major oil companies were
Standard Oil of the U.S., British Shell Oil, and Royal Dutch Petroleum
B. Economic Difficulties
o Despite the IR, the 2nd half of the 19th century was not a period of smooth ECON
growth
o Bad weather and foreign competition put grave pressures on European
agriculture causing lowered consumer food prices but putting a drag on the
economy
o Several large banks failed and the rate of capital investment slowed w/ some
industries entering a 2 decade long period of stagnation that many consider a
depression
o Overall, the general standard of living improved in the 2nd half of the 19th century,
both prices and wages fell so many workers still lived and labored in abysmal
conditions
o Economic difficulties fed the growth of trade unions and socialist political parties
o New industries produced consumer goods and expansion in consumer demand
brought the economy out of stagnation by the end of the century
o Urbanization created larger markets, lower food prices allowed more spending
income on new forms of marketing and retailing w/ overseas imperialism opening
new markets for European consumer goods
III. The Middle Classes in Ascendancy
o 60 yrs before WWI were the age of the middle classes
o Middle classes became the arbiter of consumer taste and ceased to be a revolutionary
group
o Once question of social equality and property equality had been raised, large and small
property owners across the Continent moved to protect what they possessed against
demands from socialists and other working-class groups
A. Social Distinction Within the Middle Classes
o Middle classes grew increasingly diverse-most prosperous members lived in
splendor that exceeded some of the aristocracy
o Some, such as W.H. Smith, the owner of railway newsstands in England were
made members of the House of Lords
o The Krupp family of Germany were pillars of the state and received visits from
the German court
o Beneath the most prosperous were the comfortable professionals/entrepreneurs
whose incomes permitted private homes and various other luxuries
o Finally, there was a wholly new element “White-Collar Workers” who formed
the lower middle class, or petite bourgeoisie-included secretaries, retail clerks,
and lower-level bureaucrats in biz/gov’t
o They often had working-class origins and might even belong to unions, but they
had middle-class aspirations and consciously sought to distance themselves away
from a lower-class lifestyle
o Pursued educational opportunities and career advancement spending disposable
income on consumer goods making them distinctively middle class in appearance
o Significant tensions and social anxieties marked relations among the various
middle-class groups
o
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Overall, the decades immediately before WWI saw the middle class setting the
values and goals for most of society
IV. Late-Nineteenth-Century Urban Life
o Europe became more urbanized than ever in the late 19th century
o B/t 1850-1911, urban dwellers rose from 25% to 44% of the pop. in Fr. and doubled in G
o Rural migrants were largely uprooted from traditional social ties facing pooor housing,
social anonymity, and unemployment
o People from different ethnic b0grounds had difficulty mixing socially
o Competition for jobs generated new varieties of political/social discontent (antiSemitism)
A. The Redesign of Cities
o
Inward urbanization placed new socioeconomic demands on strained city
resources and produced significant transformations in the patterns of urban living
o
Previously, the central urban areas had been places where many people from all
social classes both lived and worked
o
From the middle of the century onward, planners transformed these districts into
areas where businesses, gov’t offices, and large retail stores were located
o
New Paris-most famous/extensive transformation of a major city was in Paris,
Paris had expanded from the Middle Ages onward w/ little design, Seine was an open
sewer, streets were narrow/crooked, city streets had for 60 yrs provided battlegrounds for
urban insurrections that had toppled Fr. governments
o
Napoleon III-personally determined Paris must be redesigned, appointed
Georges Haussman who oversaw a vast urban reconstruction program, whole districts
were destroyed to open way for the broad boulevards and streets that became the
hallmark of modern Paris, wide vistas were not only beautiful but they also allowed for
the quick deployment of troops to put down riots
o
Project was political-parks such as the Bois de Boulogne and major public
buildings like the Paris Opera were huge projects that created many public jobs,
buildings were rebuilt/subway system/railway stations
o
Landmarkds: Eiffel Tower-built as a temporary structure for the int’l trade
exposition of that year, Fr. Roman Catholic Church oversaw the construction of the
Basilica of the Sacred Heart as an act of national penance for the sins that had led to Fr.
defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. The two contrasting monuments symbolized the
social and political divisions between liberals and conservatives in the Third Republic
o
Development of Suburbs-commercial dev, railway construction, and the
clearing of slums displaced many city dwellers and raised urban land values and rents
o
Both the middle class/working class began to seek neighborhoods removed from
urban congestion and affordable housing leading to the dev of suburbs surrounding the
city proper
o
Railways/subway allowed thousands of workers from all classes to move daily
b/t the city and the outlying suburbs
B. Urban Sanitation
o Efforts of gov. and of the increasingly conservative middle lasses to maintain public
order after 1848 led to a growing concern w/ the problems of public health/housing
o Widespread feeling arose that only when the health/housing of the working class
were improved would middle-class health also be secure and political order stable
o Impact of Cholera-great cholera epidemics of the 1830s and 1840s raised concerns
w/ health/housing, cholera was unique in that it struck all classes, many physicians
and government officials began to publicize the link b/t wretched living conditions
o
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and public health (Rudolph Virchow, Edwin Chadwick, Louis Villerme)
demonstrating that sanitary reform would remove the dangers
o New Water and Sewer Systems-proposed solution to health hazard was cleanliness
to be achieved through new water and sewer systems, facilities constructed in capital
cities and major urban areas and the building of such systems was one of the major
health/engineering achievements of the 2nd half of the 19th century, sewer system of
Paris was part of Haussmann’s rebuilding program and in London, the construction
of the Albert Embankment along the Thames helped lower the mortality rate
o Expanded Government Involvement in Public Health-concern w/ public health
led to an expansion of gov’t , In GB the Public Health Act of 1848 and in France the
Melun Act of 1851 introduced new restraints on private life and enterprise,
legislation allowed medical officers and building inspectors to enter homes and other
structures in the name of public health, full acceptance at the close of the century of
the bacterial theory of disease associated w/ Lousi Pasteur, Robert Koch, and Joseph
Lister made cleanliness and even more prominent public concern, issues related to
the maintenance of public health repeatedly opened the way for new modes of
government intervention in the lives of citizens
C. Housing Reform and Middle-class Values
o Wretched dwellings of the poor were a cause of poor santiation and became a newly
perceived health hazard
o Middle-class reformers/bureaucrats found themselves shocked by the living
conditions/overcrowding in housing
o Middle-classs reforms turned to housing reform to solve the dangers posed by slums
arguing that proper, decent housing would foster a health, moral, and political stable
population
o Private philanthropy and companies like the German Krupp constructed model
housing projects and industrial communities
o Legislation lowered interest rates and governments began public housing projects
including initiatives of credits
o Housing problem was fully recognized by 1914
V. Varieties of Late-Nineteenth-Century Women’s Experiences
o Late 19th century people led lives that reflected their social rank
o Women remained in positions of economic dependence and legal inferiority
A. Social Disabilities Confronted by all Women
o Women and Property-married women could not own property in their own names
and upon marriage women lost to their husband’s control any property they owned or
that they might inherit, their legal identities were subsumed in their husband’s
identities w/ no independent standing before the law. Reform: GB passed the
Married Woman’s Property Act which allowed married women to own property
o Family Law-legal codes required wives to “give obedience” to their husbands,
Napoleonic Code/Roman law made women legal minors throughout Europe, divorce
required an act of Parliament, divorce processes made difficult for women, authority
of husbands extended to children and the husband “owned” the children,
contraception/abortion illegal w/ law surrounding rape working in the DA of women
o Educational Barriers-women had less access to edu. university/professional edu.
than men. Universities slowly started letting women enter institutions, but most
professions were closed to them as schoolteaching at the elementary level had come
to be seen as a “female job”.
B. New Employment Patterns for Women
o 2 major developments affected the economic lives of women during the 2nd IR
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o 1st-significant expansion in the variety of jobs available outside the better paying
learned professions
o 2nd was a significant withdrawal of married women from the work force
o Availability of New Jobs-expansion of gov. bureaucracies, emergences of
corporations, and vast growth of retail stores opened many new employment
opportunities for women, tech inventions fostered female employment, jobs required
low-level skills and involved minimal training, and were occupied primarily by
unmarried women or widows, employers continued to pay women low wages.
o Withdrawal from the Labor Force-most of the women filling the new service
positions were young and unmarried, upon marriage a woman withdrew from the
labor force, because employers preferred young unmarried women w/o family
responsibilities, real wages paid to male workers increased so families had decreased
need for a 2nd income, and smaller size of families also lowered need for
supplementary wages, cultural dominance of the middle class established a pattern of
social expectations for wives-less-income producing work for wives-more
prosperous, stable family
C. Working-Class Women
o Less dominant textile/garment making industry continued to employ many women
o System of mass-made clothing came
 Putting-out system- Where the manufacturer would purchase
material and put it out for tailoring
 Sweatshops made the clothing
o Berlin in 1896 employed more than 80k garment workers
 After business slackened workers were idling
o Women were exploited
 Wages were regarded as supplementing husbands
 They were treated as casual workers
D. Poverty and Prostitution
o Also there were working women who did not supplement family income
o More women than jobs
o Every major city had thousands of prostitutes
 Prostitution was a way for poor women to find income
 On the continent prostitution was legal and was subject to
regulations
 Britain it was only minimal regulations
o Many were poor women who recently came from rural areas
 Fewer prostitutes in manufacturing towns where there was more
opportunities for employment
 Very few child prostitutes, and was with their will
E. Women of the Middle Class
o Vast social gap separated working-class women and the middle class
o Middle class participated in consumerism and comfort
o Also had sanitation and electricity
o The Cult of Domesticity
o Middle class distinction between work and family had been a model for other
social groups
o Middle class women tried not to work, and became wife and mother
 Home life was to be different from business and marketplace
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This was a new view, during the first half of the century, wives contributed
to their husband’s business
 Child rearing was left to nurses and governesses
o Middle class Frenchwomen home came to be a center for virtue
 Marriages were for economic benefit
o Most women married by 21 and expected to have children soon after
 Directed the household, and was in charge of the home as
consumption
 Advertising was then directed toward women
o Women symbolized her father’s and husband’s success
o Religious and Charitable Activities
o Were expected to attend mass frequently and instruct children in religion
 Religious activities were expected and religion was associated with
domestic life
o Women were considered especially qualified for charity as their innate
spirituality
 Middle-class women were in charge of clubs for poor youth, on other
societies
 They then became social workers
o Sexuality and Family Size
o The world of middle-class wife was more complicated
o Sexual enjoyment was fundamental to middle-class marriages
 Inhibition of sexuality was the dangers of childbirth
o People accepted a small family size, and the birthrate in France dropped
throughout the 19th century
 This was to maintain a high level on consumption and more attention
to children
F. The Rise of Political Feminism
• Liberal society had not given women the vote or access to political activity
• Male liberals feared that granting the vote to women would benefit political
conservatives b/c women were thought to be controlled by RC church
• Similar apprehension existed about influence of Anglican clergy over women
G. Obstacles to Achieving Equality
• Women were reluctant to support feminist causes
• Political issues subordinated to class/economic interests and national unity/patriotism
• Various social/tactical difference among women led to sharp divisions w/i the
feminist’s own ranks-difficult for working-class and middle-class, RC feminists and
radical secularists to cooperate
• Liberal society also provided women with many tools-arguments for civil equality
could be used to expose the human/social waste implicit in the inferior role of women
• Socialist criticism of capitalist society often included indictment of socioeconomic
position of women
• Criticisms were associated w/ people who had unorthodox opinions hardening
resistance to the feminist message
• Difficulties prevented continental feminists from raising the kind of massive public
support that feminists in GB and the U.S. could
H. Votes for Women in Britain
• Europe’s most advanced women’s movement was in GB
o
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•
Millicent Fawcett-led the moderate National Union on Women’s Suffrage
Societies, she believed P. would grant women the vote only if they were convinced
they would be respectable/responsible in their political activities
• In 1908, the NU could rally almost ½ a mill women in London, Fawcett’s husband
was a former Liberal Party cabinet member and her tactics were those of English
liberals
• Emmeline Pankhurst-led a much more radical branch of British feminists, her
husband had been active in Irish nationalist politics
• In 1903, Pankhurst and her daughters founded the Women’s Social and Political
Union-they and their followers known derisively as suffragettes lobbied for the
extension of the vote to women
• Turned to violent tactics of arson, sabotage, and marching en masse to P.
• Liberal government of Herbert Asquith imprisoned many and refused to extend the
franchise
• Only in 1918, as a result of their contrib. to the war effort did some women gain
suffr.
I. Political Feminism on the Continent
• Contrast b/t women’s movement in Britain and those in Fr. and Germany shows how
advanced the British movement was
• FRANCE: when Hubertine Auclert began campaigning for the vote in the 1880s
she stood virtually alone
• During the 1890s several women’s org. emerged: the National Council of French
Women was organized among upper-middle-class women but did not support
suffrage for several years
• Fr. feminists rejected any form of violence and were never able to org. mass rallies
• In 1919, the Fr. Chamber of Deputies passed a bill granting the vote to women, but in
1922 the Fr. Senate defeated the bill
• It was not until after WWI that Fr. women received the right to vote
• GERMANY: feminist awareness/action were even more underdeveloped, German
law fobade women from political activity and no group in the GE enjoyed extensive
political rights
• In 1894, the Union of German Women’s Organizations was founded and it was
supporting a call for the right to vote, but it was largely concerned w/ improving
women’s social conditions
• Group tried to gain women’s admittance to political/civic activity on a local level
• German Social Democratic Party supported women’s suffrage, but that socialist party
was so disdained by German authorities that its support made suffrage more suspect
in their eyes
• Women received the vote in Germany only in 1919 when the constitution of the
Weimar Republic was promulgated after German defeat in war and revolution at
home
VI. Jewish Emancipation
A. Differing Degrees of Citizenship
• In 1782, Joseph II, the Habsburg emperor issued a decree that Jews were under
the same laws as Christians
• In Fr., the NA recognized Jews as Fr. citizens during the FR
• Jewish communities in Italy and Germany were allowed to mix on an equal
footing w/ the Christian population
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•
Steps toward political emancipation were limited or partially repealed
• During the 1st ½ of the 19th century Jews began to gain significant rights that
brought them equal or more nearly equal citizenship
• In Russia and in Poland, the traditional modes of prejudice and discrimination
continued until WWI, Jews were treated as aliens and the gov’t undermined
Jewish community life, limited publication of books, restricted areas where Jews
could live
B. Broadened Opportunities
• After revolutions of 1848, European Jews saw a general improvement in their
situation that lasted for several decades
• In Germany, Italy, the Low Countries, and Scandinavia, Jews attained full citizenship
rights
• Jews in GB could sit in P., Austria Hungary extended full legal rights to Jews
• 1850-1880 was a period where there was relatively little prejudice against Jews
• Outside of Russia, Jewish political figures entered cabinets and served in the highest
offices of state aligned w/ liberal parties (they had championed equal rights)
• Newfound security eroded during the last 2 decades of the 19th century as people
attributed economic stagnation to Jewish bankers
• Organized anti-Semitism erupted in Germany
• Most Jewish leaders believed attacks on Jewish life were temporary recurrences of
older forms of prejudice and felt their communities would remain safe under liberal
protections
VII. Labor, Socialism and Politics to World War I
o 2nd IR created further changes in the life of the labor force-in all industrializing
continental countries the #s of the urban proletariat rose
o Proportion of artisans and highly skilled workers declined and factory wage earners
dominated
o # of people engaged in unskilled work associated w/ shipping, transportation, and
building also grew considerably
o Workers turned to new institutions and ideologies to improve their condition
A. Trade Unionism
o Came of age as gov. extended legal protections to unions during late 19th century
o Unions directed efforts toward skilled workers and immediate improvement of
wages and working conditions
o By the close of the century, unions for unskilled workers were being org. and
engaged in long strikes to keep wages in line w/ inflation
o Unions represented a new collective form of association for confronting
economic difficulties and improving security
B. Democracy and Political Parties
o Except Russia, all major European states adopted broad-based electoral systems in
the late 19th century
o Broadened franchise meant politicians could no longer ignore workers and
discontented groups
o Advent of democracy brought org. mass political parties to Europe for the 1st time
o Org. political party was the vehicle that mobilized the new voters
o Largest single group in these mass electorates was the working class
o Democratization of politics presented socialists with opportunities and required the
traditional ruling class to vie with socialists for support of new voters
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Socialism as a political ideology and plan of action opposed nationalism-problems of
class were transnational and socialism was supposed to unite the working class across
national borders
o European socialists badly underestimated the power of nationalism
o Many workers had both S. and N. sympathies and N. won out during WWI
o Major question for socialists was whether the improvement of the lot of the
working class would come through revolution or democratic reform
C. Karl Marx and the First International
o Karl Marx made considerable accommodation to new practical realities that had dev.
o In 1864, a group of British and Fr. trade unionists founded the International
Working Men’s Association AKA the First International-its membership
encompassed a vast array of radical political types
o Marx supported and approved efforts by trade unions to reform the conditions of
labor within the existing political and economic processes
o Violence involved in the Paris Commune which Marx had declared a genuine
proletarian uprising cast a pall over socialism
o British trade unionists wanted no connection to events in Paris and Fr. authorities
used the uprising as justification to suppress socialist activity
o The First International transferred its offices to the U.S. under these pressures and it
dissolved in 1876
o Impact: had a disproportionately great impact on the future of European socialism,
the org. had gathered stats, kept labor groups informed of mutual problems, provided
a forum for the debate of socialist doctrine, and proclaimed its own influence over
contemporary events
o Marxism emerged as the single most important strand of socialism
o Marx and his supporters drove out anarchists and advocates of other forms of
socialism
o The apparently scientific character of Marxism made it more attractive
o German socialists who were to establish the most powerful socialist party in Europe
were deeply impressed by Marx’s thought and were the chief vehicle for preserving
and developing it
D. Great Britain: Fabianism and Early Welfare Programs
o Socialism made no significant progress in GB, the most advanced industrial society
o Trade unions grew steadily and their members normally supported the Liberal Party
o The small socialist independent Labour Party founded remained ineffective
o The House of Lords removed the legal protection previously accorded union funds
and the Trades Union Congress responded by launching the Labour Party-the
fledgling party sent 29 members to P., but their goals did not include socialism
o British socialism remained primarily the preserve of non-Marxist socialists
o The Fabian Society-was Britain’s most influential socialist group taking its name
from Q. Fabius Maximus, the Roman general whose tactics against Hannibal
involved avoiding direct conflict that might lead to defeat, reflected the society’s
gradualist approach to major social reform
o Leading members were Sidney and Beatrice Webb, H.G. Wells, Graham Wallas,
and George Bernard Shaw
o Many Fabians were civil servants who sought to educate the country about the
rational wisdom of socialism, interested in collective ownership on the local level
o
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o Government response: Joseph Chamberlain launched his unsuccessful campaign to
match foreign tariffs and to finance social reform through higher import duties, badly
split the Conservative Party
o Liberal Party restored former protection of unions and undertook a broad program of
social legislation that appeased socialists
o Financing of these programs brought the House of commons into conflict with the
Conservative dominated House of Lords
o Result was the Parliament Act of 1911 which allowed the Commons to override the
legislative veto of the upper chamber meaning the in Britain, the home of 19th century
liberalism the state was taking an expanded role in the life of its citizens and the early
welfare legislation was only marginally satisfactory to labor many of whose members
still thought they could gain more from the direct action of strikes
E. France: “Opportunism” Rejected
o Jean Jares and Jules Guesde led the 2 major factions of Fr. socialists
o Jaures believed socialists should coop w/ middle-class Radical ministries to ensure
the enactment of needed social legislation, but Guesde opposed the policy arguing
that socialists could not support a bourgeois cabine they were theoretically dedicated
to overthrow
o Government’s response to the Dreyfus affair brought the quarrel to a head- in 1899,
seeking to unite all supporters of Dreyfus, PM Rene Waldeck-Rousseau appointed
the socialists Alexander Millerand to the cabinet
o 2nd International had been founded in 1889 in a new effort to unify the various
national socialist parties and trade unions and b 1904 they were debating the issue of
opportunism- as such cabinet participation by socialists was termed
o Congress of the 2nd International condemned opportunism in France and ordered
Fr. socialists to form a single party-Jaures accepted the decision
o Fr. socialists began to work together and the recently united Socialist Party had
become the 1nd largest group in the Chamber of Deputies
o Fr. Labor movement w/ deep roots in anarchism was uninterested in either politics or
socialism-Fr. workers usually voted socialists but the unions themselves avoided
active political participation
o The Confederation Generale du Travail regarded itself as a rival to socialist
parties-its leaders sought to improve the worker’s conditions through direct action
o Embraced the doctrines of syndicalism-expounded by Georges Sorel, argued that
the general strike was a device for generating worker unity and power-conflicted w/
socialist belief in aiding labor through state action
F. Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism
o Negative judgment rendered by the 2nd International against opportunism reflected a
policy of permanent hostility to non-socialist governments previously adopted by the
German Social Democratic Party (SDP)
o org. success of this party kept Marxist socialism alive during the late 19th century
o SDP founded in 1875 in the labor agitation of Ferdinand Laselle who sought worker
participation in German politics-Marxist soon joined the party and the SPD was
divided b/t those who favored reform and those who favored REVOLUTION
o Bismarck’s Repression of the SPD-12 years of persecution under Bismarck forged
character of SPD, the Iron Chancellor (Bismarck) believed that socialism would
undermine German politics and society-used an assassination attempt on William I
to steer several antisocialist laws through the Reichstag suppressing org., meetings,
newspapers, and other public activities of the SDP, thereafter to remain a socialist
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meant to remove oneself from the mainstream of German life and to lose one’s job,
but anti-socialist legislation proved politically counterproductive as SDP gained more
and more votes in elections to the Reichstag
o Once simple repression failed to isolate German workers from socialist loyalties,
Bismarck undertook a program of social welfare legislation: the GE adopted health
insurance, disability/elderly pensions-these programs represented a paternalistic,
conservative alt to socialism-Germany became the first major industrial nationto
enjoy this kind of welfare program
o The Erfurt Program-After forcing Bismarck’s resignation, Emperor William II
allowed the anti-socialist legislation to expire hoping to build new political support
among the working class, with new power, the SDP needed to decide what attitude to
assume toward the GE, Erfurt Prgram-declared the imminent doom of cap and the
necessity of socialist ownership of the means of production, party intended to pursue
these goals through legal political participation rather than by revolutionary activity,
the party functioned w/I its institutions and maintained clear political consciences by
refusing to enter the cabinet and refraining from voting in favor of the military
budget
o The Debate over Revisionism-dilemma of the SPD generated the most important
challenge w/I the socialist movement to the orthodox Marxist analysis of Cap and the
socialist revolution-author if this socialist heresy, Eduard Bernstein questioned
whether capitalism was going to collapse: Standard of living was on the rise, middle
class was not falling into ranks of the proletariat, and the inner contradictions of cap
expounded by Marx had not developed
o Revisionism-Bernstein’s doctrines arguing that social reform through democratic
institutions should replace revolution as the path to humane socialist society
generated heated debate among German socialists-critics argued that evolution
toward social democracy might be possible in liberal, parliamentary Britain where
Bernstein lived, but NOT in authoritarian, militaristic Germany, SPD still pursued a
course similar to that of Bernstein-worked for electoral gains, expansion of its
membership, short-term political and social reform
o Impact: SDP prospered and became one of the most important institutions of
imperial Germany
VIII. Russia: Industrial Development and the Birth of Bolshevism
G. Witte’s Program for Industrial Growth\
o Russia was determined to become an industrial power
o Sergei Witte-led Russia into the industrial age-appointed finance minister and
pursued a policy of protective tariffs, high taxes, and efficiency epitomizing the 19th
century modernizer
o Established strong financial relations w/ Fr. money market
o Witte favored heavy industries-Russian railway system doubled, coal output tripled,
steel production rose, and textile manufacturing was still the largest industry
o Industrialism brought considerable social discontent to Russia: a small, but
significant industrial proletariat emerged and their working/living conditions were
poor (little state protection and trade unions were illegal)
o Similar social/economic problems arose in the countryside-peasants remained
burdened by redemption payments after emancipation of the serfs, local taxes, and
falling grain prices
o Free peasants owned their land through the village and many free peasants had to
work on larger noble estates for more prosperous peasant farmers, known as kulaks
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B/t 1860 and 1914 the pop. of Russia doubled and hunger/discontent spread among
the peasants sparking uprisings in the countryside
o New political developments: Social Revolutionary Party developed & opposed
industrialism. It looked to rural Russian lifestyle. The Constitutional Democratic
Party (Cadets) also formed. It was liberal & had members in the zemstvos (local
councils). It looked to liberals of western Europe, desiring ministries for parliament,
civil liberties, and economic progress.
H. Lenin’s Early Thought and Career
Early Influences on Lenin
What
How he was influenced
o
Russia’s situation
Differ than rest of Euro in that had few rep bodies & small working
class. Blvd in rev b/c tsar = repressive.
Russian Social
Democratic Party
For most part, had to fn in exile & admired the German SPD &
adopted Marxism. Leading Russian Marxist was Gregory
Plekhanov who would teach Lenin.
Family
He was son of a bureaucrat & his brother was killed for radical
political & his plot against Alex III
Rev. groups
While studying law, factory workers formed revolutionary groups &
got involved. Exiled to Siberia
•
Lenin’s views: whereas the Russian Soc Demos blvd in furthering industries & ↑ prolet
for rev. and creation of a lrge pol party, Lenin wrote in his “What is to Be Done” tht
accommodating to German SPD practices, using trade unions for short-term gains, &
creation of a democratic party would undermine revolutionary change. Blvd instead tht
only a small elite party could make it their strictest jobs to promote rev. to the workers.
I.e. rejected Kautsky’s revolution as inevitable & Berstein’s democratic reform. He
proposed a small, professional, nondemocratic revolutionary party as a source for
revolutionary change.
• Lenin then split the Russia Soc Demo Party by gaining a majority in congress. He called
his faction the Bolsheviks (meaning majority). The other moderate, democratic rev
faction became known as Mensheviks.
o Mensheviks wanted a democratic party w/ large mass membership like German
SPD.
o Bolsheviks wntd elites to have central leadership for working class & totally
transform Russia. Being smart, he combined the proletariats with the peasantry to
form a united mvmt against the tsar.
• Bolshevik’s two principles, dual social rev (peasants w/ prolet) and elite party, hlpd guide
its future activities. It seized pwer in 1917 > WWI when tsarist support ↓. B4 WWI,
Bolsheviks were basic ally ignored.
I. The Revolution of 1905 and its Aftermath
• Causes of the fall of the tsar
o @ 1st, industrialization increased resentment, so Nich II got rid of Witte to ↓
critiques. He then went to war w/ Japan to gain public support for himself. Japan
wins.
o Causes of Bloody Sunday: priest Father Gapon lead workers to petition for ↑
working conditions @ Winter Palace. Troops shoot. More ppl come to march &
military kill more.
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•
Aftermath effects: (Nich promises reform, takes it away, & Stolypin represses socialism,
tsar ↓ again)
o Tsar Ø trusted anymore & revolutionary activities ↑: student strikes, Democratic
Party demands reform, peasant/sailor revolts, and the soviets (worker groups)
controlled St. Petersburg. Nich II promises a constitution w/ the October
Manifesto.
o 3 Dumas (rep bodies w/ two chambers) were made w/in 2 yrs. 1st one’s elections
was too rad & Stolypin (replaced Whitte) wntd it dissolved; ~ story w/ 2nd one.
3rd one based on lim vote & so Nich was able to dom it.
o Stolypin’s repression of socialism: made peasants J by cancelling their
redemptive payments that they had > their emancipation & increased efficiency;
also wntd thm to have their own land & Ø be in mirs. Moderate libs J w/ this plan
of individual property ownership & competition. He then condemned rebellions
& rallied property owners to support tsar. Const demos wntd more pure parl
gov’t, but compromised b/c Ø wnt revolution.
o Stolypin killed b/c industrial workers, & country conservatives, etc, hatred was
still widespread. Nich II on own. Tsarist position ↓ again as Rasputin rose (was
corrupt) & ppl still wntd soc reform. Nich again takes a bold foreign move in
hopes of gaining popular support.
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I. The New Reading Public
o During the late 19th century, a mass reading public came into existence as more people
than ever became drawn into the world of print culture
A. Advances in Primary Education
o Literacy on Continent improved steadily from the 160s onward
o New primary education in the basic skills of reading, writing, and math
reflected/generated social change
o Conservatives thought literacy was necessary for orderly political behavior and
would create a productive labor force
B. Reading Material for the Mass Audience
o Cheap mass-circulation newspapers such as Le Petit Journal of Paris and the Daily
Mail and Daily Express of London enjoyed their first heyday
o Newspapers carried advertising that alerted readers to the new consumer products
available through the 2nd IR, while some carried political/religious viewpoints
o Low level of public taste and many of the new readers were only marginally literate
so that made the writing quality not very high
o Impact: literacy was the intellectual parallel of the railroad and the steamshippeople could leave their original intellectual surroundings because literacy is not an
end in itself, but leads to other skills and knowledge
II. Science at Mid-century
o Basic Newtonian picture of physical nature had prevailed (mechanism)
o Learned persons regarded the physical world as rational and thought its laws could be
found objectively through experiment and observation
o Science had a strong institutional life in Fr. and German universities
A. Comte, Positivism, and the Presence of Science
o Auguste Comte-Fr. philosopher/late Enlightenment, developed positivismphilosophy of human intellectual development that culminated in science
o Comte argued that human thought had developed in 3 stages: 1. theological, 2ndmetaphysical, and 3rd- positive, explanations of nature became matters of exact
description of phenomenal w/o recourse to an unobservable operative principle
o Comte thought physical science had entered into the positive stage and believed
that positive laws of social behavior could be discovered in the same fashion as
laws of physical nature
o Regarded as the father of sociology
o Links of science to the tech of the 2nd IR made the general European public aware
of science and tech as never before
B. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
o In 159, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which carried the mechanical
interpretation of physical nature into the world of living things
o Earned Darwin the honor of being regarded as the Newton of biology
o Natural selection-principle of survival of the fittest, naturalistic and mechanistic
that supported positivism
o Represented the triumph of naturalistic explanation which removed the idea of
purpose from the universe
o The Descent of Man-Darwin applied principle of evolution to human beings-was
controversial because it removed the existence of god from an explanation for
humans
C. Science and Ethics
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One area in which science came to have a new significance was social thought and
ethics
o The phrase “survival of the fittest” reflected the competitive outlook of classical
economics
o Most famous advocate of evolutionary ethics was Herbert Spencer, a British
philosopher who was a strong individualist and believed that human society
progresses through competition
o Struggle against one’s fellow human beings became a kind of ethical imperative
o The concept could be applied ot justify the avoidance of aiding the poor and the
working class or to justify the domination of colonial peoples
o Evolutionary ethics and similar concepts were termed social Darwinism
o Thomas Henry Huxley-chief opponent of such thinking, the great defender of
Darwin, declared that the physical process of evolution was at odds with human
ethical development
III. Christianity and the Church under Siege
o 19th century was difficult period in history of org. Christian churches as many European
intellectuals left the faith, secular/liberal nation-states attacked the influence of the
church, and the expansion of pop. and growth of ciies challenged its org. capacity
o Yet during all this turmoil, the Protestant and Catholic churches remained popular
A. Intellectual Skepticism
o Intellectual attack on Christianity challenged its historical credibility, its
scientific accuracy, and its morality
o Philosophes of the Enlightenment had delighted in pointing out contradictions in
the bible and the historical scholarship of the 19th century brought up new issues
o History-In 1835 David Strauss published The Life of Jesus in which he
questioned whether the Bible provides any genuine historical evidence about
Jesus, Strauss contended the story of Jesus is a myth. During the 2nd half of the
century, scholars contended that human authors had written and revised the
books of the Bible with the problems of Jewish society and politics in mind
o Science-science also undermined Christianity, Charles Lyell suggested the earth
is much older than the biblical records contend and Darwin’s theory cast doubt
on the Creation, many sociologists/psychologists proposed religion as one more
set of natural phenomenon
o Morality-other intellectuals questioned the morality of Christianity, immoral
biblical stories was again raised as God’s wrath in the Old Testament was
questioned. On the other hand, Friedrich Nietzsche portrayed Christianity as a
religion that glorified weakness rather than the strength life required, skeptical
currents created a climate in which Christianity lost much of its intellectual
respectability
o Impact: fewer educated people joined the clergy, in cities secularism of every
day life made it that there was little/no experience of the church as an institution
of Christianity
B. Conflict Between Church and State
o Secular state of the 19th century clashed w/ both the Protestant and the Roman
Catholic churches
o Liberals disliked the dogma and political privileges of the established churches
o National states were suspicious of the supranational character of the RC church
o
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o Primary area of conflict was Education: previously most edu. In Europe had taken
place in church school and the churches feared that future generations would emerge
from the new state-financed schools w/o any religious teaching
o Great Britain-Education Act of 1870 provided for state-supported schools whereas
earlier the gov. had given small grants to religious schools, there was rivalry both b/t
the Anglican church and the state and b/t the Anglican church and the Nonconformist
denominations-ALL churches opposed improvements in education b/c these
increased the costs of church schools-In the Education Act of 1902 GB provided
state support for both religious/nonreligious schools but imposed the same
educational standards on each
o France-GB conflict was calm compared to Fr. which had a dual system of Catholic
and public schools, under the Falloux Law the local priest provided religious edu. In
the public schools, the Fr. CC and the 3rd Fr. Republic loathed each other as a series
of educational laws sponsored by Jules Ferry replaced religious instruction in the
public schools w/ civic training, expanded the number of public schools, and
members of religious orders could no longer teach in them. After the Dreyfus Affair,
the Fr. CC paid a price for its reactionary politics as the Radical government of
Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau suppressed the religious orders and church and state were
separated
o Germany and the Kulturkampf- most extreme church-state conflict occurred in
Germany, Bismarck felt the RCC and the Catholic Center Party threatened the unity
of the GE and removed the clergy from overseeing local edu. And secularized
education. The May Laws of 1873-applied only to Prussia, required priests to be
edu. In German schools and universities and to pass state exams, state could veto the
appts of priests, and the MLs also abolished the disciplinary power of the pope and
the church over the clergy and transferred it to the state. In the end, Bismarck’s
Kulturkampf, “cultural struggle” against the CC failed and he abandoned his
attacks. HE had gained state control of edu. And civic laws only at the price of
provoking Catholic resentment against the German state. THE KULTURKAMPF
WAS PROBABLY HIS GREATEST BLUNDER
C. Areas of Religious Revival
o German Catholic resistance to the intrusions of the secular state illustrates the
continuing vitality of Christianity
o In GB, both the Anglican church and the Nonconformist denominations expanded
and raised vast sums for new churches and schools
o IN Ireland, the 1870s saw a Catholic devotional revival
o In Fr., priests org. special pilgrimages to shrines for thousands of penitents who
believed Fr. had been defeated by Prussia b/c of their sins
o In effect, the last half of the 19th century witnessed the final great effort to
Christianize Europe-it was well org., well led, and well financed and failed only b/c
the pop. of Europe had outstripped the resources of the churches
D. The Roman Catholic Church and the Modern World
o most striking feature of Christian religious revival was the resilience of the papacy
o Pope Pius IX led a counter-offensive against liberalism issuing the Syllabus of
Errors which set the CC squarely against contemporary science, philosophy and
politics
o The pope summoned the First Vatican Council and centralized the power of the
church by promulgating the dogma of papal infallibility
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Piums IX and many other RCs believed the CC could only sustain itself in the
modern world of nation-states w large electorates by centering the authority of the
church in the papacy itself
o The spiritual authority papacy became a substitute for its lost political/temporal
authority
o Pope Pius succeeded by Leo XIII looked to the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas
o Most important pronouncement was Rerum Novarum-defended private property,
religious edu and civic laws based on religious, and condemned socialism.
o The pope argued for the corporate society as an alt to both socialism and competitive
capitalism
o On the basis Leo XIII’s pronouncements, democratic Catholic political parties and
trade unions were founded throughout Europe
o Leo’s successor Pius X hoped to restore traditional devotional life and condemned
Catholic modernism-movement of modern biblical criticism within the church
E. Islam and Late-Nineteenth-Century
o Few European thinkers who wrote about Islam in the late 19th century discussed it
using the same scientific and naturalistic scholarly methods they applied to Chr.
o Interpreted Islam as a historical phenomenon and the Qur’an received the same kind
of critical historical analysis that was being directed toward the Bible
o Ernest Renan thought Islam was just a product of a particular culture
o Renan’s views opposed by Jamal Al-Afghani-an Egyptian intellectual who argued
that over time Islam would eventually produce cultures as modern as those in Europe
o European racial and cultural outlooks “colonized” Islamic ones
o Christian missionaries reinforced these anti-Islamic attitudes
o Salafi-movement that believed there was no inherent contradiction between science
and Islam, tried to combine modern thought with Islam, Arab world should
modernize itself on the basis of reformed Islamic faith
o Other Islamic religious leaders simply rejected the West and modern thought
o
IV. Toward a Twentieth-Century Frame of Mind
o Last quarter of the 19th century and early20th century were end of modern Western
thought
o Intellectuals began to portray physical reality, human nature and society in ways different
than those of the past
o Their new concepts challenged the major presuppositions of mid-19th century science,
rationalism and liberalism
A. Science: The Revolution in Physics
o Changes in scientific worldview originated w/i the sci community itself
o Discontent existed over the excessive realism of mid-century science
o Ernst Mach-published The Science of Mechanics in which he urged that
scientists consider their concepts descriptive not of the physical world, but of the
sensations experienced by the scientific observer
o In line w/ Mach, Henri Poincare urged that the theories of scientists be regarded
as hypothetical constructs of the human mind rather than true descriptions of
nature
o By WWI, few scientists believed they could portray the “truth” about physical
reality, rather they saw themselves as recording the observations of instruments
and as offering useful hypothetical models of nature
o
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o X Rays and Radiation-discoveries in the lab paralleled the philosophical
challenge to 19th century science-the comfortable world of supposedly
“complete” 19th century physics vanished. In 1895 Silhelm Roentgen published
a paper on his discovery of X rays, a form of energy that penetrated various
opaque materials, major steps in exploration of radioactivity followed. In 1896
Henri Becquerel discovered uranium emitted a similar form of energy and J. J.
Thomson formulated the theory of the electron. Ernest Rutherford explained
the cause of radiation
o Theories of Quantum Energy, Relativity, and Uncertainty-discovery of
radioactivity and discontent w existing mechanical models led to revolutionary
theories in physics. Max Planck pioneered the articulation of the quantum
theory of energy-idea that energy is a series of packets rather than a continuous
stream. Albert Einstein published his theory of relativity in which he
contended that time and space exist as a combined continuum. Werner
Heisenberg set forth his uncertainty principle according to which the behavior of
subatomic particles is a matter of statistical probability
o Impact: Complexity of new physics meant that science would rarely again be
successfully popularized, at the same time science affected daily living more than
before, and science became the most influential intellectual activity through
relating the success of science to economic progress, military, security, and the
health of nations
B. Literature: Realism and Naturalism
o B/t 1850-1914 the moral certainties of middle-class Europeans changed drastically
o Realist movement in literature portrayed the hypocrisy and dullness of bourgeois life
o The realist and naturalist writers brought scientific objectivity and observation to
their work and by using the cult of science they confronted readers with the harsh
realities of life serving as a rejection of romantic ideals
o Charles Dickens and Honore de Balzac portrayed the cruelty of industrial life and
of a society based on money
o George Eliot-argued that a better morality was possible from positivism
o Realists/naturalists saw society itself as perpetuating evil and portrayed human
beings as materialistic, dreary, and unseemly creatures
o Flaubert and Zola-Flaubert’s Madame Bovary with its story of colorless provincial
life is considered by critics as the first genuinely realistic novel portraying life w/o
heroism, purpose, or even civility. But the author who turned realism into a
movement was Emile Zola-viewed writing as a laboratory experiment on living
bodies and believed absolute physical/psychological determinism ruled human
events, published 20 volumes of novels exploring alcoholism, prostitution, and labor
strife refusing to turn his reader’s thoughts away from the ugly aspects of life and
enjoyed a worldwide following
o Ibsen and Shaw-Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen carried realism into the
dramatic presentation of domestic life, his most famous play is A Doll’s House
which stripped away the illusory mask of middle-class morality. One of Ibsen’s
greatest champions was George Bernard Shaw-defended Ibsen’s work and made his
own realistic onslaught against romanticism and false respectability.
o Realist writers believed it their duty to portray reality and the common place. They
hoped to destroy illusions and compel the public to face reality. They thought change
in itself was good, but few posed solutions to any problems
C. Modernism
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o From the 1870s onward, a new movement usually called modernism touched all the
arts
Modernism like realism was critical of middle-class society and morality but was not
concerned with social issues, but was concerned for the aesthetic or the beautiful
o Walter Pater set the tone of the movement by saying that all art “constantly aspires to
the condition of music.”
o Across the spectrum of arts, modernists tried to create new forms
o Painters gave their works musical titles and musicians combined material many
sources
o Practitioners mixed various materials in sensuous statues
o Among the chief proponents of modernism in England were the members of the
Bloomsbury Group, including authors Virginia and Leonard Woolf, Duncan
Grant, Lytton Strachey, and the economist John Maynard Keynes
o These authors challenged the values of their Victorian forbears
o Keynesian economics eventually challenged much of the structure of 19th century
economic theory
o Strachey used a series of biographical sketches to heap contempt on subjects
o Grant and Bell looked to the modern artists on the Continent for their models
o The Bloomsbury Group rejected the repressive sexual morality of their parents’s
generation
o Virginia Woolf’s novels such as Mrs. Dalloway and To the Lighthouse portrayed
individuals seeking their way in a world w moral certainties removed
o One of the major practitioners of modernism ion the Continet was Marcel Prousst
and in his novel In Search of Time Past, he adopted a stream-of consciousness
format that allowed him to explore his memories through concentrating on a single
experience/object and allowing his mind to wander through all the thoughts it evoked
o Thomas Mann through Buddenbrooks and The magic Mountain explored the
social experience of the middle-class and how they dealt with the intellectual heritage
o In Ulysses, James Joyce transformed not only the novel, but also the structure of the
paragraph
o Modernism in lit arose before WWI and flourished after the war, nourished by the
turmoil and social dislocation it created. After the war’s appalling violence and
removal of many old political/social structures, readers found themselves less
shocked by the upheavals of modernism
D. Friedrich Nietzsche and the Revolt Against Reason
o During the 2nd half of the century, philosophers began to question the adequacy of
rational thinking to address the human situation
o Nietzsche, a German philosopher best exemplified this new attitude
o He was wholly at odds w/ the values of the age and attacked Christianity, democracy,
nationalism, rationality, science and progress.
o He wanted not only to tear away the masks of respectable life, but to explore how
human beings made such masks
o His 1st important work was The Birth of Tragedy in which he urged that nonrational
aspects of human nature are as important/noble as the rational characteristics
o To limit human activity to strictly rational behavior was to impoverish human life
o In later works such as Thus Spake Zarathustra Nietzsche criticized democracy and
Christianity arguing that both would lead to the mediocrity of sheepish masses
announcing the death of God and instead proclaiming the coming of the Overman
who would embody heroism and greatness
o
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o
He sought a return to the heroism that was associated w/ Greek life
o Two of Nietzsche most profound works are Beyond Good and Evil and the
Genealogy of Morals in which he critiqued moral values in it of themselves
Nietzsche thought morality was a human convention w/ no independent existence
o Thought that the absence of morals would allow human beings to create lifeaffirming values instead in which human beings could create a new moral order that
would glorify pride, assertiveness, and strength instead of meekness, humility, and
weakness
o Nietzsche appealed to romantic tradition by questioning the adequacy of rationalism
o Human beings had to forge from their own will and determination the values that
were to exist in the world
E. The Birth of Psychoanalysis
o A determination to probe beneath surface/public appearance united the major figures
of late 19th-century science, art, and philosophy
o Sought to discern the undercurrents, tensions, and complexities that lay beneath the
calm surfaces of hard atoms, respectable families and rationality
o No intellectual development more exemplified this trend than psychoanalysis
through the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
o Development of Freud’s Early Theories-Freud studied of physiology and medicine
and found that patients associated particular neurotic symptoms with experiences
related to earlier experiences and noted that sexual matters were esp. significant. He
formed a theory of infantile sexuality-according to which sexual drives and energy
already exist in infants and do not simply emerge at puberty. For Freud, human
beings are sexual creatures from birth through adulthood and portrayed the little
acknowledged matter of sexuality as one of the bases of mental order/disorder
o Freud’s Concern with Dreams-Freud examined the psychic phenomena of dreams
and believed the seemingly irrationally content of dreams must have a reasonable,
scientific explanation-concluded that dreams allowed unconscious desires to enjoy
freer play in the mind and that these wishes are fulfilled through the waking hours.
o Freud’s Later Thought-Later, Freud developed a new model of the internal
organization of the mind as an arena of struggle and conflict among 3 entities: the
Id-consists of amoral, irrational, driving instincts for sexual gratification, aggression,
and general physical/sensual pleasure. The Superego-embodies external moral
imperatives/societal expectations. The Ego-mediates between the former 2 and
allows the personality to cope w/ the inner and outer demands of its existence.
o Freud reflected the romantic tradition of the 19th century, but in other respects he was
a son of the Enlightenment who was a realist and wanted human beings to live by
rationally understanding themselves and their world. Freud was hostile to the idea of
religion and understood the immense sacrifice of instinctual drives required for
rational civilized behavior. He believed civilization and the survival of humankind
required some repression of sexuality and aggression
o Divisions in the Psychoanalytic Movement-By 1910, Freud had gathered around
him a small group of disciples, but several of his early followers soon moved toward
theories of which the master disapproved. Carl Jung, a Swiss whom Freud regarded
as his most promising student, questioned the primacy of sexual drives and put less
faith in reason. He believed the human subconscious contains inherited memories
which constitute his or her soul. Jung tended toward mysticism and was more
dependent on romanticism. The psychoanalytic movement had become even more
fragmented by the 1920s. It influenced not only psychology, but also sociology.
o
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F. Retreat from Rationalism in Politics
o 19th century liberals/socialists agreed that rational analysis could discern the
problems of society and prepare solutions and felt that individuals would behave
according to their rational political self-interest
o By 1900, these views had come under attack as political scientists painted
politics as frequently irrational and racial theorists questioned whether rationality
and education could affect society at all
o Weber-one major social theorist was impressed by the role of reason in human
society. The German sociologist Max Weber regarded the emergence of
rationalism throughout society as the major development of human history. HE
saw bureaucratization and the rise of scientific knowledge as the basic feature of
modern social life. Weber contended in contrast to Marx that noneconomic
factors might account for major developments in human history and traced much
of the rational character of capitalist enterprise to Puritanism
o Theorists of Collective Behavior-Weber differed from many contemporary
social scientists such as Gustave LeBon, Durkheim, Sorl, Pareto, and Wallas.
They argued that crowd/mob mentality can influence people to action by
collectively shared ideals and that instinct, habit and affections instead of reason
direct human social behavior
o Theorists emphasized the role of collective groups in politics rather than
that of the individual
G. Racism
o Same tendencies to question the constructive activity of reason and to sacrifice
the individual to the group manifested themselves in theories of race. Racism
had long existed in Europe. Explorers had long displayed prejudice against
nonwhite peoples. The debates over slavery gave further opportunity for the
development of racial theory and race emerged as a single dominant explanation
of the history and the character of large groups of people
o What transformed racial thinking at the end of the century was its association
with biological sciences. The prestige associated w/ the biological science in
general became transferred to racial thinking whose advocates now claimed to
possess a materialistic, scientific basis for their thought
o They came to claim that racial science could support a hierarchy of superior and
inferior races within Europe and among the various peoples outside Europe
o Gobineau-Count Arthur de Gobineau, a reactionary Fr. diplomat enunciated
the 1st important theory of race as the major determinant of human history. In his
Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, Gobineau portrayed the troubles of
Western civilization as the result of the long degernation of the original white
Aryan race and claimed that it had intermarried with the inferior yellow/black
races diluting its blood.
o Chamberlain-Houston Chamberlain drew together these strands of racial
thought into the 2 volumes of his Foundations of the Nineteenth Century and
championed the concept of biological determinism through race, but believed
that through genetics the human race could be improved and that a superior race
could be developed. He was anti-Semitic.
o Late-Century Nationalism-Racial thinking was one part of a wider late-century
movement toward more aggressive nationalism. Previously, nationalism had in
general been a movement among literary figures and liberals, but from the 1870s
onward nationalism became a movement with mass support-the new nationalism
opposed the internationalism of both liberalism and socialism and was redefined
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in terms of race and blood. The idea of nationality was used to overcome the
pluralism of class, religion, and geography and nationalism of this aggressive
racist variety became the most powerful ideology of the early 20th century. Soon
Europeans also used racial theory to support harsh treatment of colonial peoples
toward Africans
H. Anti-Semitism and the Birth of Zionism
o Popular anti-Semitism survived after Jewish emancipation as finance capitalism
changed the economic structure of Europe and the Jewish community being
identified with money and banking interests
o Anti-Semetic Policies-In Vienna, Karl Lueger used anti-Semitism as a major
attraction for his Christian Socialist Party. No matter how much Jews
assimilated themselves into the culture of their country, their Jewishness would
remain.
o An important response to this new, rabid outbreak of anti-Semitism was the
launching in 1896 of the Zionist movement to found a separate Jewish state. Its
founder was the Austro-Hungarian Theodore Herzl
o Herzl’s Response-Herzl was convinced that liberal policies could not protect the
Jews after the Dreyfus affair and the election of Karl Lueger. Herzl published
The Jewish State in 1896 in which he called for a separate state in which all
Jews might be assured of those rights and liberties they should be enjoying.
Herzl followed the tactics of mass democratic politics by directing his appeal
particularly to the poor Jews who lived in the slums.
o The original call to Zionism thus combined a rejection of the anti-Semitism of
Europe and a desire to realize some of the ideals of both liberalism and socialism
in a state outside Europe
V. Art in the 19th century
A. Manet
o Decade of 1870s witnessed enormous political turmoil in France and the flowering of
new painting dedicated to depicting contemporary society
o European painting began to change in 2 major ways: 1st painters began to depict
modern life focusing on social life and leisured activities. 2nd-artists were fascinated
with light, color, and the representation of momentary and unfocused visual experi.
o Edoard Manet-most influential painter of the 2nd half of the 19th century, began to
adopt many of the techniques of the impressionists
C. Cubism
o Cubism was the single most important new departure in the 20th century art of the
West-lead to a refocusing of perspective in painting
o A contemporary critic coined the term to describe the paintings of Pablo Picasso and
Georges Braque
o During the late 19th century, artists undertook a number of experiments in both the
content and style of painting
o Picasso and Braque rejected the idea of painting as depicting the real world and saw
painting as an autonomous realm of art itself with no purpose beyond itself
o Picasso and Braque represented only 2 dimensions in their painting and used abstract
multiple dimensions, perspectives, and angels to construct “reality”
VI. Women and Modern Thought
o The ideas of modern thought that shook Europe produced mixed results for women
o Views of women and their roles in society remained remarkably unchanged
A. Antifeminism in Late-Century Thought
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o Influence of biology during the 19th century led many to sustain what had became
stereotyped views of women-emphasis on biology/evolution led intellectuals to
emphasize the mothering role of women
o There was a conservative/hostile perception of women from the scientific
community-women were excluded from the Ethnological Society in London, T.H.
Huxley took the lead in excluding women from science claiming to have found sci ev
of the inferiority of women to men
o Psychoanalytic view-Freud’s patients included women but he portrayed women as
incomplete human beings with the natural destiny of womanhood, psychoanalytic
profession would remain dominated by men
o Social sciences: believed women’s role in reproduction/childrearing demanded a
social position inferior to men, Comte portrayed women as biologically/intellectually
inferior. Virtually all social scientists took a conservative position
B. New Directions in Feminism
o close of century had great revival of feminist thought in Europe-some concentrated
on right to vote, redefined ways of thinking about women’s roles
o Sexual Morality and the Family-English prostitutes were subject to different
standards for disease examinations and searches, Contagious Disease Acts allowed
the police to require any woman identified as a prostitute to undergo an immediate
medical exam-put women’s bodies under the control of male customers, male
physicians, and male law-enforcement
o Ladies’ National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Disease Acts led
by Josephine Butler began to actively oppose those laws and achieved their repeal
o Viewed marriage as an equal union between men and women
o Germany Mother’s Protection League contended for pregnancy leaves
o Some feminists advocated contraception, less children = more opportunities
(influenced by social Darwinism)
 Marie Stopes pioneered contraception
o Women Defining their own lives
o For butler and Ficke and feminists, legal equality for women would lead to
true equality
 Feminists tried on freeing and developing women’s personalities
o Some woman were active in socialist circles as socialist transformation
would have to have women
 However, most socialist leaders didn’t listen to changes for families
 Feminists were most successful in literary circles
o Virginia Woolf’s A room of one’s Own became an feminist textbook
 Was about the difficulties of an intelligent women
 Opened the question on gender definition
o Feminism was associated with socialism and political radicalism
o Conservatives would then emphasize traditional family.
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Chapter 25: Imperialism, Alliances, and War
I. Expansion of European Power and the New Imperialism
o 3 Causes of the expansion of European Power and the New Imperialism-1st-explosive
developments in technology and military weapons allowed Europeans to impose their
will by force or the threat of it, 2nd-growth of national states permitted European nations
to deploy their resources more effectively, 3rd-Euroepans considered their civilization and
way of life to be superior to all others giving them the self-confidence and fostered their
expansionist mood
o By the mid-19th century, only GB had extensive holdings in colonies as the dominant
doctrine of free trade opposed interference in other lands as economically unprofitable
o Britain ruled the waves with the advs of the 1st Industrial Rev but even they opposed
further political or military involvement overseas
o In the last 1/3 of the century the European states swiftly spread their control over about
15 of the world’s land area and European expansion went forward with great speed and
participation in it became regarded as necessary for a great power. The movement has
been called the New Imperialism.
A. The New Imperialism
o Imperialism-policy of extending a nation’s authority by territorial acquisition or
by establishing economic and political hegemony over other nations
o New element in imperialism that was different from Ancient Egypt was that it
introduced new devices of exploiting the resources of the dominated area other
than seizing land and settling it with the conqueror’s people
o The usual pattern of the New Imperialism was for a nation to invest capital in
a “less industrialized” country to develop infrastructure and employ great
numbers of natives in the process. The dominant Euroepan state would make
arrangements with the local government either by loaning money or intimidating
them
o If this benign method didn’t work, the dominant power would establish more
direct political control through annexation and direct rule or maintaining military
power through a protectorate status
B. Motives for the New Imperialism: The Economic Interpretation
o Predominant interp of the motives of the New Imperialism has been economic in the
for given by the English radical economist J.A. Hobson and later adapted by Lenin
o Lenin said,” Imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism”, the last stage of a
dying system
o Competition inevitably eliminates inefficient capitalists and leads to monopoly as
capitalists would persuade their gov. to gain colonies in less developed countries to
find new markets
o This is not true though, because most capital investment wasn’t in developed
countries but in older, well-established areas like Australia, the U.S., and Canada,
and colonies were not usually important markets for the great imperial nations
o Economic motives certainly played a part, but a full understanding of the New
Imperialism requires a search for other motives
C. Cultural, Religious, and Social Interpretations
o Some advocates of Imp. Argued that advanced European nations had a duty to bring
the benefits of their higher culture and superior civilization to more “backwards” ppl
o Religious groups demanded that gov. furnish political/military support for Christian
missionaries
D. Strategic and Political Interpretations: The Scramble for Africa
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o France and Smaller Nations-France became involved in North Africa by sending an
expedition to attack pirates in Algiers. THE Fr. gradually extended their control and
was soon in full control of Algeria, the Fr. soon annexed much of West Africa and
Northern Africa
o Smaller states like Belgium, Portugal, Spain and Italy were acquiring new African
colonies
o France and these smaller states equated acquiring new African colonies to political
status
o Britain acquired territories in Africa for strategic reasons, because they wanted to
protect the Suez and Cape routes to India
o Germany-Bismarck appears to have pursued an imperial policy from cold political
motives as Germany declared protectorates over SW Africa and East Africa
o None of these places were particularly valuable or of strategic importance, but
Bismarck wanted colonies to improve Germany’s diplomatic position and hoped
colonial expansion would divert Fr. hostility against Germany
E. The Irrational Element
o Germany’s annexations started a wild scramble by other European powers to acquire
what was left of Africa and by 1890 almost all of the continent had been parceled out
o “Empire in the modern period was the product of European power: its reward was
power or the sense of power” D.K. Fieldhouse
o Other Imperial Powers: Japan expanded into China and the U.S. annexed Cuba,
Puerto Rico and drove Spain completely out of the Western Hemisphere also
annexing some Pacific islands becoming a imperial and pacific power
o Most of the world had come under the control of the industrialized West-the one
remaining area of great vulnerability was the Ottoman Empire
II. Imperialism: Ancient and Modern
o Concept of “empire” doesn’t win favor today and the word Imperialism carries and
increasingly pejorative meaning since it was coined in the 19th century implying forcible
domination by a nation or state that exploits an alien people for its own benefit
o The last great empire in the modern world was the conglomeration of
republics/independent satellite states that were dominated by the Russia
o Today, ruling an empire or engaging in imperialism is generally considered among the
worst acts a nation can commit
o The views of ancient peoples throughout history differs from the modern view of empire
A. The Greeks: Ambiguities of Power
o Greeks viewed world as a place of intense competition in which domination/victory
were the highest goals due to their views of Olympic gods
o At the same time, Greeks also thought that empire was sometimes hubris and beyond
moderation. They wanted city-states to be free and the Athenian tradition was
portrayed as well.
o This is shown by their reaction to the Persian Empire, King Xerxes
B. The Romans: A Theory of Empire
o Romans had fewer hesitations about the desirability of imperial power than the
Greeks
o The Romans ruled one of the greatest empires ever
C. Muslims, Mongols, and Ottomans
o Rise of Islam produced a new kind of empire that derived its energy from religious
zeal
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Muslim armies swiftly gained control of most of the territory held by the old Persian
Empire.
o Mongols also dominated Eurasia and ruled over the largest landmass ever
o Ottomans also took over the Mediterranean
D. European Expansion
o Europe had been the victim of Islamic imperial expansion, but soon Spain and
Portugal and the explorers began to expand in the 17th century through colonies
E. Toward Decolonization
o Weakening of the European colonial powers in WWII began the process of
decolonization-economic value of most colonies declined, nationalists movements in
the old colonies flourished through ideas of self-government and self-determination,
theories of racial superiority had been discredited.
III. Emergence of the German Empire and the Alliance Systems (1873-1890)
o Creation of German Empire revolutionized European diplomacy-formed nation of
great/growing pop, industrial capacity, and military power
o GE upset balance of power that had been forged at the Congress of Vienna, while GB
and Russia retained their positions, Austria and France had been severely weakened
A. Bismarck’s Leadership (1873-1890)
o Until 1890, Bismarck continued to guide Germany, after unification he
insisted Germany was a satisfied power and wanted no further territorial
gains, because he wanted to avoid a new war that might undo his successes
o Pursued friendly relations w/ France seeking to prevent an alliance between
France and any other European power that would threaten Germany with a
war on 2 fronts
B. War in the Balkans
o Bismarck established the Three Emperor’s League in 1873-brought together
the 3 great conservative empires of Germany, Austria, and Russia
o League collapsed due to Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans
o Ottoman weakness encouraged Russia to expand and intervene and expand its
influence under the Pan-Slavic movement-which sought ot unite all the Slavic
peoples even those under Austrian/Ottoman rule
o Treaty of San Stefano-Slavic states in the Balkans were freed of Ottoman rule,
Russia obtained territory and a large monetary debt-other powers were alarmed
by Russian influence
o Austria feared Russia threatened its own Balkan provinces
o British and Disraeli were alarmed by possibility of Russian control of the
Dardanelles making Russia a Mediterranean power and threaten GB’s control of
the Suez –jingoism-superpatriotism through a music-hall song that was popular
C. The Congress of Berlin
o Even before Treaty of San Stefano, Disraeli sent a fleet to Constantinople
o Britain and Austria forced Russia to agree to an international conference at which
the major powers would review the provisions of San Stefano
o Resulting Congress of Berlin met in 1878 under presidency of Bismarck-choice
of site and presiding officer was a clear recognition of Germany’s new
importance
o Bismarck referred to himself as an honest broker-title was justified, agreed to
congress, b/c he wanted to avoid a war b/t Russia and Austria into which eh
feared Germany would be drawn in with nothing to gain and much to lose
o
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Decisions of the congress were a blow to Russian ambitions: Bulgaria was
reduced in size and deprived of accessto the Aegean Sea, Austria was given
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Britain/France also occupied territories
o Russia was disappointed and the TE League was dead
o All of the Balkan states were annoyed by the Berlin settlement-major trouble spot
was in the south Slavic states of Serbia and Montenegro who deeply resented the
Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (South Slavic Question)
D. German Alliances with Russia and Austria
o Bismarck could ignore the Balkans, but could not ignore the breach in the
alliance system, concluding a secret treaty with Austria in 1879
o Resulting Dual Alliance provided that G and A would come to each other’s aid if
either was attacked by Russia-would maintain neutrality if attacked by another
country
o Anchor of German policy-was criticized at the time, appeared to tie GE to those
of the troubled Austrian Empire and isolated the Russians pushing them to seek
alliances in the West
o Bismarck meant Germany to be the rider in the horse-rider alliance-made it clear
that the alliance was defensive and the Balkan questions would never force him
to attack Russia
o Austro-German negotiations ‘caused Russian diplomats to approach him and by
1881 he had concluded a renewal of the TE League on a firmer basis-powers
agreed to maintain neutrality if attacked by another country, Austrai to annex BH whenever it wished, and Dardanelles were closed to all nations in case of war
o Impact: allayed German fears of a Russian-French alliance and Russian fears of
a combination of Austria and GB against it. The agreement aimed to resolve the
conflicts in the Balkans between Austria and Russia-significant step to peace
E. The Triple Alliance
o In 1882, Italy ambitious for colonial expansion and bothered by Fr. occupation of
Tunisia asked to join the Dual Alliance-provisions of its entry were defensive and
directed against France
o At this point, Bismarck’s policy was a complete success-he was allied with three
of the great powers and friendly with the other, GB.
o Even greater challenge was to maintain this complicated system of secret
alliances-TE league lapsed after another Balkan War, but Triple Alliance of
Germany, Austria, and Italy was renewed, Bismarck negotiated the
reinsurance Treaty with Russian-both G and R agreed to remain neutral in case
of an attack
o William II comes to the throne in 1888-believed he ruled by divine right and
was filled with a sense of Germany’s destiny as the leading power of Europe
wanting to achieve recognition of at least equality with Britain, the land of his
mother and of his grandmother, Queen Victoria
o Aims ran counter to Bismarck’s limited continental policy, William argued for
the build up of the navy and colonies and William dismissed Bismarck in 1890
o Bismarck was a beast-smart, understood IR, clear/limited ideas of his
nation’s goals-during his time, Germany was a force for European peace
F. Forging of the Triple Entente
o Franco-Russian Alliance-after Bismarck’s dismissal, his system of alliance
collapsed as his successor General Leo von Caprivi refused the Russian request
o
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to renew the Reinsurance Treaty isolating Russia and in 1894, a defensive
Franco-Russian alliance against Germany was signed
o Britain and Germany-GB became the key to the int’l situations, Britain had
traditionally opposed Russia, but Germany had become the enemy in British
minds due to economic rivalry b/t the two countries and the foreign/naval
policies of the German emperor and his ministers.
o German aggression-Germany tried to win the British over toe the Triple
Alliance, but when Britain clung to isolation, German policy changed to
demonstrating Germany’s worth as an ally by making trouble for Britain by
pursuing a world policy exerting pressure against Britain in Africa, aggressive
naval policy lead by Admiral Alfred Von Tirpitz-proclaimed a “risk” theory
arguing that Germany could build a fleet strong enough to do enough damage to
make the British inferior, Germany supported the Boers of South Africa which
was a major source of foreign policy embarrassment of the British
o Between 1898 and 1901 Joseph Chamberlain, the colonial secretary of Britain
made several attempts to conclude an alliance with Germany, but the Germans
refused and expected the British to make greater concessions in the future
o Entente Cordiale-1st breach in Britain’s isolation came in 1902 when it
concluded an alliance with Japan to defend British interests in the Far East
against Russia. Next, Britain concluded a series of agreements with the French
collectively called the Entente Cordiale-settled all colonial differences between
the 2 nations
o First Moroccan Crisis-Germany decided to test the new understanding b/t
Britain and France and Emperor William II made a speech in favor of
Moroccan independence challenging Fr. for the right to Morocco
o Germans demanded an int’l conference to show their power more dramatically,
but the Germans received trivial concessions and the Fr. position in Morocco was
confirmed bringing Britain and France closer together
o British Agreement with Russia-Britain’s fear of Germany’s growing naval
power made it desirable for Britain to become more friendly with France’s ally,
Russia-Britain concluded an entente Cordiale-like agreement with Russia settling
the quarrels in central Asia
o The Triple Entente-an informal, but powerful, association of Britain, Russia,
and France was now ranged against the Triple Alliance who had Italy as an
unreliable ally
o William II and his ministers had turned Bismarck’s nightmare of the prospect of
a 2-front war with France and Russia into a reality even adding Britain to their
foes-equilibrium Bismarck ahd established was destroyed
o The new alliance systems increased the risk of war and made the Balkans a likely
spot for it to break out
o The Germans could rely only on Austria and the French had 2 great powers on
their side
IV. World War I
A. The Road to War
o Growing nationalism caused inhabitants of the Balkans who felt a cultural and
historical kinship with one another through their Slavic ethnicity wanted to unite
o Radicals looked Serbia as the center of the new nation
o In 1908 a group of modernizing reformers called the Young Turks brought
about a rev in the OE, actions threatened to revive the lfie of the empire and
brought on the first of a series of Balkan crises that would eventually leald to war
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B. The Bosnian Crisis
o In 1908, Austrian and Russian gov. decided to act quickly before Turkey became
strong enough to resist-they struck a bargain in which Russia agreed to support
Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in return for Austrian backing for
opening the Dardanelles to Russian warships
o Austrians declared the annexation before the Russians could act and the British and
Fr. eager for the favor of the Young Turks refused to agree to the Russian demand for
the Dardanelles
o Germany had not been warned in advance of Austria’s plans and was sucked into
supporting Austria=-set a dangerous precedent for Austria to be given a freehand in
making German policy
o Failure of GB and Fr. to support R strained the Triple Entente
C. The Second Moroccan Crisis
o 2nd Moroccan crisis happened in 1911 when Germany sent the gunboat Panther to
the Moroccan port of Agadir to protect German citizens provoking a strong reaction
in GB especially during the naval race that the 2 countries were participating in
o Crisis passed when Fr. conceded insignificant bits of the Congo and Germany
recognized the Fr. protectorate over Morocco
o Main result was to increase British fear and hostility toward Germany and to
draw Britain closer to France
o Specific military plans were formulated for a British force to defend Fr. and the
Entente Cordiale was turned into a de facto alliance
D. War in the Balkans
o 2nd Moroccan crisis provoked another crisis in the Balkans where Italy sought to gain
colonies and take its place among the great powers
o Italy attacked the OE to preempt the Fr., forcing Turkey to cede Libya and the
Dodecanese islands in the Aegean
o Spurred other Balkan states to try their luck against the Turks as the Serbs tried to
gain more power
o Serbia gained land, but were prevented by gaining access to the Adriatic by Austria
who forced them to withdraw and Albania was created
o Pan-Slavic sentiment in Russia pressured Tsar Nicholas II to take a firm stand, but
Russia once again let Austria have its way in the confrontation with Serbia
o Lessons learned in the crisis influenced behavior in the final crisis in 1914-Russians
had been embarrassed by their passivity and their allies were more reluctant ot
restrain them again, Austrians were embarrassed by the results of accepting an
international conference and were determined not to again. They had gotten better
results from a threat of direct force.
E. Sarajevo and the Outbreak of War
o The assassination-On 6/28/1914, a young Bosnian nationalist shot and killed
Archduke Francis Ferdinand-heir to the Austrian throne, assassin was a member of
a conspiracy hatched by a political terrorist society called the Black Hand
o Generally believed that Serbian officials were involved
o Germany and Austria’s Response-assassination produced outrage and
condemnation everywhere in Europe except in Serbia-made attack to Austria seem
irresistible, needed German support for attack
o Conrad von Hotzendorf chief of the Austrian general staff urged an attack, but
Count Stefan Tisza speaking for Hungary resisted. Count Leopold von Berchtold,
the Austro-Hungarian foreign minister felt the need for strong action, but he knew
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that German support would be required if Russia would intervene and only German
support could persuade the Hungarians
o William II and Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg readily promised German support
for an attack on Serbia urging quick action, wanted swift, localized action to stop the
Slavic question once and for all
o Germany did not give Austria a blank check, their message was more specific: urged
Austria to move swiftly while the other powers were still angry at Serbia and prove
themselves as a useful ally
o William II may have reacted violently to the assassination-moved by his friendship
for the archduke and outraged at an attack on royalty
o Bethmann-Hollweg was perceived as soft, so he had to support the war and couldn’t
stand up to his emperor
o Austrian attack was not quick and Serbian response was soft and peace-like, but
Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28
o Triple Entente’s Response-Russians responded angrily to the Austrian demands on
Serbia-nationalists, Pan-Slavs all demanded action, but the gov. responded by
ordering only partial mobilization putting diplomatic pressure on Austria, Germany
responded with mobilization to protect their battle plan, Schlieffen Plan-required an
attack on France before Russia was ready to attack
o Britain tried to resolve the crisis by a conference of the powers but Austria would not
hear of it, the Germans privately supported the Austrians, but publicly took on a
conciliatory tone in the hope of keeping the British neutral
o Bethman-Hollweg came to realized that if Germany attacked France, Britain must
fight-sincerely tried to persuade the Austrians to negotiate and avoid a general war,
but the Austrians could not turn back w/o losing their own self-respect/German’s
respect
o On July 30, Austria ordered mobilization against Russia, Bethamnn-Hollweg resisted
pressure to mobilize, b/c he wanted Russia to mobilize against Germany 1st and
appear to be the aggressor
o Only in that way could he win the support of the German nation for the war,
especially the support of pacifist Social Democrats
o News of Russian general mobilization came only minutes before Germany would
have mobilized in any case-Schlieffen Plan went into effect
o Germans occupied Luxembourg and invaded Belgium-violated the treaty of 1839 in
which the British had joined with the other powers in guaranteeing Belgian neutrality
o Britain declared war on Germany
o Great War began
F. Strategies and Stalemate: 1914-1917
o Both sides expected to take the offensive, force a battle on favorable ground and win
a quick victory
o The Triple Entente, or Allies held superiority in numbers, financial resources, as
well as command of the sea while Germany and Austria, the Central Powers had
the advs of possessing internal links of communication and having launched their
attack first
o Germany swept through Belgium and surprised the French executed by Helmuth
Von Moltke, but was stopped at the Battle of the Marne by the Fr. and British
o War in the West became one of position instead of movement as both sides dug in
behind a wall of trenches
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o War in the East-Russians advanced into Austrian territory and inficted heavy
casualties, but German energy soon reversed the situation as the Central Powers
drove into the Baltic states and Russian Poland inflicting more than 2m illion
casualties in a single year
o Erich Ludendorff under the command of the elderly general Paul von Hindenburg
destroyed or captured an entire Russian army at the Battle of Tannenberg and
defeated another one at the Masurian Lakes
o Both sides sought new allies as Turkey and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and
both sides bid for Italian support
o In the Far East, Japan honored its alliance w/ GB and entered the war overrunning the
German colonies in China and the Pacific and used the opportunity to improve their
own position against China
o Italy joined the allies because they promised to deliver to Italy most of Italia
irrendenta-important territories held by Austria
o Both sides supported nationalist movements among areas that were held by the
enemy
o In 1915, Allies undertook action to break the deadlock on the western front by going
around it, idea came chiefly from Winston Churchill, 1st lord of the British
admiralty-proposed to attack the Dardanelles and capture Constantinople knocking
Turkey from the war and easing communications with Russia
o Campaign failed, 150,000 lost by the Allies
o Return to the West-both sides turned back to the west in 1916, General
Falkenhayn sought success by an attack on the Fr. stronghold of Verdun
o Henri Petain commanded Verdun and withstood the German attack, the allies tried to
end the impasse by launching a major offensive along the River Somme, but the
defense was superior again
o The War at Sea-As the war continued, control of the sea became more importantBritish ignored the distinction between war supplies and peaceful cargo and imposed
a strict blockade meant to starve out the enemy regardless of int’l law
o In May 1915, a German submarine torpedoed the British liner Lusitania-among the
1,200 who drowned were 118 Americans and President Woodrow Wilson warned
Germany that a repetition would have grave consequences
o German fleet that had cost so much money and had caused so much trouble played no
significant part in the war
o America Enters the War-Wilson tried to intervene to try to bring about a negotiated
peace, Germans announced the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare leading
the U.S. to break off diplomatic relations
o On April 6, the U.S> declared war on the Central Powers, one of the deterrents to an
earlier American intervention had been the presence of autocratic tsarist Russia
among the Allies-this changed when in 1917 a revolution in Russia overthrew the
tsarist government
V. The Russian Revolution
o March Revolution was neither planned nor led by any political faction-it was the result of
the collapse of the monarchy’s ability to govern
o Although public opinion in Russia had strongly supported the country’s entry into the
war, the conflict put far too great demands on Russia’s resources and the efficiency of the
tsarist government
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o Nicholas II was weak/incompetent and suspected of being under the domination of his
German wife and the insidious peasant faith healer Rasputin who was assassinated in
1916
o Military and domestic failures produced massive casualties, widespread hunger, strikes
by workers, and disorganization in the army
A. The Provisional Government
o In early March 1917, strikes and worker demonstrations erupted in Petrogard, as
St. Petersburg had been renamed,
o Tsar abdicated on March 15, gov’t of Russia fell into the hands of members of
the reconvened Duma-Russian’s parliament who soon formed a provisional gov.
composed chiefly of Constitutional Democrats (Cadets) w/ Western
sympathies
o At the same time, various socialists, including both Social Revolutionaries and
Social Democrats of the Menshevik wing began to org. the workers into soviets,
councils of workers and soldiers
o Initially, the Mensheviks allowed the provisional gov. to function w/o actually
supporting it-as relatively orthodox Marxists, the Mensheviks believed a
bourgeois stage of development must come to Russia before the revolution of the
proletariat could be achieved
o Mensheviks were willing to work temporarily w. the Constitutional Democrats in
a liberal regime, but they became estranged when the Cadets failed to control the
army or to purge “reactionaries” from the government
o In this climate,. The provisional gov. decided to remain loyal to the existing
Russian alliances and to continue the war against Germany
o Provisional government accepted tsarist foreign policy and associated itself w/
the source of much domestic suffering and discontent
o Disillusionment w/ war, shortages of food, and the growing demand by the
peasants for land reform undermined the government
o This occurred even after its leadership had been taken over by the moderate
socialist Alexander Kerensky
B. Lenin and the Bolsheviks
o Ever since April, the Bolveshik sing of the Social Democratic Party had been
working against the provisional government
o Germans, in their most successful attempt at subversion, ahd rushed the brilliant
Bolshevik leader V.I. Lenin in a sealed train from his exile in Switzerland across
Germany to Petrograd hoping he would cause trouble for the revolutionary gov.
o Lenin saw the opportunity to achieve the political alliance of workers and peasants he
had discussed before the war-speech after speech-he hammered away on the theme of
peace, bread and land
o Bolsheviks demanded that all political power g o to the soviets, which they controlled
o Failure of the summer offensive encouraged them to attempt a coup, but the effort
was a failure
o Lenin fled to Finland, and his chief collaborator Leon Trotsky was imprisoned
o Failure of a right-wing countercoup gave the Bolsheviks another chance-Trotsky
released from prison led the powerful Petrograd soviet
o Lenin returned insisting to his doubting colleagues that the time was ripe to take
power and the extraordinary force of his personality persuaded them to act
o Trotsky org. the coup that took place on Nov. 6 concluded w/ an armed assault on
the provisional government
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o Bolsheviks had come to rule Russia
C. The Communist Dictatorship
o Victors moved to fulfill their promises and to assure their own security-provisional
gov. had decreed an election for late Nov. to select a Constitutional Assembly
o Social Revolutionaries won a large majority over the Bolsheviks
o When the assembly gathered, the Red Army-controlled by the Bolsheviks dispersed it
o All other political parties also ceased to function in any meaningful fashion
o Bolshevik gov. nationalized the land and turned ti over to its peasant proprietors,
factory workers were put in charge of their plants, banks were seized for the state,
debt of the tsarist gov. was repudiated, and property of the church reverted to state
o Bolshevik gov. took Russia out of the war-signed armistice w/ Germany yielding
Poland, Baltic states, and Urkraine and paying a heavy war indemnity in the Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk
o Lenin had no choice-Russia was incapable of renewing the war effort, Bolsheviks
needed time to impose their role
o Until 1921, the new Bolshevik gov. met major domestic resistance and a civil war
erupted b/t the Red Russians who supported the revolution and the White Russianswho opposed it
o In the summer, the Bolsheviks murdered the tsar and his family and loyal army
officers continued to fight the revolution and eventually received aid from the Allied
armies
o Under the leadership of Trotsky, the Red Army eventually overcame the domestic
opposition and by 1921, Lenin and his supporters were in firm control
VI. The End of World War I
o Collapse of Russia and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk were the zenith of German successthey controlled eastern Europe and were free to concentrate their forces on the western
front
o Would have been decisive had they not been balanced by American intervention
o American troops would not arrive in sig. #s for a year, but both sides tried to win in 1917
o Allied attempt to break through failed, losses were heavy and the Austrians defeated the
Italians at Caporetto until they were checked with the aid of Allied troops
o Deadlock continued, but time was running out for the Central Powers
A. Germany’s Last Offensive
o Germans decided to gamble everything on one last offensive in March 1918
o Persuaded by Ludendorff, 2nd in command to Hindenburg but the real leader of
the army
o German army pushed forward and even reached the Marne again, but got no
farther w/o reserves-the Allies were bolstered by the arrival of American troops
and launched a counteroffensive that proved to be irresistible
o As the Austrian fronts in the Balkans and Italy collapsed, the German high
command knew the end was imminent
o Ludendorff was determined that peace should be made before the German army
could be thoroughly defeated in the field
o He allowed a new gov. to be established on democratic principles and to seek
peace immediately
o New gov. under Prince Max of Baden asked for peace on the basis of the
Fourteen Points that Wilson ahd declared as the American war aims-these were
idealistic principles including self-d, open diplomacy, free seas, disarmament,
and the establishment of a league of nations to keep peace
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Wilson insisted he would deal only w/ a democratic German gov., b/c he wanted
to be sure he was dealing w/ the German people
B. German Republican Government Accepts Defeat
o Disintegration of army forced William II to abdicate on Nov. 9, 1918
o Majority branch of the Social Democratic Party proclaimed a republic to prevent the
establishment of a soviet government under the control of the radical Leninist wing,
which ad earlier broken away as the Independent Socialist Party
o 2 days later, socialist-led gov. signed the armistice that ended the war by accepting
German defeat
o German ppl were unaware their army ahd been defeated in the field and was
crumbling-many Germans expected a negotiated/mild settlement, thought Germany
had not been defeated but tricked by the enemy
o Victors rejoiced, but they also had much to mourn-10 million dead and twice as many
wounded
o Victorious Allies became debtors to the new American colossus barely touched by
the war
o German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Turkish empires were casualties
o American intervention in 1917 thrust the U.S> into European affairs with a
vengeance and the collapse of the Russian autocracy brought the Bolshevik rev and
the reality of a great communist state
o Instability from the war brought various forms of fascism to Italy, Germany and other
countries-war transformed inevitable progress based on reason, science, and tech,
individual freedom/democracy to cynicism, nihilism, dictatorship, official racism,
and class warfare
C. Ottoman Empire: The Creation of the Modern Near Art
o At the outbreak of WWI the OE was neutral, but army military officers, the Young
Turks who had taken control of the OE in 1909 were pro-German and the Turks
decided to enter the war on the German side in 1914
o Decision brought about the end of the OE, early victories gave way to defeat after
defeat at the hands of the Russians and British assisted by Arabs from the Arabian
peninsula most notably Hussein, sheriff of Mecca, the city of Muhammad
o They drove the Ottomans out of Palestine and advanced deep into Mesopotamia
o Turkey was out of the war and an Allied fleet sailed into the harbor of Constantinople
and landed troops who occupied the city
o Peace treaty signed in Paris in 1920 b/t Turkey and the Allies dismembered the OE
placing large parts of it under the control of Britain and France
o In Mesopotamia, the British created the state of Iraq; it and Palestine became British
mandates
o Syria and Lebanon became Fr. mandates
o Mandates-territories that were legally supposed to be administered under the
auspices of the League of Nations but were in effect ruled as colonies
o Greek invasion of the Turkish homeland provoked a nationalist reaction bringing the
young general Mustafa Kemal who later took the name Atatruk-“Father of the
Turks”, drove the Greeks out and compelled the victorious powers to make a new
arrangement sealed by the treaty of Lausanne in 1923
o Ataturk abolished the Ottoman sultanate and the new Republic of Turkey abandoned
most of the old OE and became fully independent
o Turkey, became a secular state and a force for stability in the region
o
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VII. Settlement at Paris
•
•
•
Representatives gathered at Versailles
Wilson speaking for the U.S., David Lloyd George for Britain, Georges Clemenceau
for France, and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando for Italy made up the BIG FOUR
Japan also had an important part in the discussions-diplomats who met in Paris had a far
more difficult task than those who had sat at Vienna a century earlier
o Much more complicated than Vienna as it dealt with the whole world
o Vienna also did not have pressure from the public
A. Obstacles the Peacemakers Faced
•
Public opinion was very important
o Was transparent
o Also, drove to achieve peace
 Came in conflict with secrete treaties
 Many promises were made such as Russia would trade Constantinople
for recognition of Alsace-Lorraine
 Lots of national boundaries came into conflict
o France wanted to weaken Germany and others had their own interests
o Also, immediate threat of Bolshevism
 Allies started landing armies to overthrow Bolsheviks and even used
German volunteers
B. The Peace
•
•
•
•
•
•
Had 5 treaties and ended on August 10, 1920
o Notion of “a peace without victors” became a mockery when the Soviet Union
and Germany were excluded from the peace conference
o Nationalism was violated
o Wilson was welcomed for his ideas, but then scorned as he had to change
League of Nations
o Wilson stood by the League of Nations, which tried to encourage peace.
 Members promised to go to a court, rather than use force
 Refusal would mean economic sanction and military intervention
o Ineffective as it had no military force, and required unanimous decision
 Excluded Germany and Soviet Union
Colonies
o Colonial areas were called mandates and under the ‘tutelage’ of the great powers
o Disarmament also was ineffective
o Wilson was willing to go for bad settlements to get others to join the league
Germany
o France wanted protection from Germany so there was a demilitarization zone and
France got Alsace-Lorraine for 15 years
o Made it so that US and Britain would defend France from Germany
 Germany was permanently disarmed
The East
o Settlement in East reflected the collapse of the empires
 Many states were cut apart
Reparations
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o
o
Americans thought the amount that Germany promised to pay would be 15-25
billion
 Allies wanted to repay the war debts to the US so Germany had to pay 5
billion a year for up to 30 years
 They justified this through the war guilt clause that said Germany was
solely responsible for the war
Social Democrats and the Catholic Center Party formed a new government and
signed the treaty
C. Evaluating the Peace
•
•
•
•
Peace came under criticism from everyone
o Liberals didn’t like it as it violated liberal aims
The Economic consequences of the Pease
o Most influential critic was Keynes, and economist, in The Economic
Consequences saw that it was immoral and unworkable.
 Saw that it would bring economic ruin
o The position then became to favor Germany a bit more
 The book supported isolationism, and so the US did not ratify the treaty
o Many of the attacks were unjustified as Germany was not ruined
 Until the world depression, Germans got prosperity
 Germany plans were far more sever than the allies
Divisive New Boundaries and Tariff Walls
o Elimination of Austro-Hungarian Empire economically was disastrous, new
border separated raw materials from manufactures
 Times of depression caused friction in these areas
o Poland had lots of different nationalities.
o German people didn’t think they were defeated
Failure to Accept Reality
o Didn’t accept Germany and Russia’s role in European affairs
o Left the peace to be enforced by France.
o Also did not remove the will for war
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Chapter 27: Political Experiments of the 1920s
I. Political and Economic Factors after the Paris Settlement
A. New Governments
o IN 1919, experimental political regimes studded the map of Europe: from
Ireland to Russia, new gov. were seeking to gain the active support of their
citizens and to solve the grievous economic problems caused by the war
o In the Soviet Union, the Bolsheviks regarded themselves as forging a new
civilization built on achieving communism-they constructed a vast authoritarian
state apparatus
o Situation was different elsewhere-in many countries the turn to liberal democracy
resulted in the right to vote being given to women and previously disenfranchised
males
o For the 1st time in European history, gov. were responsible to mass electorates
and even in the authoritarian/military empires of Germany/Austria-Hungary,
democratically elected parliamentary gov. took form
o Many of the constitutional arrangements failed as nations lacked both
will/political skill to make the system work-harsh realities of ECON, aggressive
nationalism, and political conservatism
o Many citizens believed parliamentary politics were inherently corrupt/feebleECON linked to politics-economic/social anxieties of the electorate could and
eventually did overcome political scruples
B. Demands for Revision of the Paris Settlement
o Paris peace treaties themselves became domestic political issues-objections arose
from nationalistic concerns/resentments, Germany had been humiliated
o Arrangements for reparations led to endless haggling over payments
o Various national groups in the successor states of eastern Europe felt they ahd been
treated unjustly/denied self-determination
o There were important demands for further border adjustments, b/c significant
national minorities particularly German still resided outside national boundaries
o On the other side, the victorious power especially France thought the provisions were
not being adequately enforced
o Impact: calls to either revise/enforce the Paris treaties contributed to domestic
political turmoil across the Continent
C. Postwar Economic Problems
o Existed a widespread desire to return to the economic prosperity of the prewar years
o After 1918 it was impossible to restore in the economic realm what American
president Warren Harding would shortly term normalcy
o During the Great War, Europe had turned the military/industrial power that they had
created against themselves-“normal” could not be re-established
o Casualties represented the loss of producers and consumers
o Europe was no longer financial center of the world-European states were deep in debt
to each other and to the U.S>
o Bolsheviks had repudiated the debt of the tsarist gov. much of which was owed to Fr.
creditors, but other nations could not pursue this revolutionary course
o Paris settlement had imposed heavy financial obligations on Germany and its allies
o U.S> refused to ask reparations from Germany, but demanded repayment of war debt
from its own allies
o Reparation and debt structure meant no nation was fully in control of its own
economic life, on the other hand the absence of international economic cooperation
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menat that more than ever individual nations felt compelled to pursue selfish
economic aims
o Market and trade conditions had changed radically-many of Europe’s industry had
been destroyed, Russia withdrew from the European economic order, trade region
encompassed by Germany and A-H was broken up into a multitude of small states
o New political boundaries separated raw materials from the factories that used them
o Railway systems now lay under the control of 2 or more nations
o Political and economic nationalist went together-new customs barriers b/t nations
o News patterns in international trade: U.S> became less dependent on European
production, was now a major competitor, European dominance over the world
economy weakened, and slow postwar economic activity w/I colonies lowered the
international demand for European goods
o U.S. and Japan began to penetrate markets in LA and Asia where Europe had been
D. New Roles for Government and Labor
o war gave labor new prominence-in ever country the unions had supported the war
effort and ensured labor peace for wartime production
o members received better wages and leader admitted to high political councils
o wartime cooperation of unions and labor leaders w/i national governments destroyed
the internationalism of the prewar labor movement
o gov. could not ignore demands of labor
o Collective bargaining and union recognition were also there to stay
o Improvement in both the status and the influence of labor was on e of the most sig
changes from WWI, in reaction: middle-class European voters became more
conservative
II. The Soviet Experiment Begins
o Consolidation of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia established the most extensive and
durable of all 20th century authoritarian governments that came to power after WWI
o Communist Party of the Soviet Union retained power from 1917 until the end of 1991presence influenced the political history of Europe during this century as did no other
single factor
o CP was neither a mass party nor a nationalistic one-its early membership rarely exceeded
1% of the Russian pop.
o Several yrs after 1917, the party faced widespread domestic opposition and the
communist leaders long felt their hold on the country was insecure
o Communists also regarded their gov. and rev as epoch-making events in the history of the
world and the development of humanity
o Communism was an exportable commodity that could disrupt the political life of other
nations and throughout the history of the SU, its leaders sought to export its ideology and
doctrines
o Fear of communism and a determination to stop its spread became one of the leading
political forces in western Europe and the U.S. for the most of the rest of the century
A. War Communism
o W/I the SU, the Red Army under the org. direction of Leon Trotsky eventually
suppressed internal and foreign military opposition to the new gov.
o The White Russian armies, which fought the Red Army for several years, could
not adequately org. themselves and Allied help was inadequate to defeat them
o Existence of a military threat allowed the Bolsheviks to pursue authoritarian
policies rapidly
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o W/I months of the rev, a secret police known as the Cheka appeared-throughout
the civil war, Lenin had declared the Bolshevik Party as the vanguard of the rev
was imposing the dictatorship of the proletariat
o Political/economic administration became highly centralized-all major decisions
flowed from the top in a non-democratic manner
o Under the economic policy of war communism, the rev gov. confiscated and the
operate the banks, the transport system, and heavy industry: state seized grain
from peasants to feed the army and workers in the cities
o Fact of the civil war permitted the Bolsheviks to suppress resistance to this
economic policy
o War communism aided the victory of the Red Arm-the rev survived and
triumphed, but the policy generated domestic opposition to the Bolsheviks who
in 1920 numbered only about 600,000 members
o Alliance of workers/peasants forged by the slogan of “Peace, bread, and Land”
had begun to come apart at the seams
o Many Russians were no longer willing to make the sacrifices for the gov.
o :Large strikes occurred in many factories, discontented peasants resisted the
requisition of grain, the Baltic fleet mutinied at Kronstadt
o Red Army crushed the rebellion with grave loss of life
B. The New Economic Policy
o Under these conditions, Lenin made a strategic retreat
o Following the Kronstadt mutiny and in face of continuing peasant resistance, he
outlined the New Economic Policy (NEP)-apart from what he termed “the
commanding heights” of banking , heavy industry, transportation, and international
commerce, the gov. would tolerate private enterprise
o In particular peasants could farm for profit
o NEP was line w/ Lenin’s earlier conviction that the Russian peasantry held the key to
the success of the revolution
o After 1921, the countryside became more stable, secure food supply seemed assured,
similar free enterprise flourished w/I light industry and domestic retail
o NEP was not fully successful, b/c there were virtually no consumer goods for the
peasants to purchase, but by 1927, the Industrial production had reached its 1913
level and the revolution seemed to have transformed Russia into a land of small
family farmers and owners of small private shops and businesses
C. Stalin Versus Trotsky
o NEP caused disputes within the Politburo-governing committee of the CP
o Some members considered the partial return to Cap a betrayal of Marxist principles
o Frictions increased when Lenin’s firm hand disappeared, b/c in 1922 he suffered a
stroke and never again dominated party affairs dying in 1924
o Resulting power vacuum led to an intense struggle for the leadership of the party
o Two factions emerged: one was led by Leon Trotsky, the other by Joseph Stalinwho had become general secretary of the party in 1922
o Shortly before his death, Lenin had criticized both men, but was especially harsh
toward Stalin
o Stalin’s power base lay with the party membership and in the day-to-day
management of party affairs-was able to withstand the posthumous strictures of
Lenin
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o Trotsky’s Position-issue b/t the 2 factions was power w/I the party, but the struggle
was fought over the question of Russia’s path toward industrialization and the future
of the communist revolutionary movement
o Trotsky speaking for what became known as the left wing urged rapid
industrialization financed through the expropriation of farm production: agriculture
should be collectivized and peasants should be made to pay for industrialization
o Trotsky further argued that the rev in Russia could succeed only if new revs took
place elsewhere-Russia needed the skills/wealth of other nations to build its own
economy
o As Trotsky’s influence w/I the party waned, he also demanded that party members be
permitted to criticize a the government and the party
o Trotsky was a latecomer to the advocacy of open discussion, when he had controlled
the Red Army he had been an unflinching disciplinarian
o Stalin’s Rise-Stalin had been born into a poor family and had not spent a long
period of exile in western Europe and was much less intellectual/internationalist in
outlook, but was also more brutal
o During his tenure as commissar of nationalities, Stalin’s handling of various national
groups w/I Russia after the REV had shocked even Lenin
o As the party general secretary, a post that party intellectuals disdained as merely
clerical, Stalin amassed power through his command of bureaucratic methods-he was
neither a brilliant orator or writer, but he did master the crucial details of party
structure including admission to the aprty and promotion within it
o That mastery meant he had the support of the lower levels of the party apparatus
o During the mid-1920s, a Communist Party faction known as the right wing opposed
Trotsky’s drive for rapid industrialization-its chief ideological voice was that of
Nikolai Bukharin, the editor of Pravda (Truth) the official party newspaper
o The right wing pressed for the continuation of Lenin’s NEP and for relatively slow
industrialization
o At the time, this position represented a policy based largely on decentralized
economic planning and tolerating modest free enterprise and small landholdings
o In the mid-1920s, Stalin supported Bukharin’s position on economic development-he
enunciated in opposition to Trotsky the doctrine of “socialism in one country” which
contended that socialism could be achieved in Russia alone
o Russian success did not depend on fate of revs elsewhere
o Stalin nationalized the previously int’l scope of the Marxist revolution
o Cunningly used his control over the Central Committee of the Communist Party
to edge out Trotsky and his supporters
o By 1927, Trotsky had been removed from all his offices, expelled from the party, and
exiled to Siberia
o IN 1929, he was forced out of Russia, and eventually he moved to Mexico, where he
was murdered presumably by one of Stalin’s agents
o With Trotsky defeated, Stalin was firmly in control of the Soviet state
D. The Third International
o Bolshevik rev in Russia stunned west European socialists
o In the West, social democratic parties had prior to the war debated among themselves
whether they might participate in parliamentary structures and regarded the Russia
Bolsheviks as eccentric, politically marginal Marxist extremists
o Bolshevik victory required west European social democrats to rethink their position
w/I the world of int’l socialism
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Bolsheviks regarded such reformist social democrats as a major enemy and intended
to establish themselves as the international leaders of Marxism
o In 1919, the Soviet communists founded the Third International of European
socialist movement better known as the Comintern-worked to make the Bolshevik
model of socialism developed by Lenin the rule for all socialist parties outside the SU
o Comintern imposed its Twenty-One Conditions on any socialist party that wished to
join it including: acknowledgment of Moscow’s leadership, rejecting
reformist/revisionist socialism, repudiating previous socialist leaders and adopting
the Communist Party name
o In effect, the Cominterm sought to destroy democratic socialism which it
accused of having betrayed the working class through reform policies and
parliamentary accommodation
o Decision whether to accept these conditions split every major European socialist
party-separate communist and social democratic parties emerged in many areas
o Communist parties modeled themselves after the Soviet party and Moscow dicated
their policies while social democratic parties attempted to pursue both social reform
and liberal parliamentary politics
o Throughout the 1920s and early 1930s communists and social democrats fought each
other more intensely that they fought either cap or conservative political parties
o Policies of the Comintern directly affected the rise of the fascists and the Nazis in
western Europe
o Fears of Soviet political rhetoric and Communist Party activity aroused in Europe
were manipulated by conservative and right-wing political groups
o Right-wing politicians always could target separate communist parties of seeking to
overthrow the gov’t
o Right-wing politicians also accused the democratic socialist parties of supporting
policies that might facilitate a communist takeover
o The division of the European political left also meant that right-wing political
movements rarely had to confront a united left
E. Women and the Family in the Early Soviet Union
o Communist views toward women and the family assumed the traditional family
embodied middle class capitalist values and were at odds w/ what was socially good
and with the liberty of the proletariat
o In the Russian Revolution, this outlook led to utopian projections of what the life of
women and the family would resemble under socialism
o Alexandra Kollontai-most famous such utopian writer who wrote Communism and
the Family-envisioning a new kind of family that would liberate both men and
women, her views included both the expansion of sexual freedom and the radical
sharing of tasks about the home b/t wives and husbands
o Alexandra wanted to replace what she regarded as egoistic, exploitative family
relationships with families based on love and comradeship
o Few ppl in the SU agreed w/ her but her views became well known as were often
assumed to reflect those of a side spectrum of the SU
o At the time when the SU was isolated, ppl on the outside could imagine that
Kollontai’s vision were the reality of the bold new life being forged their
o Family legislation from Reform to Repression-soon after achieving power, the
Bolsheviks began to issue laws pertaining to women making divorce much easier,
marriage no longer a religious ceremony, and legitimate and illegitimate children
were given the same rights
o
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Various protections were extended to women in the workplace and w/I marriage
Abortion was legalized
o Impact: all of these measures were enacted to create a socialist society-women
obtained high positions in the CP and more women voted, but women had no
significant impact on the Soviet government
o Dislocations flowing from the civil war, confiscation of property, shifting economic
policies and the general reordering of social society in the 1920s seriously disrupted
Soviet family life: domestic violence appears to have been more common, birthrate
fell while the 3 of abortions nad abandoned children rose, more divorces, and a
housing shortage made it difficult for divorced couples to live separately
o Educational opportunities for women were readily available yet women who worked
were still expected to do housework and there was no sig structure of child care
o Throughout the history of the SU, the culture of economic shortage of consumer
goods affected women more than any other group
III. The Fascist Experiment in Italy
o Italy witnessed the 1st authoritarian political experiment in western Europe that arose in
part from fears of the spread of Bolshevism
o From the Italian fascist movement of Benito Mussolini came the general terms fascist
and fascism-frequently used to describe a number of right-wing dictatorships that arose
across Europe b/t the wars
o Both historians and political scientists disagree about the exact meaning of the term
fascism as a political term-most scholars agree that government regimes regarded as
fascist were anti-democratic, anti-Marxist, antiparliamentary, and frequently anti-Semitic
o These governments claimed to hold back the spread of Bolshevism which seemed at the
time a real threat
o They sought to make the world safe for the middle class, small businesses, owners of
moderate amounts of property, and small farmers
o Fascist regimes rejected the political inheritance of the Fr. Rev and of 19th century
liberalism
o Fascist movements were nationalistic in response to the feared int’l expansion of
communism
o Fascists believed that normal parliamentary politics and parties sacrificed national honor
and greatness to petty disputes-wanted to overcome the class conflict of Marxism and the
party conflict of liberalism by consolidating the various groups and classes w/I the nation
for great national purposes
o As Mussolini declared, “The fascist conception of the state is all-embracing, and outside
of the state no human or spiritual values can exist, let alone be desirable.”
o Fascist governments were usually single-party dictatorships characterized by terrorism
and police surveillance
o In contrast to the CP of the SU, their base was mass politics
A. The Rise of Mussolini
o
Italian Fasci di Combattimento or “Bands of Combat” was founded in 1919 in
Milan-members came from Italian war veterans who felt the Paris conference had cheated
Italy out of the fruits of victory and especially resented Italy’s failure to gain Fiume on
the NE coast of the Adriatic Sea
o
Their leader, Mussolini became active in Italian socialist politics and by 1912 he
had become editor of the socialist newspaper Avanti (meaning forward)
o
In 1914, Mussolini broke w/ the socialists and supported Italian entry into the
war on the side of the Allies, but his interventionist position lost him the editor job
o
o
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o
Nationalist replaced socialism as his ideology for a national rev that would
transform what he and many others regarded as a weak liberal state
o
He soon established his own paper, Il Popolo d’Italia (The People of Italy)
o
Mussolini was a great opportunist politician who’s one real goal was political
survival
o
Postwar Italian Political Turmoi-postwar Italian politics was a muddle-Itlian
Parliament had ceased to function and it allowed ministers to rule by decree, many
Italians were dissatisfied with the parliamentary system and Italian nationalists felt Italy
had not been treated as a great power at the peace conference
o
Main spokesperson for this discontent was the extreme nationalist writer
Gabriele D’Annunzio- in 1919, he seized Fiume w/ a force of patriotic Italians,
eventually drive out but had shown how a nongovernmental use of military force could
be put to political use
o
Italy also experienced considerable internal social turmoil-many industrial strikes
occurred and workers occupied factories, peasants seized uncultivated land from large
estates, the Parliamentary and constitutional gov. seemed incapable of dealing w/ this
unrest and the Socialist Party had captured a plurality of seats in the Chamber of
Deputies in the 1919 election
o
Sharp division b/t socialists and communists had noy yet emerged and the
Socialist Party included many people who were soon to become communists
o
A new Catholic Popular Party had also done well in the election-both appealed to
the working and agrarian classes but neither party would cooperate w/ the other and
parliamentary deadlock resulted
o
Under these conditions, many Italians believed the social upheaval and political
paralysis would lead to a communist revolution
o
Early Fascist Organization-Mussolini was uncertain of the direction of the
political winds-at 1st supported strikes/factory occupation, but then supported the upperclass and middle-class who feared the loss of property
o
Mussolini came to see any social group pursuing its own goals over those of the
nation as undermining great national purposes
o
Mussolini and followers took direct action-formed local squads of terrorists who
disrupted Socialist Party meetings, beat up socialists leaders, and intimidated socialist
supporters., attacking strikers and farm workers and protected strikebreakers
o
Conservative land/factory owners were grateful-officers and institutions of the
law simply ignored the crimes of the fascist squads
o
Fascists had turned to intimidation against local officials-they controlled the local
gov. in much of northern Italy
o
March on Rome-In election of 1921, Italian voters sent Mussolini and 34 of his
followers to the Chamber of Deputies-importance grew as local fascists gained more
direct power, movement had 100s of 1000s of supporters and in October 1922 the fascists
dressed in their characteristic black shirts began a rather haphazard march on Rome
which became known as the Black Shirt march
o
King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign a decree that would’ve authorized
the army to stop the marchers-Probably no other single decision so ensured a fascist
seizure of power, cabinet resigned in protest
o
On October 29, the monarch telegraphed Mussolini and asked him to become
prime minister-Mussolini had made allies w//I the political system during the months
preceding the march and Mussolini had no near majority in the Chamber of Deputies
o
Non-fascists did not comprehend he was not a traditional politicians
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B. The Fascists in Power
o Mussolini had not expected to be appointed PM, moved cautiously to shore up his
support and consolidate his power
o His success was the result of the impotence of his rivals, his own effective use of his
office, his power over the masses, and his sheer ruthlessness
o On Nov. 23, 1922-the king and P granted Mussolini dictatorial authority for one year
to bring order to local and regional gov., Mussolini apptd many fascists to office
o Repression of Opposition-late in 1924, P. changed the election law: previously
parties had been represented in the Chamber of Deputies in proportion to the popular
vote cast for them, but according to the new election law, the party that gained the
largest popular vote received 2/3 of the seats in the chamber
o Coalition gov. with all its compromises and hesitant policies would no longer be
necessary-in the election of 1924 the fascists won a great vvictory and complete
control of the Chamber of Deputies-used majority to end legitimate P. life
o A series of laws passed permitted Mussolini to rule by decree and all other political
parties were dissolved
o At the close of 1926, Mussolini had transformed Italy into a single-party dictatorial
state
o Fascists dominance over the gov. hadn’t diverted the fascists from the course of
violence and terror, were put in charge fo the police force and the terrorist squads
became a government militia
o In late 1924, their thugs murdered Giacomo Matteotti-a leading noncommunist
socialist leader and member of P. who ahd persistently criticized Mussolini and
exposed the criminality of the fascist movement
o In protest of the murder, most opposition deputies withdrew from the Chamber of
Deputies giving Mussolini an even freer hand
o A cult of personality surrounded Mussolini due to fascist party propaganda-skills in
oratory and his general intelligence allowed him to hold his own w/ both large
crowds and prominent individuals
o Accord wit the Vatican-Mussolini made one important domestic departure that
brought him significant political dividends-Through the Lateran Accord of
February 1929, the RCC and the Italian state made peace w/ each other
o Ever since the armies of Italian unification had seized papal lands, the church had
been hostile to the state
o The agreement of 1929 recognized the pope as the temporal ruler of Vatican CityItalian gov. agreed to pay an indemnity to the papacy for the territory it had
confiscated, the state also recognized Catholicism as the religion of the nation,
exempted church property from taxes and allowed church law to govern marriage
o Impact: Lateran Accord brought futher respectability to Mussolini’s regime
C. Motherhood for the Nation in Fascist Italy
o Fascist policy encouraged Italian women to have more children and to remain in the
home to rear them for the good of the Italian state
o Gov’t instituted policies such as maternity leaves, insurance, subsidies to large
families, and the dissemination of info about sound child-rearing practices
o Other legislation outlawing contraception and abortion and discouraging the
publication of info about sexuality and reproduction made it more difficult for
women to limit the size of their families
o Italian mothers were expected to see their children attended fascist school programs
o Gov’t agencies made women dependent on the gov’t
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o Still, 25% of the Italian work force was women
o Fascist gov. nonetheless actively discouraged female participation in the work force
IV. Joyless Victors
• Compared w/ events in Russia/Italy, postwar political development of Fr. and GB was
tame-no rev or shift to authoritarianism, Fr. and GB were troubled democracies
A. France: The Search for Security
• France elected an conservative chamber of deputies just as they had done after most
major wars-“Blue Horizon Chamber” due to abundance of military officers in blue
uniforms-defeated Clemenceau’s bid for presidency in 1920 election criticizing his failed
negotiations of the Paris treaties and leniencies
o Wanted to additional security from Germany and Russia
o Little social reform
o Marked with frequent changes of ministries
• New Alliances
o Frances plan was to enforce the clauses of the treaty against Germany, and to
build another system of alliance
o France allied with the Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia)
and Poland
 Much weaker though-not unified and had separate goals (main target was
Hungary not Germany)
o Excluded powers, Germany and Soviet Union, signed a treaty of their own at
Rapallo- diplomatic and economic relations with military transfers and training
 Confirmed Fr. belief that Germany would not live up to the terms of the
peace
• Quest for Reparations
o 1923 Poincare decided to teach Germany a lesson for defaulting on their
payment of reparations
 Sent troops to occupy the Ruhr-most industrialized region of Germany
 German government called a general strike, so Poincare sent French
civilians to run the mains
o France alienated the British, caused inflation to both countries-hurt ECON
 1924 the conservative ministry gave way to the leftists called Cartel des
Gauches led by Edouard Herriot, who recognized the Soviet Union
and adopted a more conciliatory polity to germany
 Policy was work of Aristide Briand, foreign minister for the rest of the
decade who championed the League of Nations and tried limit Fr. idea
of unlimited influence in foreign affairs of Europe
 Under the leftist coalition, mild inflation occurred-when value of the
franc fell sharply in 1926, Poincare returned to office
 For the rest of the 1920s, the cons. Remained in power and Fr. enjoyed a
general prosperity that lasted until 1931
C. Great Britain: Economic Confusion
o WWI profoundly changed British politics-P. expanded electorate to include all men
aged 21 and women aged 30, prewar structure of parties and leadership shifted
o A coalition cabinet of Liberal, Conservative, and Labour ministers had directed the
war effort, the wartime participation of the Labour Party helped dispel its radical
image, but the Liberal Party was further divided
o Until 1916, Liberal PM Herbert Asquith had presided over the cabinet
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o As disagreements over war management developed, he was ousted by fellow liberal
David Lloyd George-party split sharply b/t followers of the 2 men
In 1918, against the wishes of both Labour Party and the Asquith Liebrals, Lloyd
George decided to maintain the coalition through the tasks of the peace conference
and the domestic reconstruction
o The wartime coalition, now minus its Labour members, won a stunning victory in
1918 and David Lloyd George could remain PM only as long as his dominant
Conservatives wished to keep him
o For the 3 years following the war the British economy was depressed throughout the
1920s, unemployment never dipped below 10%
o First Labour Government
o In 1922, the Conservatives replaced Lloyd George with Andrew Bonar Law
followed by Stanley Baldwin , one of their own and a Libearl would never again be
PM
o Baldwin abandoned free trade and imposed protective tariffs to cure GB’s econ
o Voters rejected that policy and in the next election, King George V asked Ramsay
MacDonald to form the 1st Labour ministry in British history-the Liberal Party did
not serve in the cabinet, but provided the necessary votes to give Laboru a working
majority in the House of Commons
o Labour Party was socialistic in its platform but democratic and distinctly
nonrevolutionary
o Had expanded beyond its early trade union base
o MacDonals pushed for extensive social reform and understood the most important
task facing his gov. was proving to the nation that the Lp was both respectable and
responsible
o His 9 months in office accomplished this goal if little else of major importance
o Establishment of LP as viable signaled the permanent demise of the Liberal Party
o General Strike of 1926
o LP fell over charges of inadequate prosecution of a communist writer and Baldwin
returned to office
o Stagnant ECON was #1 issue-biz/pol leaders believed all would be well if they oculd
restore the prewar conditions of trade-major element was the gold standard as basis
for int’l trade
o
 1925 Conservatives returned to the gold standard, set the conversion
rate too high, so raised the price of goods
o They then tried to cut wages to be able to compete
 Coal industry most effected as they were already paid little
 Coal miners went on strike in 1926 and sympathetic workers
engaged in a general strike
 The strikers lost due to the high unemployment, but the Baldwin
government tried to reconcile through housing reforms
o All in all, the standard of living improved
o Empire
o WWI modified Britain’s imperial position-aid given by the dominions like Canada
and Australia demonstrated a new independence on their part
o Idea of self-determination as applied to Europe filtered into imperial relations
o In India, the Congress Party led by Mohandas Ghanidi was beginning to attract
widespread support
o
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Gov. of India achieved right to impose tariffs to protect its own industry and British
manufacturers and textile producers no longer had totally free access to the vast
Indian market
o Ireland
o Implementation of Irish home rule bill was postponed until after WWI
o As war drageed on, Irish nationalists could wait no longer and on Easter
Monday April 1916 a nationalist uprising in Dublin occurred
 Suppressed it, but executed the leaders (BIG MISTAKE), who then
became martyrs
 Leadership of nationalist cause quickly shifted from the Irish Party in
P. to the extremist Sinn Fein or “Ourselves Alone) movement
 Refused to go to Parliament and made their own parliament-Dail
Eireann or Irish Parliament, and declared Irish independence
o Guerrilla war broke between IRA-Irish Republican Army which was the
military wing of Sinn Fein, and British army
o 1921 began secret negotiation, and Irish Free State was formed as Ireland
took its place besides the earlier dominions in the British Commonwealth
alongside states like Canada and Australia, while Northern Ireland could
remain in Britain, but there was still an oath to the British monarchy
 Civil war broke out between moderate Irish who supported the
negotiation and the diehards who wanted to abolish the oath to the
British monarchy and establish a totally independent republic
 De Valera who supported the diehards resigned the presidency and
org. resistance to the treaty and in 1932 was again elected president
 The next year, the Dail Eireann (Irish Parliament) abolished the
oath of allegiance to the monarch
V. Trails of the Successor States in Eastern Europe
• Liberals sympathetic to nationalism thought only good could flow from the demise of
Austria-Hungary, the restoration of Poland, and the establishment of nation-states
throughout eastern Europe
• New states were to embody the principle of self-d and to provide a buffer against the
westward spread of Bolshevism
• Major question was whether new parliamentary governments in Poland, Austria,
Czechoslovakia and the other successor states could function in a stable and satisfactory
manner cooperating w/ conservative political groups/institutions
A. Economic and Ethnic Pressures
o All new states faced immense postwar economic difficulties-depression hit hard
o Political independence disrupted previous economic relationships that each of
them had developed as part of one of the prewar empires
o None of the new states was financially independent except Czech, all of them
dependent on foreign loans to finance economic development
o Nationalism prevented states from trading w/ each other and they became highly
dependent on trade w/ Germany
o Collapse of the 3 empires allowed various ethnic groups to pursue nationalistic
goals unchecked by any great central authority-these major sociopolitical groups
were unwilling to make compromises unless they got their nationalist identity
and independence
o These interwar economic difficulties and nationalistic pressures are
important because many of them remerged in the region in the 1990s-breako
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B.
C.
D.
E.
up of Yugaslavia and Czech and efforts at political reorganization in the rest of
the areas dominated by the Soviet Union
Poland: Democracy to Military Rule
o Nation whose postwar fortunes most disappointed liberal Europeans
o Independent Poland had been one of WW’s 14 Points
o New Poland had been constructed from portions governed by Germany, Russia, and
Austria
o Nationalism proved an insufficient bond to overcome political disagreements
stemming from class differences, diverse economic interests, and regionalism
o A host of political parties weakened the new Polish Parliament and the executive was
weak
o Marshal Josef Pilsudskki carried out a military coup in 1926 and he ruled in effect
until his death when the gov. passed into the hands of a group of his followers
Czechoslovakia: A Viable Democratic Experiment
o Only one central European successor state escaped the fate of self-imposed
authoritarian government
o Czech possessed a strong industrial base, a substantial middle class, and a tradition of
liberal values
o Czechs and Slovaks ahd coop to aid the Allies during the war and learned to work
together and trust each other
o In Thomas Masaryk the nation possessed a gifted leader of immense integrity and
fairness with a chance of becoming a viable modern nation-state
o There were some tensions b/t Czechs and Slovaks who were poorer and more rural
o Czech encountered discontent among its other non-Czech national groups
o Parliamentary regime could’ve worked through these problems, but extreme German
nationalists in the Sudetenland looked to Hitler for help and in 1938 at Munich, the
great powers 1st divided liberal Czech to appease Hitler’s aggressive instincts and
then watched passively as he occupied much of the country splitting it off
Hungary: Turmoil and Authoritarianism
o Defeated power of WWI, achieved its long-separated from Austria high price
o During 1919, Bela Kun a communist, established a short-lived Hungarian Soviet
Republic
o Allies authorized an invasion by Romanian troops to remove the communist danger
o Hungarian landowners established Admiral Miklos Horthy as a regent
o After collapse fo Kun gov., thousands of Hungarians were either executed or
imprisoned
o Deep resentment in Hungary over territory it lost in Paris settlement and the largely
agrarian Hungarian economy suffered from a general stagnation
o The effective ruler of Hungary of 1920 was Count Stephen Behlen-presided over a
gov. that was parliamentary but aristocratic in character
o General Julius Gombos succeeded him and pursued anti-Semitic policies and rigged
elections-anti-Semitism lingered in Hungarian politics
Austria: Political Turmoil and Nazi Conquest
o ¼ of Austrians lived in Vienna-viable economic life was almost impossible and the
Paris settlement forbade union w/ Germany
o T/o the 1920s, the leftist Social Democrats and the conservative Christian Socialists
contended for power
o Both groups employed small armies to terrorize opponents and impress followers
o Christian Socialist Engelbert Dollfuss became Chancellor in 1933
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he tried to steer a course b/t the Austrian Social Democrats and the German Nazis
who had surfaced in Austria
o In 1934 he outlawed all political parties except the Christian Socialists, the agrarians,
and the paramilitary groups
o He used troops against the SDs but was shot later that year during an unsuccessful
nazi coup and his successor presided over Austrian until Hitler annexed it in 1938
F. Southeastern Europe: Royal Dictatorships
o The Paris settlement was less of an issue, but Parliamentary governments had
problems
o In Yougoslavia Serbs, Slovenes and Croats fought over power
o Each groups predominated in certain areas of the country
i. Violent clash of nationalities led to a royal dictatorship in 1929 under
King Alexander I
ii. Established an authoritarian government, as other places in the Balkans
o Other royal dictatorships were imposed in the Balkans: in Romania and Bulgaria
where King Carol II and King Boris III regarded their own illiberal regimes as
preventing the seizure of power by more extreme antiparliamentary movements nad
as quieting the nationalistic discontent
o In Greece, General John Metaxas instituted a dictatorship that ended parliamentary
life
VI. The Weimar Republic In Germany
o The German Weimar Republic was born amid the defeat of the imperial army, the rev of
1918 against the Hohenzollersn, and the hopes of German Liberals and Social Democrats
o Named after the city of Weimar in which its constitution was written and promulgated in
August 1919
o While the constitution was being debated, the republic headed by the Social Democrats
accepted the Versailles treaty, the part of the Paris settlement htat applied only to
Germany-republic was permanently associated w/ national disgrace and economic
burdens of the treaty
o It became easy for German nationalists and military figures to blame the young republic
and the socialists for the military defeat and its grievous sociopolitical results
o All groups shared the desire to revise the treaty and there were different degrees of
loyalty among Germans to the political arrangements of the Weimar constitution
A. Constitutional Flaws
o
Weimar constitution was a highly enlightened document guaranteeing civil
liberties and providing for direct election by universal suffrage of the Reichstag and the
president
o
It contained crucial structural flaws that allowed its liberal institutions to be
overthrown: provided for proportional representation for all elections making it easy for
small parties to gain seats in the Reichstag, and chancellor could appoint and remove the
president, most importantly Article 48 allowed the prez to rule by degree in an
emergency permitting a temporary presidential dictatorship
B. Lack of Broad Popular Support
o Weimar Republic did not command loyalty of Germans as no social revolution had
accompanied the new political structure and many important political figures favored
a constitutional monarchy
o Distrust of the Social Democratic Party, officer corps suspicious of gov. and resentful
of the military provisions of the peace settlement
o
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Leaders of military perpetuated myth that the German army had surrendered only b/c
it had been stabbed in the back by civilians at home-wanted revisions of treaty
o Humiliations and economic instability hurt the new government
o In March 1920, the right wing Kapp Putsch, or “armed insurrection” erupted in
Berlin, the attempted coup failed only after the gov. had fled the city and German
workers had carried out a general strike
o Gov. sent in troops to restore order
C. Invasion of the Ruhr and Inflation
o Inflation brought on the major crisis of the period-borrowing to finance the wrar and
the continued postwar deficit spending generated an immense rise in prices
o Value of German currency fell-bankers needed reparations issue to be solved
o Fr. invasion of the Ruhr and the German response of economic passive resistance
produced cataclysmic inflation
o Weimar gov. subsidized the Ruhr labor force and unemployment soon spread
throughout the country
o Money was not worth the paper it was printed on
o Social and economic consequences of the Great Inflation of 1923 were disastrous
for many Germans-savings, insurance policies, and gov. bonds wiped out
o On the other hand, debts and mortgages could easily be paid off, farmers did well
o Overall, to the middle class the inflation was another trauma and the social and
economic upheaval can explain the German desire for order and security at almost
any cost
D. Hitler’s Early Career
o Hitler’s early political experience involved becoming acquainted w/ Mayor Karl
Lueger’s Christian Social Party in Vienna which prospered on an anti-Semitic
ideology
o Hitler absorbed much of the rabid German nationalism, racism, and extreme antiSemitism that flourished in Vienna
o Hated Marxism b/c he associated it w/ Jews
o During WWI, Hitler fought in the German army and awarded the Iron Cross for
bravery giving him his 1st sense of purpose
o Hitler settled in Munich when Social Democrats briefly governed the city and
became associated w/ a small nationalistic, anti-Semitic political party which in 1920
adopted the name of National Socialist German Worker’s Party better known as
the Nazis
o Group paraded under a red-and-white banner w/ a black swastika
o Issued a platform or program known as the Twenty five Points which called for the
repudiation of the Versailles treaty, unification of Austria and Germany, exclusion of
Jews from German citizenship
o Originally, Nazis called for broad program of nationalization of industry in an
attempt to compete directly w/ the Marxist political parties for the vote of the
workers, but when this failed the Nazis redefined the meaning of the word socialist in
their name to suggest a nationalistic outlook
o The socialism that Hitler and the Nazis had in mind was not state ownership of means
of production, but the subordination of all economic enterprise to the welfare of the
nation implying protection for small economic enterprises
o This definition appealed to virtually any economic group that was experiencing
pressure and instability tailoring their messages to the economically displaced
o
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o After the 25 points, the storm troopers, or SA were org. under the leadership of
Captain Ernst Roehm-SA was a paramilitary org. that initially provided tis
members w/ food and uniforms and eventually paid them (infamous brown-shirted
uniform) and became the chief Nazi instrument for terror and intimidation before the
party controlled the government
o Attacked socialists and communists, means of preserving military discipline and
values outside the small army permitted by the Paris settlement
o Social Democrat and Communist parties also org. paramilitary org. but couldn’t rival
Nazis-paramilitary forces greatly weakened the Weimar Republic
o Socioeconomic turmoil following the Fr. occupation of the Ruhr and inflation
provided the Nazi Party w/ an opportunity for direct action against the WR-Hitler
personally dominated the NP due to oratorical skills and org. abilities
o On Nov. 1923 Hitler and a band of his followers accompanied by General
Ludendorff attempted a putsch from a beer hall in Munich that was unsuccessful
o Hitler and ludendorff were arrested and tried for treason, Hitler used trial to make
himself a national figure
o During his time in prison, Hitler dictated Mein Kampf, or My Struggle from which
he outlined key political views including fierce racial anti-Semitism, a powerful
opposition to Bolshevism, and a conviction that Germany must expand eastward
beyond the borders established at Versailles
o Hitler transferred the foreign policy goals and racial outlooks previously associated
w/ German overseas imperialism to the politicsl of Central and Eastern Europe
o During imprisonment Hitler saw himself as the leader who could transform Germany
and decided that he and the party must pursue power by legal means
E. The Stresemann Years
o Officials of the WR trying to repair the damage from the inflation
o Gustav Stresemann was responsible for the reconstruction of the WR and for giving
it a sense of self-confidence
o As chancellor, Stresemann abandoned the policy of passive resistance in the Ruhr
and with the aid of banker Hjalmar Schacht he introduced a new German currency
o Rate of exchange was 1 trillion German marks for one new Rentenmark
o Stresemann moved against challenges from the left and the right-supported crushing
of both Hitler’s abortive putsch and smaller communist disturbances
o In 1924, the WR and the Allies agreed to a new system of reparation payments: the
Dawes Plan submitted by the American banker Charles Dawes lowered the annual
payments and allowed them to vary accord. to German econ
o Friedrich Ebert, the Social Democratic prez died and the Field Marshal Paul von
Hindenburg, a military her o and conservative monarchist was elected as his
successor
o Showed that conservative Germans had become reconciled to the republic
o New political and economic stability and employment rose
o In foreign affairs, Stresemanm became foreign minister and fulfilled the provisions of
the Paris settlement while trying to revise it by diplomacy aiming to recover Germanspeaking territories in Poland and Czech, unite w/ Austria
F. Locarno
o Developments gave rise to the Locarno Agreements of October 1925
o Spirit of conciliation led foreign secretary Austen Chamberlain for Britain and
Aristide Briand for Fr. to aaccept Stresemann’s proposal for a fresh start
o Fr. and Germany both accepted the western frontier established at Paris as legitimate
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Britain and Italy agree to intervene against whichever side violated the frontier or if
Germany sent troops into the demilitarized Rhineland
Significantly, no such agreement was reached about Germany’s eastern frontier
Locarno pleased everyone, Germany was satisfied to achieve respectability and a
guarantee against another Ruhr occupation
Brought new spirit of hope to Europe, Germany’s entry into the League of Nations
was greeted with enthusiasm
Dawes and Chamberlain received the nobel peace prize and Briand and Stresemann
were awarded it in the following year
Spirit of Locarno carried even further when the leading European states, Japan and
the U.S> signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact- renouncing war as an instrument of
national policy
Joy and optimism were not justified, GB unwilling to uphold the Paris settlement in
the east, Fr. had merely recognized it couldn’t coerce Germany w/o help, German unreconciled to eastern settlement and continued connections w/ the SU, conciliatory
politicians represented only a part of the nation
In Germany, most ppl rejected Versailles and regarded Locarno as only an extension
of it
Continued prosperity and diplomatic success might have won the loyalty of the
German ppl to the WR and moderate revisionism, but the Great Depression of the
1930s brought new forces into play
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I. Toward the Great Depression
o 3 factors combined to bring about the severity and length of the Great Depression
o 1st-financial crisis that stemmed directly from the war and peace settlement
o 2nd-crisis arose in production and distribution of goods in the world market
o 3rd-difficulties became worse b/c neither of the European nations nor the U.S. offered
strong economic leadership or acted responsibly
A. Financial Tailspin
o Most European nations emerged from WWI w/ inflated currencies
o After the peace, demand for consumer goods drove up prices
o Frightening German example of uncontrolled inflation and financial disaster of 1923
explained the later refusal of governments to run budget deficits when the depression
struck
o Feared inflation as a source of social instability and political turmoil
1.
Reparations and War Debts
o Reparations and war-debt settlement complicated the picture
o Fr. and U.S> were determined to receive reparations and to finance its postwar
recovery through them
o Most of the money that the Allies collected went to the U.S.
o Reparations and war debt made economic life difficult and expensive for
European nations
o Governments exercised various controls over credit, trade and currency to try and
meet the costs of reparation payments causing high tariff policies
2.
American Investments
o In 1924, the Dawes Plan reorg. The transfer of reparations and smoothed the
debt repayments to the U.S.
o Thereafter, private American capital flowed into Europe-especially Germany
through short-term loans providing the basis for Europe’s brief prosperity after
1925
o In 1928, the lending contracted as American money was withdrawn from
European investments into the booming New York stock market and in the Wall
Street crash of October 1929, the result of virtually unregulated financial
speculation-huge amounts of money were lost
o Many banks failed and little American capitol was available for investment in
Europe and loans already made were not renewed
3.
The End of Reparations
o When credit began to run out, a major financial crisis struck the Continent
o In May 1931, Kreditanstalt, a major bank in Vienna, collapsed-primary lending
institution for much of central and eastern Europe
o German banking system under extreme pressure and it would be unable to make
its next reparation payment as stipulated in the 1929 Young Plan
o In 1931, Herbert Hoover announced a one-year moratorium on all payments of
int’l debts-prelude to end of reparations
o Impact: sharp blow to Fr. econ for which flow of reparations had continued to
be important, Fr. had little alternative to agree to end of reparations, b/c the
German economy had all but collapsed
o Lausanne Conference in 1932 ended the era of reparations and the debts owed
to the U.S. were settled through small token payments/default
B. Problems in Agricultural Commodities
o Equally fundamental downturn occurred in production and trade
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in 1920s, market demand for European goods shrunk relative to the Continent’s
capacity to produce goods
o Difficulty arose from agriculture: better methods of farming, improved strains of
wheat, expanded tillage, and more extensive transport facilities all over the globe
vastly increased the world supply of grain: world wheat prices fell to record lows
o While dev was good for consumers, collapse in grain prices meant lower incomes
for farmers
o Higher industrial wages raised cost of industrial goods for farmers
o Farmers had difficulty w/ mortgages and debts after commodity prices lowered
o Eastern Europe had most pressing farm problems: new gov’ts had
undertaken land-reform programs for considerable redistribution of tillable soil
and small farms, but they proved to be inefficient as protective tariffs prevented
export of grain among European countries
o The squeeze on EE farmers and on their counterparts in Germany played a
major role in their disillusionment w/ liberal politics: farmers in Germany
were a major source of political support for Nazis
o As world credit collapsed, economic position of commodity producers worsened
as commodity production ahd outstripped world demand
o Impact of collapse in agricultural prices and financial turmoil: resulted in
stagnation and depression for European industry: industry depended on int’l
markets as demand and prices were down
C. Depression and Government Policy
o GD didn’t mean absolute ECON decline: ppl w/ work well outnumbered w/o
o New economic sectors did develop, but econ downturn made ppl anxious
o Depression frustrated socioeconomic expectations and created a major source of
social discontent
o Before Keynes and his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money which
had government’s spending the economy out of a depression, the orthodox econ
policy called for cuts in gov. spending to prevent inflation allowing the market
mechanism to bring the econ back to prosperity
o Severity of GD led gov. to interfere w/ economy as never before: private economic
enterprise became subject to new regulations and the state set economic priorities
II. Confronting the Great Depression in the Democracies
o GD ended calm political life of GB and Fr. during the 1920s
o In GB, the emergency led to a new coalition gov. and abandonment of old econ policies
o In Fr., the left sponsored a bold political and economic program
o While the relative success of the GB venture gave the nation new confidence in
democratic processes, the new departures in Fr. created social and political hostilities that
undermined faith in republican institutions
A. Great Britain: The National Government
o In 1929, 2nd minority Labour gov. headed by Ramsay Macdonald took office
o As unemployment rose, ministry was divided over what to do
o MacD wanted to slash budget, reduce gov. salaries and cut unemployment
benefits
o This was a bleak program for the Labour as MacD’s strong desire to make the LP
respectable led him to reject more radical programs
o Many cabinet ministers opposed MacD’s proposals, PM requested resignations of
his entire cabinet and arranged for a meeting w/ King George V
o
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o MacD formed a coalition ministry called the National Government-composed
of Labour, Conservative, and Liberal ministers
NG received comfortable majority in election of 1931, but MacD became a tool
of the Conservatives as they held majority in the house of Commons,
conservatives used appearance of a coalition to impose unpleasant programs
o NG took 3 decisive steps to attack the GD: 1st-raised taxes, cut insurance
benefits, and lowered government salaries; 2nd-britain went off the gold standard
and value of the pound fell about 30% stimulating exports; 3rd-P. passed the
Import Duties Bill which placed a 10% ad valorem tariff on all imports except
those from the empire
o These steps abandoned Gold and free trade, the hallmarks of almost a
century of British commercial policy
o NG policies produced results: GB avoided the banking crisis, industrial
production expanded, private housing boom from lower interest rates
o GB entered the GD w/ a stagnant econ and left w/ a stagnant econ
o GB’s political system was not fundamentally challenged-NG seemed to pursue a
policy that avoided the extreme wings of both the Labour and Conservative
parties
o MacD retired, Baldwin again took office, and Neville Chamberlain succeeded
him, known today for disastrous Munich agreement, but was progressive
o Sir Oswald Mosley founded the British Union of Fascists-urged program of
direct action through a new corporate structure for the economy, the group wore
black shirts and attempted to hold mass meetings and after his anti-Semitism
began to alienate supporters, he was a political oddity
B. France: The Popular Front
o Unfolding of GD in Fr. was the reverse of that in GB: came later and lasted longer
o Only in 1931, did the econ slide affect the Fr. economy: but unemployment did not
become a major problem as rarely were more than ½ a million Fr. workers w/o jobs
o Fr. protected the home market through raising tariffs, but couldn’t stop industrial
stagnation
o 1st political fallout of the GD was the election of another Radical coalition gov.
o Radicals pursued a general deflationary policy, but the same year the new ministry
took office reparation payments that Fr. depended on stopped
Right Wing Violence
o Various right-wing groups w/ authoritarian tendencies became active
o Leagues included the Action Francaise founded before WWi in the wake of the
Dreyfus affair and the Croix de Feu “Cross of Fire” composed of army vets
o Some groups wanted a monarchy while others favored what would have
amounted to military rule and were hostile to parliamentary gov., socialism, and
communism
o Resembled Nazis and fascists in aggressive nationalism
o Right-wing weakened loyalty to republican gov. made Fr. political life bitter
o Stavisky affair: Serge Stavisky was a small-time gov. who had good
connections w/I the gov. and became involved in a fraudulent bond scheme,
when tracked down he committed suicide, but the official handling of the matter
suggested a political cover-up by administration
o Right-wing used Stavisky incident to symbolize all the immorality and
corruption of republican politics
o
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o On 2/6/1934, a large demonstration of the right-wing leagues took place in pariscrowd tried to storm the Chamber of Deputies and violence erupted b/t right and
left political groups and the police
o After this clash, the Radical ministry of Edouard Daladier was replaced by a
gov. composed of all living former premiers-CofD permitted the ministry to deal
w/ economic matters by decree
o Major result of the right-wing demonstration was tat the parties of the left began
to realize that a right-wing coup might be possible in France
Socialist-Communist Cooperation
o Fr. left began to make peace w/I its own ranks: Fr. socialists led by Leon Blum
had been the major target of the Fr. communists since the split over joining the
Comintern in 1920
o Only Stalin’s fear of Hitler as a danger to the SU made this new coop possible
o Despite deep suspicions, the Popular Front, a coalition of all left-wing parties
had been established by 1935 w/ a purpose of preserving the republic and social
reform
o Election of 1936 gave PF a majority in the CofD, socialists were the largest
single party for the 1st time in Fr. history
o Leon Blum became premier and pursued socialism through a democratic,
parliamentary government (revisionist socialist)
Blum’s Government
o Strikes had spread throughout Fr. industry prior to the PF taking power and the
Blum gov. faced spontaneous work stoppages involving over ½ a million
workers which constituted the most extensive labor disturbances in the history of
the Third Republic
o Strikes aroused new fears in the conservative biz community
o Blum announced a new accord that reorg. Labor-management relations in Fr. as
wages were immediately raised b/t 7 and 15%
o Employers required to recognize unions and collectively bargain w/ them
o Workers were given annual paid 2-week vacations and the 40 hour work week
was established
o Blum followed his labor policy w/ other bold departures: raised salaries of civil
servants, gov. loans extended to small industry, some armament industries were
nationalized
o National Wheat Board was set up to manage the production and sale of grain
o Blum resisted devaluation of the franc but he decided to (came too late) for Fr.
exports
o These departures enraged the conservative banking and general biz communities
and caused Blum to halt the program of reform
o Blum resigned and PF dissolved replaced by a Radical ministry under Daladier
o By close of the 1930s citizens began to wonder whether the republic was worth
preserving
o Bizppl found republic inefficient, right wing hated the republic, left remained
divided
o When the time came in 1940 to defend the republic, too many French
citizens had lost faith in it
III. Germany: The Nazi Seizure of Power
o Most remarkable political event caused by the turmoil of the GD was the coming to
power of the Nazis in Germany, by late 1920s they were a major presence in the WR
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Financial crisis, economic stress, and social anxiety associated w/ the onset of the GD
rapidly changed the situation-fragility of the Weimar constitution stood exposed and the
path opened for the most momentous event of the decade: the Nazi seizure of power
A. Depression and Political Deadlock
o Outflow of foreign (esp. American) capital from Germany beginning in 1928
undermined the brief economic prosperity of the WR
o Resulting economic crisis brought parliamentary gov. to an end
o In 1928, a coalition of center parties and the Social Democrats governed until GD
struck
o Coalition partners disagreed on economic policy: SDs refused to reduce social and
unemployment insurance-more conservative parties remembering the inflation of
1923 insisted on a balanced budget dissolving the coalition
o To resolve parliamentary deadlock, President Von Hindenburg appointed Heinrich
Bruning as chancellor who lacked a majority in the Reichstag, so Bruning governed
through emergency presidential decrees as authorized by Article 48
o Party divisions prevented the Reichstag from overriding the decrees and the WR
became an authoritarian regime
o German unemployment almost tripled b/t 1930 and 1932-economic downturn and
parliamentary deadlock worked to adv of the more extreme political parties
o After the election of 1930, the Nazis held 107 seats and the communists 77
o Politics meant capture of power by terror and intimidation as well as by legal election
o Thousands of unemployed joined the storm troopers (SA) which had 1 million in
1933, attacked Communists and Social Democrats who also fought each other
o Nazis held mass rallies and gained powerful supporters/intellectuals
B. Hitler Comes to Power
o For 2 years Bruning gov. with the confidence of his president, Hindenburg
o Econ didn’t improve and the political situation deteriorated
o In 1932, the president stood for re-election and Hitler ran against him forcing a runoff
o Hitler got 36.85 of the pop. vote in the runoff while Hindenburg remained in office,
results of the poll convinced him that Bruning no longer commanded sufficient
confidence from conservative German voters
o Hindenburg dismissed Bruning and appt Franz von Papen as chancellor-one of a
small group of extremely conservative advisers on whom Hindenburg had become
increasingly dependent
o w/ paralysis in the Reichstag, this group’s influence amounted to control of the gov.
o Papen and the circle around the prez wanted to find some way to use the Nazis w/o
giving effective power to Hitler-gov. needed the mass popular support that only the
Nazis seemed able to generate
o Hindenburg circle removed ban on Nazi meetings, called for Reichstag election and
Nazis won 230 seats and Hitler wanted to be apptd chancellor
o Papen resigned and General Kurt von Schleicher became chancellor
o fear of civil war b/t the left and the right mounted
o Schleicher tried to build a broad coalition of conservatives and trade unionists
o This coalition including groups from the political left frightened the Hindenburg
circle even more than the prospect of Hitler
o The Hindenburg circle persuaded Hindenburg to name Hitler chancellor and to
control him the circle appointed Papen as vice chancellor and named other traditional
conservatives to the cabinet
o
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In 1933 Hitler became the chancellor of Germany and had come into office by legal
means
o He forged a rigidly disciplined party structure and mastered the art of mass politics
o Hitler’s support came from across the social spectrum: support for Hitler was strong
among farmers, war veterans, the middle class, and the young
o Hitler promised them security against communists and socialists and a nationalist
vision of a strong, restored Germany
o German big biz once received much of the blame for the rise of Hitler: there’s little
ev that biz contributions made any crucial difference to the Nazi’s
o Hitlers supporters were suspicious of biz and gian cap
o They looked to Hitler rather than the Social Democrats, b/c SDs were not sufficiently
nationalistic
o Nazis won out over other conservative nationalist parties, b/c Nazis addressed the
problem of social insecurities
C. Hitler’s Consolidation of Power
o Hitler moved w/ speed to consolidate control-3 facets: 1st-capture of full legal
authority, 2nd-crushing of alt political groups, 3rd-purging of rivals in the Nazi party
o Reichstag Fire-Reichstag building was set on fire in Berlin, Nazis claimed the fier
was part of an immediate communist threat to the gov., Hitler used this to issue an
emergency decree suspending civil liberties and proceeded to arrest communists or
alleged communists-decree was not revoked for as long as Hitler ruled
o The Enabling Act-another Reichstag election took place, Nazis still received only
43.9% of the vote and won 288 seats, arrest and removal of al communist deputies
enabled Hitler to control the Reichstag, Reichstag passed an Enabling Act that
permitted Hitler to rule by decree and there were no legal limits on his exercise of
power
o Weimar constitution was never formally repealed, it had simply been
supplanted by the February Emergency Decree and the march Enabling Act
o Hitler outlawed all other German political parties and Nazis were only legal party
o Nazis moved against individual federal states in Germany and destroyed free trade
unions
o Internal Nazi Party Purges-final element involved eth Nazi Party itself, by late
1933 the SA, or storm troopers consisted of appx 1 mill active members and a larger
# of reserves and the commander of this party army was Ernst Roehm, a possible
rival to Hitler himself
o German officer corps were jealous of the SA leadership and to protect his own
position and shore up support w/ the regular army, Hitler personally ordered the
murder of key SA officers, including Roehm himself
o Hundreds were killed including the former chancellor
o A month later, Prez Hindenburg died and Hitler combined the offices of chancellor
and president and became the sole ruler of Germany and Nazi Party
D. The Police State and Anti-Semitism
o As Hitler consolidated his power, he oversaw the org. of a police state
o SS Organization-chief vehicle of police surveillance was the SS or security units
commanded by Heinrich Himmler which became a more elite paramilitary org. than
the much larger SA
o Instrument that carried out the blood purges of the party, Himmler became the head
of all police matters in Germany and stood 2nd only to Hitler in power
o
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o Attack on Jewish Economic Life-key plank of Nazi program was anit-Semitism
based on biological racial theories and before WWII the Nazi attack on the Jews went
through 3 stages of increasing intensity
o Racial Legislation-series of measures known as the Nuremberg Laws robbed
German Jews of their citizenship-professions and the major occupations were closed
to Jews
o Marriage and sexual intercourse b/t Jews and non-Jews were prohibited
o Nazi legal definitions of who was a Jew took into acct the # of Jewish parents or
grandparents as well as whether a person practiced the Jewish faith: all persons w/ at
least 3 Jewish grandparents, all persons w/ 2 Jew grandparents were accounted
Jewish only if practicing the Jewish faith, or married to a Jew, or if born to a
marriage w./ one Jewish parent, or if born out of wedlock w/ one Jewish parent
o Kristallnacht-persecution of the Jews increased as biz careers were forbidden
o On Nov. 10 and 11, 1938 under Nazi Party orders, 1000s of Jewish stores and
synagogues were bruned and destroyed on what became known as Kristallnacht
o Jewish community was required to pay for the destruction as gov. confiscated
insurance money-persecution allowed the Nazis to inculcate the rest of the pop. w/
the concept of a master race of pure German Aryans
o The Final Solution-after war broke out, Hitler decided to destroy the Jews in Europe
and more than 6 million Jews mostly from eastern Europe died as a result of that
staggering decision
E. Racial Ideology and the Lives of Women
o Hitler and other Nazis were less interested in expanding the pop. as a whole
(Mussolini), but wanted to produce a pop. of racially pure Germans
o German women’s role was to preserve racial purity and give birth to more pure,
health Germans
o Nazi racial ideology focused on women as the carriers and bearers of both the desired
and undesired races
o Policy also disapproved of fostering motherhood among those ppl condemned by
Nazi racism-particularly Jews, but also Slavs and Gypsies (Jew women specifically
targeted for death), Nazis also discriminated b/t healthy and unhealthy/desirable and
undesirable in the German pop. itself
o Gov. sterilized undesirables and forced some pregnant women to have abortions and
killed them b/c of an alleged mental “degeneracy”
o To support motherhood among the desirables, Nazis provided loans to encourage
early marriage, tax breaks for families w/ children and child allowances
o Nazi subsidies sent to husbands to encourage married fatherhood
o Nazi ideology also increased # of working women, employment increased but in
fields that were “natural” to their character as women: social/domestic service
o Women became special protectors of German cultural values: instilled love for
nation in their children, educators of the young
F. Nazi Economic Policy
o Hitler still had to confront the GD-Nazis attacked this problem w/ a success that
astonished and frightened Europe
o By 1936, while the rest of the European econ remained stagnant, the specter of
unemployment and other difficulties associated w/ the GD no longer haunted
Germany
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o As far as ECON was concerned, Hitler had become the most effective political leader
in Europe-success was important source of internal strength and support for his
tyrannical regime
o Nazi econ experiment proved that by sacrificing all liberties, destroying a free tradeunion movement, preventing the private exercise of capital and ignoring consumer
satisfaction, full employment to prepare for war and aggression could be achieved
o Nazi economic policies supported private property and private cap, but subordinated
all significant economic enterprise to the goals of the state
o Hitler reversed deflationary policy and instituted a program of public works and
spending linked to rearmament and infrastructure
o Hitler instructed Hermann Goring who headed the air force to undertake a 40year
plan to prepare the army and economy for war
o Strikes and collective bargaining became illegal, gov. required workers to participate
in the Labor Front-an org. intended to demonstrate that class conflict had ended, the
LF sponsored a “Strength Through Joy” program that provided vacations and other
forms of recreation for the labor force
IV. Italy: Fascist Economics
o Fascists promised to stabilize Italian socioeconomic life
o Discipline was a substitute for economic policy and creativity
o During the 1920s, Mussolini undertook vast public works, gov. subsidized shipping
industry/introduced protective tariffs
o Mussolini sought to make Italy self-sufficient, embarking on the “Battle of Wheat”-to
prevent foreign grain from appearing in products on Italian tables
o Policies didn’t keep GD from affecting Italy: production/exports/wages fell
o Even increased wheat production backfired-so much poor marginal land that was
expensive to cultivate came into production that the domestic price of wheat and other
foods actually rose
A. Syndicates
o Fascists sought to steer an economic course b/t socialism and a liberal laissez-faire
system-corporatism-policy that created a planned economy linked to the private
ownership of capital and to gov. arbitration of labor disputes
o Major industries were 1st org. into syndicates-representing labor/management
o 2 groups negotiated labor settlements w/I this f/w and submitted differences to
compulsory gov. arbitration
o Fascists contended that class conflict would be avoided if both labor and
management looked to the greater goal of productivity for the nation
o Italian labor unions lost right to strike and to pursue independent economic goals,
management clearly profited
B. Corporations
o After 1930, the industrial syndicates were reorg. Into entities called corporationsbodies grouped all industries relating to a major area of production into one entity
o 22 such corporations were established to encompass the whole economy
o In 1938, Mussolini abolished the Italian Chamber of Deputies and replaced it a
Chamber of Corporations
o Vast org. f/w didn’t increase production: bureaucracy and corruption proliferated
o Corporate state allowed the gov. to direct much of the nation’s economic life w/o a
formal change in ownership
o Consumers and owners could no longer determine what was to be produced
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o Fascist gov. gained further direct economic power through the Institute for
Industrial Reconstruction-extended loans to businesses that were in financial
difficulty, loans established partial state ownership of these businesses
o How corporatism might have affected the Italian economy in the long run is unknown
o In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia and economic life was put on wartime footing
o League of Nations imposed economic sanctions
o Gov. imposed a forced loan on the citizenry by requiring property owners to purchase
bonds
o Italian state assumed more direction over economy
o Fascism had not brought prosperity to Italy, it had brought economic dislocation and
a falling standard of living
V. The Soviet Union: Central Economic Planning, Collectivization, and Party Purges
o While cap econs of w. Europe floundered in GD, SU undertook tremendous industrial
advance-direction and impetus came from the top
o Stalin exceeded his tsarist predecessors in the intensity of state coercion/terror
o Russia achieved stunning econ growth during the 1930s at the cost of millions of human
lives and degradations of still other millions
o Stalin’s econ policy proved that his earlier rivalry w/ Trotsky ahd bee na political power
struggle rather than an ideological one
A. Decision for Rapid Industrialization
o Through 1927, Lenin’s NEP had charted Soviet economic development, gov. allowed
private ownership/enterprise in countryside to ensure adequate food supply
o Industrial growth had slowed, during 1927 the Party Congress decided to push for
rapid industrialization
o As implemented through what has been termed “industrialization by political
mobilization”, this policy marked a sharp departure from the NEP
o Drive to rapid industrialization was a major pillar in Stalin’s undertaking of
“Socialism in One Country”-path wherby the communist Soviet Union would
overtake the productive capacity of capitalist nations and protect itself
o Such policy required rapid construction of heavy industries
o Stalin’s org. vehicle for industrialization was a series of 5-year plans
o The State Planning Commission or Gosplan-oversaw program, set goals for
production, and attempted to org. the ECON to meet them
o Created the 1st genuinely large factory labor force in Russia-deplorable conditions
o Gov. and CP undertook a vast program of propaganda to sell the 5-year plans to the
Russian people and to elicit their cooperation, gov. boasted of sheer size of the plants
being constructed and the new town being org.
o By the close of the 1930s, results were impressive-Russian econ grew more rapidly
than that of any other nation, soviet industrial production rose appx. 400%
B. Collectivization of Agriculture
o Rapid industrialization devastated Soviet agriculture
o Under the NEP, a few farmers, the kulaks had become prosperous-they were
discontent b/c there were so few consumer goods to purchase w/ the cash they
received for their crops
o Stalin decided agriculture most be collectivized to produce enough grain for food and
to achieve control over the farm sector of ECON, and free peasant labor for factories
o Stalin unleashed unprecedented violence in countryside, ordered party agents to
confiscate any hoarded grain and to carry out a program of collectivization of
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C.
D.
E.
F.
agriculture, gov. decided to eliminate the kulaks as a class-any peasants who resisted
collectivization, stubborn peasants sabotaged collectivization
o Over 2 million peasants were forced from their homes/transported to distant areas of
SU or prison camps
o Party targteted priests of the Russian orthodox Church
o SU had won the battle of grain fields but hadn’t solved problem of producing enough
food
Flight to the Soviet Cities
o Immediate consequence of Soviet collectivization was flight of peasants from
country to cities
o Soviet Union urbanization arose directly from the gov.-sponsored turmoil in country
Urban Consumer Shortages
o Chronic shortage of the most basic consumer goods in everyday life
o Soviet cities lacked urban infrastructure
o Informal mode of coping became known as the blat-Soviet ppl sustained themselves
mainly through bartering, black marketeering, and the conviction that they were
enduring their present troubles to build a greater socialist future
Foreign Reactions and Repercussions
o Many foreign contemporaries looked at the Soviet economic experiment naively
o They looked only at the rapid growth and ignored shortages
o No idea of social cost of Soviet achievement
o Internal difficulties caused by collectivization and industrialization led Stalin to make
an important shift in foreign policy-began to fear the nation might be left isolated
against future aggression by Nazi Germany, he ordered the Comintern to permit
communist parties to cooperate w/ noncommunist parties against Nazism and fascism
The Purges
o Stalin’s decisions to industrialize rapidly, move against peasants, and reverse the
Comintern aroused internal opposition-each was against policies of Lenin
o Stalin forced Bukharin, fervent supporter of the NEP off the Politburo
o Stalin began to fear he was losing control of the country and party apparatus
o In 1934, Sergei Kirov-popular party chief of Leningrad and member of the Politburo
was assassinated, Stalin used his death for his own purpose
o Resulted in the Great Purges-b/t 1936-1958 series of spectacular show trials were
held in Moscow and Soviet leaders publicly confessed to political crimes and were
convicted and executed, hundreds of thousands of people received no trial at all and
were either executed/deported to slave labor camps
o Exact ;number of executions ran into the millions
o Explanations: 1st-CP leadership was consuming itself, 2nd-Stalin’s fear for his own
power
o Impact: purges created a new party structure absolutely subservient and loyal to
Stalin, “old Bolsheviks” of the October Rev were among his earliest targets,
newcomers replaced the party members, loyal only to Stalin
o
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I. Again the Road to War (1933-1939)
o WWI and the Versailles treaty had only a marginal relationship to the world depression
of the 1930s
o In Germany, however, reparations settlement had contributed to the vast inflation and
economic/social discontent focused on the Versailles settlement as the root cause
o Hitler and the Nazi Party denounced Versailles as the source of all Germany’s troubles
A. Hitler’s Goals
o Hitler’s racial theories/goals were at the center of his thought
o He meant to bring the entire German people, the Volk, together into a single
nation=include all of the Germanic parts of the old HE
o Nation would need more space to live, or Lebensraum which would be taken
from the Slavs, considered a lesser race
o New Germany would be purified by removal of Jews, another inferior race
o Plans required conquest of Poland and Urkraine as primary areas for the
settlement of Germans and provision of food
o Not blueprints for action, Hitler was great improviser, but goals inevitably meant
a major war
o Germany Rearms: Hitler wanted to make Germany a formidable military
power shaking off Versailles, G withdrew from international disarmament
conference and also from the L of N-argued other countries didn’t disarm
o Fr. alarmed, but acts were merely symbolic; then Hitler signed a nonaggression
pact with Poland undermining France’s chief means of containing the Germans,
Hitler renounced the disarmament provisions of Versailles by forming an air
force and reinstating conscription
o The League of Nations Fails: Hitler’s path was easier w/ the LofN not able to
keep the peace: ex-Japan occupies Manchuria provoking an appeal to the LofN
by China, LofN responded by sending out a commission under a British
diplomat, the Lytton Report condemned the Japanese for resorting to force, but
the powers were unwilling to impose sanctions; Japan withdraws from LofN and
kept control of Manchuria
o When Hitler announced decision to rearm G, league formally condemned action,
but took no steps to prevent-Fr. and GB couldn’t object forcefully b/c they had
not carried out their own promises to disarm
o Instead, they met w/ Mussolini to form the Stresa Front promising to use force
to maintain the status quo in Europe, unity of three powers was short lived, b/c
GB violated the Stresa accords to make a separate naval agreement w/ Hitler
allowing him to rebuild the German fleet to 35% of the British navy and Italy’s
expansionist ambitions soon brought it into conflict w/ Western powers
B. Italy Attacks Ethiopia
o Mussolini using a border incident as an excuse attacks Ethiopia in Oct. 1935
o Attack made impotence of the LofN and the timidity of Allies clear
o Mussolini’s purpose was to avenge a humiliating defeat, begin restoration of Roman
imperial glory and distract Italian pub op from domestic problems
o Fr. and GB eager to appease Mussolini to offset growing power of G, allowed him
substance of conquest if he would maintain formal independence, but for Mussolini
form was more important than substance
o LofN condemned Italian aggression and for the 1st time voted economic sanctions
that imposed an arms embargo on Italy, GB and Fr. afraid of alienating Mussolini
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and refused to embargo oil that was the one econ sanction that could have prevented
Italy victory
o GB fleet allowed Italian troops to use the Suez Canal
o Results of wavering policy: LofN and collective security were totally discredited,
and Mussolini was alienated as well turning to Germany and by Nov. 1, 1936 he
could speak publicly of a Rome-Berlin Axis
C. Remilitarization of the Rhineland
o Result of Ethiopian affair was effect on Hitler’s evaluation of strength of West power
o On Mar. 7, 1936 he sent a small armed force into the demilitarized Rhineland-breach
of Versailles and Locarno-agreements Germany had made voluntarily
o Impact: removed a crucial element of Fr. security, but neither nation did anything
but register a feeble protest w/ the LofN
o Fr. would not act alone, paralyzed by internal division and by a military
doctrine that concentrated on defense and shunned the offensive
o Allies lost a great opportunity in the Rhineland to stop Hitler before he became a
serious menace-failure of his gamble might have led to his overthrow and the Fr.
army could easily have routed the tiny German force in the Rhineland
o Appeasement-policy response of the western powers based on the assumption that
Germany ahd real grievances and that Hitler’s goals were limited and ultimately
acceptable-believed correct policy was to negotiate and make concessions b4 a crisis
could lead to war (universal dread of another war)
o GB reluctant to rearm, b/c arms race had been major cause of last war
o Fr. huddled behind the newly constructed defensive wall, the Maginot Line
D. The Spanish Civil War
o New European alignment that found the Western democracies on one side and the
fascist states on the other was made clearer by the Spanish Civil War (1936)
o In 1931, monarchy collapsed, and Spain became a democratic republic
o Gov’t followed program of moderate reform that antagonized conservatives w/o
satisfying liberals
o Elections brought to power a Spanish Popular Frotn gov’t ranging from republicans
of the left to communists and anarchists
o Losers, especially the Flangists, the Spanish fascists, would not accept defeat at the
polls
o General Francisco Franco led an army from Spanish Morocco against the republic
o SCV became training ground for WWII: Germany and Italy supported Franco w/
troops, airplanes and supplies while the SU, liberals and liberals from
Europe/America volunteered to fight in the republican ranks/sent equipment and
advisers
o Impact of SCV: brought G and I closer together leading to the Rome-Berlin Axis
Pact, Japan joined the Axis powers that year in the Anti-Comintern Pact; fascists
won control of Spain as appeasement reigned and Fr. And GB forbade the export of
war materials to either side, so did the U.S.
E. Austria and Czechoslovakia
o Hitler had always planned to annex Austria, the NP in Austria assassinated the PM
and tried to seize power in 1934, but Muss was suspicious of German intentions and
quickly moved an army to the Austrian border causing the coup to fail
o In 1938, diplomatic situation encouraged Hitler to try again through propaganda,
bullying and threats; Kurt von Schuschnigg refused to be intimidated and
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announced a plebiscite for March 13, in which the Austrian people themselves could
decide whether to unite w/ Germany
o Hitler sent his army into Austria to forestall the plebiscite, Muss didn’t object
o The Anschluss, or union of Germany and Austria was another clear violation of
Versailles, treaty was a dead letter, Germany could now surround Czechoslovakia on
3 sides
o Czechoslovakia: very existence was affront to Hitler, was democratic and prowestern created as a check on Germany and allied to both Fr. and the SU
o contained about 3.5 mill Germans who lived in the Sudetenland, near the German
border
o Supported by Hitler and led by Konrad Henlein, the chief Nazi in Czech, these
Germans made ever-increasing demands for privileges and autonomy w/I the Czech
state
o Czech made concessions, but Hitelr wanted to destroy Czech, rhetoric led to rioting
in the Sudetenland and Czechs declared martial law
o Fr. deferred to Britain and Neville Chamberlain, a man committed to the policy of
appeasement, met Hitler and accepted the separation of the Sudetenland from Czech
forced the Czechs to agree by threatening to abandon them if they didn’t-Hitler raised
his demands wanting cession of Sudetenland in 3 days and occupation of G army
F. Munich
o Chamberlain returned to England and Fr. and GB prepared for war
o At the last momement, Muss proposed a conference of G, I, Fr. and GB
o Hitler received almost everything he demanded: Sudetenland, the key to Czech
security became part of Germany and Hitler agreed to spare the rest of Czech saying
htat he had no more territorial demands to make in Europe
o Chamberlain returned to England w/ the so-called Munich Agreement and told a
cheering crowd he had brought “peace with honour”
o Czech didn’t survive, Poland and Hungary tore territory from it, Slovaks demanded
state of their own, Hitler broke his promise and occupied Prague ending the Czech
state
o Exclusion of Russians from Munich and Munich itself was a shortsighted policy that
helped bring on the war because of the fear of war and failure to prepare for it
o Hitler’s occupation of Prague discredited appeasement, GB public believed it worth a
war to stop Hitler and Chamberlain responded in excess
o Poland was next target and Germans put pressure on Poland to build a railroad and
highway connect East Prussia through the Polish Corridor w/ the rest of Germany
o When Poland resisted, usual propaganda campaign began
o Chamberlain announced a Franco-British guarantee of Polish independence
o Hitler didn’t take it seriously, knew both countries were unprepared, had no means of
getting effective help to the Poles
o Only way to defend Poland was to bring Russia into the alliance against Hitler, but a
Russian alliance posed many problems, b/c each side was suspicious of the other
o Western negotiations for an alliance w/ Russia made little progress
G. Nazi-Soviet Pact
o Russians resented being left out of a lot of negotiations, including Munich
o Feared Western powers meant them to bear the burden of the war w/ Hitler
o They opened negotiations w/ Hitler and on August 23, 1939 the Nazi-Soviet
nonaggression pact was signed
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o
o
o
o
o
Secret provisions of the pact divided Poland b/t the 2 countries and allowed Russia to
occupy the Baltic states
Communist ideology gave way to political and military reality
Nazi-Soviet pact sealed the fate of Poland and the Franco-British commitment
guaranteed a general war
On Sep. 1, 1939 Germans invaded Poland
Two days later, GB and Fr. declared war on Germany and WWII had begun
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II. World War II (1939-1945)
o More global and total
A. The German Conquest of Europe
• German attacked Poland using blitzkrieg-lightning warfare employing fast moving
armored columns supported by airpower
o Was a great success that Russia hurried to claim its share
 Russia invaded Poland and the Baltic countries from the east occupying
the Baltic countries but only got territory from Finland who remained
independent
 Poor Russian success may have encouraged Hitler to invade the soviets
later in 1941
o France remained behind the Maginot Line and Britain rearmed, issuing a naval
blockade on Germany
o Spring of 1940, Hitler invaded Denmark, and Norway and had a secure northern
front
 Germany then moved to Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg
 Belgians had stopped building fortifications along their German border
losing their faith in their Fr. alliance and leaving the Maginot Line
exposed on its left flank
 Hitler’s swift advance thru Belgium circumvented France’s main line of
defense
o French army collapsed as the generals didn’t know how to use tanks and planes
 Mussolini invaded southern France on June 10th
 New Gov. under Marshal Henri Philippe Petain asked for an armistice
B. Battle of Britain
• Hitler willing to allow Britain to retain empire if Germany got free hand on Continent
o Britain already prevented one dominate power with Napoleon and was not
willing, especially when Churchill became prime minister
o Churchill was a critic of Nazis and appeasement
 Was a good speaker and writer and inspired the British people
 Established close relationship with FDR
o FDR helped the British some
 American sent military supplies for lease on British naval bases
• Britain was still standing so Hitler was forced to contemplate an invasion, and required
control of the air
o The German air force (Luftwaffe) started attacking southeast England, however
switched to London soon
 They bombed London every night
 Theories of victory through air was false, and it united the British people
o The RAF (Royal Air Force) inflicted heavy losses on the Luftwaffe aided by
newly developed radar and an excellent system of communications, British
Spitfire and Hurricane fighter planes destroyed 2x as much as they lost
C. German Attack on Russia
o A major goal of Hitler was to destroy Russia and occupy Ukraine
o Wanted to provide Lebensraum “living space” for the German people
o Operation Barbossa-name of invasion of Russia aimed at destroying Russia
before winter set in
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Mussolini jealous of Hitler’s success and annoyed by Hitler not allowing
Mussolini to annex Fr. territory in Europe or North Africa and launched an attack
against the British in Egypt and invaded Greece
i. North Africa, the British counterattacked and invaded Libya and the
Greeks pushed into Albania
ii. Hitler was forced to divert attention to Balkans and Africa sending
General Erwin Rommel “Desert Fox” to drive the British back to Egypt
iii. Quickly overcame, but at a cost of 6 week-costly the following winter
o Russian invasion almost succeeded, and Russia was taken by surprised
i. Stalin seems to have panicked as the Russians did basically nothing
ii. The Russian army was devastated, and the German army stood at
Leningrad
o Hitler diverted troops to the south, and when he was ready to take Moscow, the
winter devastated the German army
i. December, the Russians counterattacked
D. Hitler’s Plans for Europe
o
Hitler spoke of a “new order” that he meant to make after the
Third Reich (Empire) in Europe: 1st 2 empires were those of Charlemagne and
Bismarck
o The regime was unmatched for planned terror and inhumanity
o Lebensraum would come at the expense of inferior people.
i. Established colonies of Germans into Poland and drove the locals to
slave labor
ii. Had a similar plan with Russia
iii. Had plans to adopt selected people, and had plans to bring half a million
Ukrainian girls to Germany
o Eastern Europe he plundered the lands
i. Bought up everything desirable in the lands so people lived in necessity
E. Japan and the United States Enter the War
o The American government was pro-British: Hitler held back from declaration of
war and the U.S. gov. might not have overcome isolationist sentiment if war had
not been thrust on America in the Pacific
o Since Japanese invasion of Manchuria, American policy has hostile to Japan
i. War in Europe emboldened the Japanese.
ii. Only barrier was the US
o Americans were unwilling to cutoff vital supplies, but then changed and people
started to cut off oil supplies.
i. Japanese could not continue so General Hideki Tojo, leader of war
faction that took power in Japan decided to risk war
o December 7th, 1941, pearl harbor: negated American capacity to wage war in the
Pacific
i. The next day, U.S. and Great Britain declared war on Japan, 3 days later,
Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.
F. The Tide Turns
o Us had great potential power, but they were inexperienced: army was tiny, industry
wasn’t ready for war
o Japanese swiftly captured many US possessions, and it seemed nothing could
stop them, controlled the southwest Pacific, poised to strike Australia
o
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1942, Germans went deeper in Russia and Rommel was driving British back to
Egypt
o First good news in the spring of 1942, Coral Sea sank many Japanese ships and
protected Australia
i. Again at Midway Island, and halted the Japanese advance, checking
Japanese advancement allowing Allies to concentrate on Europe
o There was suspicions with the US + Britain and the Soviet union
i. Russia accepted all the aid it could get but did not trust their allies,
wanted them to open up a second front
ii. American prep and production was inadequate and they would wait until
1944
G. Allied Landings in Africa, Sicily, and Italy
o November 1942, allied forces landed in French North Africa
i. Bernard Montgomery and the British begun a drive to the west and
Dwight D. Eisenhower pushed eastward
ii. The Germans were caught in to middle in Tunisia and destroyed
iii. Allies controlled the Mediterranean and could attack southern Europe
o 1943, the Allies took Sicily and a coup toppled Mussolini but the Germans
occupied Italy
i. Under Badoglio, leader of new Italian government, Italy declared war on
Germany
o The Battle of Stalingrad
o Summer of 1942 Germans resumed the offensive in Russia, and tried to capture
the oil fiends to the south.
i. Stalingrad was a key city on the flank and Hitler and Stalin were
determined to take the city
ii. Hitler lost an entire German army at Stalingrad to great cost to the
Russians (lost more troops in that battle than Americans in whole war)
iii. Turning point of the war and the allies added material help, Russians
began to advance westward
o Strategic Bombing
o 1943 Allies began to get ground in production and logistics-industrial might of
the U.S. came to full force
i. American and British air began massive bombardments of Germany
ii. Americans w/ precision bombing in the day, and British with massive
area bombing in the night
o Not much effect until 1944 when the Americans had long-range fighters that
could protect the bombers
i. 1945 Allies could bomb at will-bombardment of Dresden was especially
savage and destructive
ii. Aerial war over Germany took a heavy toll of the German air force and
diverted resources
H. The Defeat of Nazi Germany
o June 6, 1944 was D Day and Allied forces landing in Normandy, opening a 2nd front
o The European coast was heavily fortified
o By the beginning of September, France was liberated
o The Battle of the Bulge
o Germans launched a counter attack in December and pushed the allied line
i. It was the last gasp and the allies soon crossed the Rhine in March 1945
o
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The Capture of Berlin
Russians also moved fast and in March 1945 they reached Berlin
Germans fought on, b/c Allies insisted on unconditional surrender
Hitler committed suicide in an underground bunker, Russians and Western allies
occupied Berlin
I. Fall of the Japanese Empire
o War in Europe ended on May 8, 1945 and victory over Japan was in sight-longer the
war lasted, the more American superiority in industrial production and pop. counted
o Japan was far smaller than the US
o Americans recapture the Pacific Islands
o 1943, Americans started island hopping, and selected major bases and sites
o Took Iow Jima and Okina despite determined Japanese resistance that included
Kamikaze attacks-suicide missions in which specially trained pilots deliberately
fles their explosive-filled planes into American warships
o Japanese gov. dominated by a military clique refused to surrender
o Americans made plans for a frontal assault on the Japanese homeland-calculated
it might cost a million American casualties and even greater losses for Japanese
o Atom Bomb-secret program had been in progress since early in the war, its staff
made up of significant part of exiles from Hitler’s Europe was working to use
atomic energy for military purposes
o On August 6, 1945 an American plane dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese
city of Hiroshima, Soviet Union declared war on Japan 2 days later and invaded
Manchuria, 2nd bomb fell on Nagasaki
o Even hten, the Japanese cabinet was prepared to resist further
o Unprecedented intervention of Emepror HIrohito finally forced the gov. to
surrender on August 14, Japanese set forth the condition that Japan must keep its
emperor
o President Harry S. Truman accepted the condition and the peace was formally
signed aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay
o Decision to use the atomic bomb against the Japanese is controversial
o The bomb was a way to end the war swiftly and save American lives
J. The Cost of War
o WWII was most terrible war in history, military deaths estimated at 15 million and at
least as many civilians were killed
o Most of Europe and sig parts of Asia were devastated
o Dawn of atomic age and the dramatic age made people conscious that another major
war might extinguish humanity
o Even as the fighting ended, conflicts among the victors made the prospects of a
lasting peace doubtful
III. Racism and the Holocaust
• Worst aspect of the Nazi rule was the brutality in the racial doctrine
o Hitler considered the slavs Untermensche, subhuman creatures
 Parts of Poland, upper class/professional people were jailed deported and
killed
 Nazis limited marriage to keep down the Polish birthrate/harsh living
conditions
o Hitler spoke of Russian campaign as a war of extermination
o Heinrich Himmler-head of Hitler’s elite SS formations planned to eliminate 30
million Slavs to make rooms for Germans
o
o
o
o
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 Formed extermination squads and about 6 million died from his rule
o Meant to make Europe free of Jews (Judanrein)
 Arrived at the final solution of extermination
 Built extermination camps
 Deported Jews from occupied states
 Holocaust-6 million Jews died in this genocide
A. The Destruction of the Polish Jewish Community
o A large community was in Poland
o Due to anti-Semitism, Polish Jews lived in own neighborhoods and villages
i. After partitions, most of Poland was under Russian rule and
discriminated against: Polish Jews didn’t experience any of the forms of
Jewish emancipation that occurred in western Europe
ii. Even after Polish gov. was restored, it defined nation in terms of Polish
ethnic nationalism defining Jews as outside the Polish nation
o Jews were distinctively different from other people
i. Vulnerable to economic turmoil
B. Polish Anti-Semitism Between the Wars
o After restoration of Poland, Polish Leaders were divided on the role of Jews
o Pilsudski favored Jews and allowed Jews to participate in politics
i. After his death, political groups embraced anti-Semitism
ii. Regulations started to exclude Jews and make it hard for Jews
o Poles refused to recognized even secular Jews
i. Jewish newspapers started to be in Polish
ii. Started to take advantage of political participation, but were divided so
therefore vulnerable
C. The Nazi Assault on the Jews of Poland
o German-Soviet invasion brought millions of Jews under German or Soviet authority
o To nazis, Polish Jewry was large and made many leaders
i. Therefore chief breeding ground for Jewry
o 1940, Nazis then moved the Jews to Ghettos, the largest were Warsaw and Lodz
i. The Ghettos were then sealed off with police guards and walls
ii. Jewish councils administered the Ghettos
iii. 1941 Jews lost civic standing and located into segregated communities
iv. Disease was rampant and 20% of the pop died of disease and
malnourishment
o Advancing German forces in the invasion of Russia
D. Explanations of the Holocaust
o Was the holocaust a unique event of unprecedented evil or a specific instance of a
more general human wickedness that has found expression throughout history
o Horrible mass murders committed in 20th century by communist regimes under Stalin
and Mao
o Anti-Semitism and nationalism combined that allowed the creation of a totalitarian
state that for the first time in history could conduct mass murders on the scale of the
Holocaust
IV. The Domestic Fronts
• WWII was total war by all of it’s fighters-so many men/women/resources devoted
o Unprecedented carnage and organization on home front
A. Germany: From Apparent Victory to Defeat
o Hitler expected to win by blitzkriegs requiring little change in Germany
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During first 2 years there was little sacrifice
i. Failure to override the Soviets changed everything and in 1942, a great
expansion of the army and of military production began
ii. Food shortages, drafts, mobilization, and standard of living fell
iii. Albert Speer-minister for armaments and munitions-directed economy,
Germany met its military needs instead of making consumer goods
o Sever food shortages occurred and the Nazi gov. began to seize more food from
the occupied regions of Europe and food rationing began to occur
o 1943, labor shortages became severe that German teenagers, retired men, and
increasing numbers of women joined to work in the factories
i. Germany closed retail businesses and shifted more workers into a
wartime industry
ii. Non-Germans were compelled to do labor
o Women were assigned role as faithful homemakers managing households and
protecting racial purity
o Political propaganda: blamed outbreak of war on British and the Jews and its
prolongation on the policies of Germany’s opponents-stressed the power of
Germany and the inferiority of its foes
i. Goebbels used radio and films to boost the Nazi cause, and frighten
inhabitants of consequences of Allied victories
ii. Allied bombing increased German resistance by confirming propaganda
o WWII increased the power of the Nazi party as everywhere was controlled
o Throughout the war, there was virtually no serious opposition to Hitler and a
small group of army officers attempted to assassinate Hitler, effort failed, no sig
popular support for this act
o War brought great changes to Germany, what transformed the country most was
the experience of vast physical destruction, invasion and occupation-Hitler and
the Nazis had brought Germany to such a complete and disastrous defeat that
only a new kind of state w/ new political structures could emerge
B. France: Defeat Collaboration and Resistance
o 1940 armistice between France allowed Germans to occupy more than half of France
including Atlantic and English channel coasts
o Southern France was under Marshal Petain-tried to follow a policy of close
collaboration w/ Germans in hopes of preserving as much autonomy as possible
i. Collaborators believed Germany would win the war
ii. Other thought French defeat as a judgment of the corrupt Third Republic
o Conservatives saw the Vichy government as a way to reshape the Fr. national
character and to halt the decadence of apolitical and religious liberalism
i. Clergy supported Petain, gained status under Vichy, Petain increased
financial support for Catholic schools and restored religious instruction
in the state schools
ii. State encouraged large families
o Encouraged intense nationalism-exploited long standing prejudice against
foreigners working in France, chief victims were Fr. Jews
i. Vichy government continued anti-Semitic policies
ii. Germans deported more than 60,000 to extermination camps
o Charles de Gaulle fled to Britain and with others made the Free
French Force that opposed the Vichy
o
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Free Fr. began operating in central Africa, broadcast hope and
defiance from London: serious internal resistance to German
occupiers and the Vichy gov. began to develop only late in 1942
o There were only a small amount of resisters: deterred by harsh punishment,
resistance seemed futile against German inevitably of victory
o 1944 Allies were sure to win and the Vichy government would not survive so
large-scale activities occurred
o General Charles de Gaulle spoke confidently for Free France from his base in
London and urged the Fr. people to resist their conquerors and the German
lackeys in the Vichy gov.
i. Committee of National Liberation-declared Vichy France illegitimate
and French troops joined the liberation of Paris
ii. October 21, 1945-France voted to end the Third Republic and adopted a
new constitution as the basis of the Fourth Republic
iii. Fr. ppl suffered defeat and disgrace in the war, divisions over who had
done what during the occupation led to hostility and bitter quarrels for
decades
C. Great Britain: Organization for Victory
o May 22, 1940 the British Parliament gave the government emergency powers
o Government instituted the draft, rationing and economic controls
i. All the political parties made a national government under Churchill
ii. Moved as quickly as possible to mobilize the nation
o Most immediate need was to make airplanes to fight the Battle of Britain
i. Beaverbrook (newspaper publisher) led the effort and inspired a
campaign to reclaim scrap metal
ii. End of 1941, British production surpassed Germany’s
o Unemployment disappeared and people had lots of savings due to war effort
o “Blitz” air attacks were most immediate experience and killed many people
i. Families moved kids to the countryside and improved the standard of
living
ii. Government issued gas masks to dwellers
iii. Bombings may well have made the Allies more determined
o British made many sacrifices and everything was used
i. British own propaganda using the BBC sent programs to every country
in Europe in the local language encouraging resistance to Nazis
ii. Standard of living improved during the war
o Contributed to Labour Party victory as people feared Conservative Party would
bring economic problems and unemployment
D. The Soviet Union: “The Great Patriotic War”
o War against Germany was a great surprise-German attack violated the 1939 pact w/
Hitler and put the gov. of the SU on the defensive military/politically
o Exposed Stalin’s foreign policy and ineptness of his preparation for war
o In days, troops occupied western Soviet Union
o Soviet Union suffered the most in the war
i. 16 million were killed and hundreds of cities were devastated
o Stalin conducted war as virtual chief of the armed forces, State Committee for
Defense provided strong central coordination-Stalin had made SU a highly
centralized state, country was already on what amounted to a wartime footing
o
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Stalin suspicious of generals, eliminated officers of doubtful loyalty through
purges
o Army gained some freedom of action, sharply limited by power of Stalin
ii. When war began, millions entered the army (at the expense of the power
to the communist Party) and did purges in the lat 1930s
o Soviet Propaganda: Soviet government confiscated radios so people couldn’t hear
German or British propaganda and broadcasted over loudspeakers
o Struggle against the Germans was called “The Great Patriotic War”
iii. Emphasized patriotism rather than Marxism
o The Regime republished Russian novels of the past (Such as War and Peace)
i. Authors wrote and filmmakers made propaganda
ii. Glorified the Russian nation and patriots of the past
o Pressure of war led Stalin to make peace with the Russian Orthodox Church: hoped
new policy would give him more support at home and permit the SU to be viewed
more favorably in eastern Europe where the Orthodox Church predominated
o The Patriarch of Moscow urged resistance to Germans
o Some troops were stranded behind lines, where they carried guerrilla warfarepartisna forces were supported by Stalin: wanted to cause difficulty for
Germans and Soviet-sponsored resistance reminded peasants in the conquered
regions that the Soviet gov. ahd not disappeared
o Stalin feared peasants’ hatred of communist gov. might lead them to collaborate
w/ invaders
o After the victory, the Soviet Union established itself as a world power.
V. Preparations for Peace
• Split between Soviet Union and wartime allies: SU was self-proclaimed center of world
communism/openly dedicated to overthrow of capitalist nations
• Western allies had intervened to try to overthrow the Bolshevik regime during the civil
war and granted full recognition to the SU late, exclusion of Soviets from Munich/ Soviet
pact w/ Hitler created tensions in relations b/t them
o Need to cooperate against a common enemy improved Western feeling towards
the Soviets
o However, people were suspicious and lost faith of common goal
A. The Atlantic Charter
• August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to the Atlantic charter, similar the Fourteen
points-broad set of principles in the spirit of Wilson’s Fourteen Points provided a
theoretical basis for the peace they sought
o When Russia and United States joined Britain, it was a purely military alliance
 First political conference was in Moscow October 1943 where they
promised to fight until unconditional surrender and joining a united
nations organization
B. Tehran: Agreement on a Second Front
• First meeting of the Big Three (USSR, Britain, and the U.S) was in Tehran in 1943
o West promised to open a second front and Stalin promised to fight Japan after
Germany
o Major decision was that Europe’s west coast was the main point of attack
instead of Mediterranean: impact-Soviet forces would occupy eastern
Europe and control its destiny
• Churchill and Stalin
o 1944 the situation had changed and Soviet armies were near Warsaw
o
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Russians halted allowing Polish rebels to be annihilated while they
turned south into the Balkans advances that centuries of expansionist
tsars had only dreamed of experiencing
o Churchill was alarmed and went to Moscow and agreed to share power in the
Balkans
 Agreements were not enforceable w/o American approval-Americans
were hostile to “spheres of influence”
• Germany
o Agreed on disbarment, de-Nazification, and 4 zones of occupation
o Churchill balked at 20 billion reparation and forced labor
• Eastern Europe
o People agreed the soviets should have friendly neighborhood governments
o West insisted they also be autonomous and democratic
o Western leaders were not eager to see eastern Europe fall under Russian
domination-committed to democracy and self-determination
o Stalin knew that independent, freely-elected gov. in Poland and Romania
couldn’t be counted on to be friendly to Russia
o He had already established a puppet gov. in Poland in competition w/ Polish govinexile in London
o Agreed to re-org. this gov. and include some Poles friendly to the West in it
o Signed Declaration on Liberated Europe-promising self-d and free democratic
elections
o Stalin was eager to avoid conflict b4 war w/ Germany was over and afraid the
Allies would make a separate peace w/ Germany and betray him
o Wasted little time violating these agreements
C. Yalta
o Next meeting of the Big Three was at Yalta in Crimea
o Western armies had not yet crossed the Rhine, but the Soviet army was w/I a hundred
miles of Berlin
o War w/ Japan continued, and no atomic explosion had yet taken place
o Roosevelt, faced w/ a prospective invasion of Japan and heavy losses was eager to
bring the Russians into the Pacific war as soon as possible
o As a true Wilsonian, he also suspected Churchill’s determination to maintain the
British Empire and britain’s colonial advantages
o Americans thought Churchill’s plan to set up British spheres of influence would
encourage the Russians to do the same and would lead to friction and war
o Roosevelt and Churchill made extensive concessions to Russia ceding the Soviets
some islands and accommodating desires in Asia to encourage Russian participation
in the war against Japan
o Roosevelt laid great stress on a UN org. hoping to achieve a self-enforcing peace
settlement that wouldn’t require U.S. troops and n open world w/o spheres of
influence in which American enterprise could work freely
o THROUGHOUT PEACE SETTLEMENT PROCESS FDR ADVOCATED
WILSONIAN IDEALS
D. Potsdam
o Big Three met for the last time in the Berlin suburb of Potsdam in July 1945
o Much had changed-Germany ahd been defeated, news of successful experimental
explosion of an atomic weapon reached the American president during the meetings,

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President Truman replaced Roosevelt, Clement Attlee, leader of the Labour Party
that had defeated Churchill’s Conservatives replaced Churchill has Britain’s
spokesperson
o Previous agreements were reaffirmed
o Russian western frontier was moved far into what had been Poland and included most
of German east Prussia
o Poland was moved about 100 miles west at the expense of Germany to accommodate
the SU
o Allies agreed that Germany would be divided into occupation zones until the final
peace treaty was signed
o A Council of Foreign Ministers was established to draft peace treaties for
Germany’s allies
o Growing disagreements made the job difficult, Russians dissatisfied w/ the treaty that
the U.S. made w/ Japan in 1951 and signed their own agreements w/ Japanese in
1956
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I. The Emergence of the Cold War
o Tense relationship b/t U.S> and SU began in closing months of WWII
o Some scholars attribute the hardening of the atmosphere b/t the 2 countries to Harry
Truman’s assumption of the presidency in April 1945 and American possession of the
atomic bomb
o Split arose from basic differences of ideology and interest-SU attempted to extend control
westward and the U.S> tried to restrain Russian expansion
o America was hegemon after WWII-military forces were greatest, industrial power
unmatched, monopoly on atomic weapons
o Goals after WWII, U.S> withdrew from Europe, supported self-D, autonomy, and
democracy
o Main conflict lay w/ Soviet Union-growth in Fr. and Italy of large popular communist
parties taking orders from Moscow led America to believe Stalin was engaged in a
worldwide plot to subvert capitalism and democracy
o From soviet perspective, dominating successor states of Eastern Europe would provide
needed security and compensate for the fearful losses Soviet people
o Considered American resistance to expansion as a threat to their security
o Evidence of the new mood of postwar hostility b/t former allies was soon apparent Feb.
1946, both Stalin and his foreign minister, Vyacheslav Molotov publicly spoke of
Western democracies as enemies
o Churchill gave the “Iron Curtain” speech-divided a free/democratic West from an East
under totalitarian rule
A. Containment in American Foreign Policy
o Containment-American policy after WWII, purpose was to resist the extension of
Soviet expansion and influence so that the SU would collapse from internal pressures
o Strategy would direct the broad outlines of American foreign policy for 4
decades
o Execution of the policy led the U.S> to enter overseas alliances, to make
formal/informal commitments of support, undertake enormous military expenditures,
and to send large amounts of money abroad
o U.S> thus became a permanent player in European IR
o Truman Doctrine: civil war had been raging in Greece b/t royalist gov. (restored by
GB, but GB couldn’t support anymore) and insurgents supprted by communist
countries (Yugoslavia)-President Truman asked Congress to provide funds to support
Greece and Turkey
o Truman advocated a policy of support for free people who are resisting attempted
subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures anywhere in the world
o Marshall Plan: American aid to Greece/Turkey took form of military
equipment/advisers, for Western Europe the Americans devised the European
Recovery Program called the Marshall Plan-after George C. Marshall, secretary of
state that introduced it, program provided broad econ aid to European states on the
sole condition that they work together for their mutual benefit, Soviets were invited
to participate but forbade to take part
o Impact: Marshall Plan restored prosperity to Western Europe and set the stage for
Europe’s unprecedented postwar economic growth from postwar poverty/hunger
which had fueled growth of communist parites-strong Christian Democratic
movement worked to keep communist influence at bay outside the Soviet sphere
B. Soviet Assertion of Domination of Eastern Europe
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Soviet leaders sought to use Eastern European satellites as buffers against invasion:
historical/ideological roots (Western powers had twice invaded Russia)
o Stalin saw containment as a renewed attempt by West to isolate USSR
o SU found numerous supporters in Eastern Europe who had opposed right-wing
movements, Stalin called a meeting in Warsaw of all communist parties, there they
organized the Cominform, Communist Information Bureau (revival of old
Comintern) dedicated to spreading revolutionary communism throughout the world
o In Western Europe, the establishment of the Cominform officially ended the era
of the popular front during which communists had cooperated w/
noncommunist parties
o In 1948, In Prague, Stalin gave a brutal display of his new policy by bringing the gov.
Of Eastern Europe under direct Soviet control: communist expelled democratic
coalition gov. And murdered Jan Masaryk, foreign minister and son of Thomas
Masaryk, prez forced to resign and Czech was brought fully under Soviet rule
o SU required the other subject gov. In eastern Europe to impose Stalinist policies
including one-party political systems, close military cooperation w/ SU,
collectivization of agriculture, and Communist Party domination of everything
o Stalin purged longtime communist party officials as well
o Catalyst for harsh tightening was the success of Marshal Josip Tito, the leader of
communist Yugoslavia in freeing his country from Soviet domination (wanted to
prevent other EE states from following this example)
C. The Postwar Division of Germany
o Soviet actions, especially those in Czech, encouraged U.S. to go ahead with its own
arrangements in Germany
o Disagreements over Germany: Allies differed on how Germany should be
dismembered-Churchill had come to fear Russian control of Easter and central
Europe and began to oppose dismemberment
o Russians swiftly dismantled German industry in eastern zoen, but Americans
supported Germany, made it self-sufficient
o To Soviets, restoration of a powerful industrial Germany was frightening
o Same dispute over reparations: Soviets claimed right to all industrial equipment in
all zones, Americans resisted
o Berlin Blockade-Western powers issued a new currency in their zone, after Western
powers agreed to go forward w/ a separate constitution for the western sectors of
Germany, Soviets walked out of the Allied Control Commission, Berlin was
governed by all powers but well w/i the soviet zone.
o Soviets feared the new currency (circulating in Berlin at better rates than their own
currency), sealed the city off by closing all transportation routes that led to Berlin
from west Germany-goal was to drive Western powers out of Berlin
o Western allies responded to Berlin blockade by airlifting supplies, Russians forced to
reopen access: incident increased tensions b/t opponents and hastened the separation
of Germany into 2 states
o West Germany formally became the German Federal Republic in 1949 and the
eastern region became the German Democratic Republic
D. NATO and the Warsaw Pact
o Nations of Western Europe had been coming closer together
o Marshall plan encouraged int’l coop
o In March 1948, Belgium, the Nlands, Luxembourg, Fr., and GB signed the Treaty of
Brussels-providing for coop in economic and military matters
o
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o In April 1949, these nations joined w/ Italy, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, and Iceland
to sign a treaty w/Canada and the U.S> to form the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO)-committed its members to mutual assistance in case any of
them was attacked
o NATO transformed the west into a bloc (W. Germany, Turkey, and Greece joined)
o For the 1st time in history, the U.S. was committed to defend allies outside the
Western Hemisphere
o Series of bilateral treaties provided close ties/mutual assistance in case of attack
governed Soviet relations w/ states of Eastern Europe-states formed the Council of
Mutual Assistance (COMECON)-integrated economices, Eastern alliance system
was under direct Soviet domination through local communist parties controlled from
Moscow
o Warsaw Pact of 1944 which included Albania, Bulgaria, Czech, Hungary, E.
Germany, Romania, and the SU gave formal recognition to this system
o Europe was divided into 2 unfriendly blocs-Cold War had taken shape
o Cold War wouldn’t be limited, major flash points would erupt around the world most
particularly in the ME and in Asia
o establishment of communist gov. in Cuba would bring the conflict to the American
hemisphere as well
o Cold War rivalry transformed regional conflicts into superpower strategic conflicts
E. The Creation of the State of Israel
o Major area of ongoing regional conflict was the ME: GB exercised the chief political
influence in the region under postwar mandates
o After WWII, both the Zionist movement and Arab nationalists sought to achieve selfdetermination and challenged British authority and influence
o British Balfour Declaration-favored establishing a national home for the Jews in
Palestine in 1917
o B/t the wars, thousands of Jews immigrated to the area governed by GB under a
mandate of the League of Nations
o WWII Nazi persecution united Jews throughout the world behind the Zionist ideal of
a Jewish state in Palestine and touched the conscience of the U.S. and other Western
powers
o UN Resolution-IN 1947, GB turned over to the UN the problem of the relationship
of Arab and Jews in Palestine. The UN passed a resolution calling for a division of
the territory into 2 states, one Jewish and one Arab.
o Arabs in Palestine and surrounding Arab states resisted this resolution
o Israel Declares Independence-In 1948, GB officially withdrew from Palestine and
the Yishuv-Jewish community in Palestine, declared independence of a new Jewish
state
o U.S. recognized independence of the new nation, whose 1st PM was David BenGurion, almost immediately surrounding Arab nations invaded
o By the end of its war of independence, Israel had expanded its borders, it had
secured its existence if not acceptance
F. The Korean War
o After WWII, Japanese repelled from Korea, U.S> and SU divided Korea into 2 parts
along the 38th parallel of latitude
o By 1948, 2 separate state had been org.: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea in
the North supported by the SU and the Republic of Korea in the South, supported by
the U.S.
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The north invaded and the U.S. intervened under a UN mandate
The Chinese responding to approach of UN forces near their border, sent troops to
support NK forcing the U.S> to retreat
o U.S> thought Chinese were puppets of the SU
o Eisenhower concluded an armistice restoring border near the 38th parallel
o American gov. faith in containment was confirmed, transformed CW into a global
rivalry
o
o
II. The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union
•
Soviet Union suffered the most
o Russians hoped end of war would mean a reduction of the police state
 They were disappointed
 After death in March 6, 1953, the Politburo now called the presidium
replaced him in collective leadership
o Soon, power went to Nikita Khrushchev
 End of collective leadership
A. Khrushchev’s Domestic Policies
•
•
Khrushchev’s era lasted until 1964 showed a retreat from Stalinism not authoritarianism
o Sought to reform the soviet system but retain the dominance of Communist party
 Some more freer to express opinions
 Made a small effort for consumer goods
 Decentralized economic planning
 Removed restrictive regulations on private cultivation
o Agriculture tried to improve, first worked, but soon inappropriate farming
reduced yields
o Soviet Union had to import grain from the US
The Secret speech of 19567
o At the 20th congress, Khrushchev gave a secret speech where he denounced Stalin
 Opened the door to criticism of the government/intellectual freedom
 Khrushchev gradually removed the strongest supporters of Stalinist
policies from the Presidium
o Other communist leaders in Eastern Europe felt the SU was now more lenient
B. The Three Crises of 1956
•
•
The Suez Intervention
o Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez canal in 1956 and GB and France feared
this would close their route of oil
 After war broke out between Egypt and Israel, Britain and France seized
the opportunity tto intervene and regain control of the canal/reassert their
influence in the region
 US and SU didn’t support so they withdrew
o Proved that w/o the support of the U.S> or SU, the nations of Western Europe
could no longer impose their ill on the rest of the world
Polish Efforts Towards Independent Action
o Autumn of 1956 had important developments in Eastern Europe
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Prime Minster of Poland died and Polish Communist Party refused to replace him
with Moscow’s nominee
 Gomulka was the new Communist leader, and was acceptable to
everyone, SU sent a delegation, but was accepted b/c he was genuinely a
communist and continued membership in the Warsaw Pact
 Halted collectivization and improved relations with the Roman Catholic
Church
The Hungarian Uprising
o Sympathy for Poles led to street fighting and Hungarian communists made a new
ministry under Nagy
 Nagy wanted more than Hungary and called for removal from the
Warsaw pact
 SU invaded Hungary-deposed Nagy and installed their own leader
Solidified US and SU as superpowers
o
•
•
III. Later Cold War Confrontations
A. Collapse of the 1960 Paris Summit Conference
• 1956 US and SU talked about peaceful coexistence
o SU launched Sputnik in 1957 and appeared the best
o 1958 the two countries began negotiations limiting testing of nukes
o 1959, Western leaders visited Moscow and Khrushchev toured the US
• Just before Paris Summit Conference, SU shot down an American U-2 spy plane
o Khrushchev demanded a public apology, didn’t receive it so refused to take apart
in the summit
 Had other reasons as they already knew about the flights
o By 1960 the communist world split between Soviets and Chinese
 It was to demonstrate Soviet’s hard-line attitude, destroying summit was
a way to do this
B. The Berlin Wall
•
1961, thousands of East Germany went to West Berlin. This embarrassed East Germany
so they, with soviet support, mad a wall along the border of east and west Berlin
C. The Cuban Missile Crises
•
•
•
•
•
Most dangerous days of Cold War was the Cuban missile crisis
SU had placed nuclear missiles in Cuba after Fidel Castro established a communist gov.
and became an ally of the SU. American gov. blockaded Cuba and demanded removal of
existing installations. Crisis ended with Soviets backing down
Last major Cold War confrontation to threaten war
Adventrusim in foreign policy undermined Khrushchev’s credibility in the ruling circles
of the SU and cuased other non-European communist regimes to question the SU’s
commitment to their security and survivial, increasing influence of China in communist
circles
The U.S> and SU concluded a nuclear test ban treaty, Khruschev was forced to resign
and replaced by Brezhnev
D. Brezhnev and the Invasion of Czechoslovakia
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o In 1968, the gov. of Czech under Alexander Dubcek began to experiment w/ a more
liberal communism
In summer of 1968, the SU gov. sent troops into Czech
o At this time, Soviet party chairman Brezhnev in what came to be termed the
Brezhnev Doctrine-declared the right of the SU to interfere in the domestic politics
of other communist countries
o Counteracted the Truman Doctrine directly
o Showed that any further political experimentation could trigger Soviet military
repression as Czech had
o
IV. Decolonization: The European Retreat From Empire
•
Remarkable political event the decolonization
o It was a direct result of WWII and rise of nationalist movements
 Military forces went back to Europe
 Japanese overrun of European colonies showed that they were not
permanent
 European economic collapse led Europeans to not be about to support
their military
o War aims of Allies undermined colonialism
 Hard to fight tyranny with colonial dominance
 Roosevelt opposed colonial empires
o Cold war complicated as they wanted to change the alignment of the nations
A. Major Areas of Colonial withdrawal
•
Dutch was forced from the East Indies, and Belgium withdrawal of the Congo
o Two largest empires were British and French
B. India
•
British solidified their rule of India in mid-eighteenth century
o Britain made India pay for their rule
 Divisions in India allowed Britain through divide and rule
o 1885, some Indians founded the Indian National Congress trying to modernize
Indian life and liberalizing British policy
 Muslims made their own, trying to have their own country
 Movement got strength due to good leaders and British blunders
o Gandhi studied law in Britain
 Became convinced in Passive Resistance and returned to India in 1915
 Became nationalistic leader due to his view of religious toleration
 Famous slat march to break the monopoly of Britain
o 1942, during WWII Gandhi asked Britain to leave and they did
 Became a model for MLK
 India divided between India and Pakistan, and east Pakistan became
Bangladesh
o Retreat of colonial powers lead to new regional conflicts
C. Further British Retreat from Empire
•
Marked the beginning of retreat from empire
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o
o
o
British accepted it as inevitable, and decolonization tried to maintain economic
and political ties
1950s, Britain tried to prepare colonies for self-government
Africa has been characterized by political instability as opposed to Asia
V. The Turmoil of French Decolonization
•
Britain never really ‘made a stand’
o However, this wasn’t like France
o Disastrous for France
A. France and Algeria
•
•
France got Algiers in 1830 through Charles X traying to get more support
o 1848 French government made Algeria an integral part, hundreds of Ks of
Europeans settled there mostly in cities and small farms
o Approximately 20% were of European decent
 Voting structure was made to give the French settlers a large vote
o Free France dominated Algeria after WWII whileVichy had regular France
 During celebrations of allied victory, violent clashes occurred, the
government suppressed the muslims brutally
• Muslims saw this like Bloody Sunday
• Many Algerian Muslims supported independence
o Nationalists formed the National Liberation front (FLN)
 Civil war broke out as the 4th republic refused to compromise with the
insurgents
 War lasted until 1962 and divided French citizens
 French government became paralyzed as there was more than 1 million
French citizens there
Charles de Gaulle entered making a 5th republic
o Undertook a retreat from Algeria
 Algeria became independent in 1962
 Hundreds of thousands fled for France, as did pro-French Muslims
o Beginning of the French Muslim population
B. France and Vietnam
•
France stood hard in Algeria as they just lost Indochina
o Indochina drew the US into war in Vietnam
o 1930, Ho Chi Minh turned a nationalist movement against France into a
Communist Party
 France Suppressed, and in WWII they fought together the Japanese
o 1945 Minh declared independence of Vietnam, and by 1947 there was a civil war
o Until 1949, US had little interest, but the establishment of PRC made US see
Vietnam as an important part of the cold war
 1954 the French stronghold of Dien Bien Phu fell
 June, Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel
 1956 elections were held to reunify the country
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C. Vietnam Drawn into the Cold War
•
US in 1954 formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
o Resembled the NATO, but without Military force or all states in the region
o American ;policymakers began to think about Indochina interms of the Korean
example
o Communist puppet, domino theory
• U.S. began to step in w./ military and economic aid, chose to support Ngo Dinh Diemstrong noncommunist nationalist who established a Republic of Vietnam in the territory
for which the Geneval conference had made Fr. responsible
• The National Liberation Front was founded w/ goals of overthrowing Diem, unifying
the country, ousting the Americans: anticolonial, nationalist and communist-military arm
was called the Viet Cong and was aided by the gov. of North Vietnam
• Diem also faced mounting criticism from Buddhists and army, response was further
repression
D. Direct U.S. Involvement
o American military presence grew, Diem was overthrown and murdered in an army
coup in which the U.S> was deeply involved
o U.S> hoped a new gov. in S. Vietnam would generate popular support
o U.S> settled on Nguyen Van Thieu who would govern S. Vietnam from 1966-1975
o After Kennedy was assassinated, Lyndon Johnson vastly expanded the commitment
to S. Vietnam
o After an attack on an American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson authorized the
1st bombing of N. Vietnam
o Land war grew until more than 500,000 troops were station in S. Vietnam
o Nixon began policy known as Vietnamizaiton-involved gradual withdrawal fo
American troops from Vietnam until S. Vietnamese army took over military effort
o Soon after, N. Vietnamese army took Saigon
o U.S> was seen as an ambitious, aggressive, and cruel power trying to keep
colonialism alive
VI. Western European Political Developments during the Cold War
o The nations of Western Europe achieved unprecedented econ prosperity and maintained
independent liberal democratic gov.
o Construction of stable liberal democratic political f/w became a major goal of the postwar
political leaders, as well as the U.S.
o All recognized that earlier political structures hadn’t been able to resist right-wing
antidemocratic movements
o Democracy requires a social and economic base, as well as a political structure
A. Christian Democratic Parties
o Except for British Labour Party, the vehicles of new postwar politics weren’t the
democratic socialist parties
o Democratic socialist parties didn’t prosper during CW, opposed by communists and
conservatives. Rather, Christian democratic parties, usually leading coalition gov.
introduced the new policies
o Parties were largely Roman Catholic in leadership/membership-postwar Christian
democratic parties were different prewar parties b/c they were progressive and welcomed
non-Catholic members: democracy, social reform, econ growth and anticommunim was
their platform
B. Economic Concerns Within Western Europe
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Economy dominated all other political issues from the end of WWII onward, except Fr.
Most remarkable success story was the “economic miracle” of W. Germany
W. Germany under both Christian Democratic and Social Democratic ministries achieved
unprecedented prosperity
o In GB, the Labour ministry of Clement Attlee introduced the welfare state and
nationalized major industries
o Margaret Thatcher, 1st woman PM moved strongly against the unions and pressed for a
more nearly free market economy, after 18 years of Conservative gov., the Labour Party
returned to power on a platform of much more limited state intervention
o Traditional political left favored retreat from gov. involvement and gov.-sponsored
welfare programs
VII. Toward Western Europe Unification
o Steps toward econ cop and unity that W. European nations have taken during the past 5
decades are the single most important European success story of the 2nd half of century
A. Postwar Cooperation
o Economic cooperation involved little or no immediate loss of sovereignty and
brought material benefits to all the states involved, increasing popular support for
their gov.
o Administration of the Marshall Plan and NATO gave countries new experience
w/ working w/ each other
o 1st effort was formation of the European Coal and Steel Community by Fr., W.
Germany, Italy, and the Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, and
Luxembourg)
o Community benefited from immense growth of material production-success
reduced suspicions of gov. and biz groups about economic integration
B. The European Economic Community
o In 1957 through the Treaty of Rome, the 6 members of the Coal and Steel
Community agreed to for m a anew org., the European Economic Community
(EEC)-AKA the Common Market, envisioned more than a free-trade union: sought
to achieve elimination of tariffs, a free flow of capital and labor, and similar wage
and social benefits in all their countries
o Common Market achieved stunning success: all tariffs had been abolished, non
member states wanted to seek membership, GB tried to join Common Market
membership twice, but President de Gaulle of Fr. vetoed British membership, b/c he
thought GB was too closely tied to the U.S>
o Finally GB, Denmark and Ireland became members
o Momentum slowed as Norway/Sweden w/ relatively strong econs declined to join,
sense of stagnation w/I the EEC continued
C. The European Union
o In 1988, the leaders of the EEC reached an important decision: EEC was to be a
virtual free trade zones, the Treaty of Maastricht made a series of specific proposals
leading to a unified EEC currency (Euro) and a strong central bank
o Treaty was initially failed to be adopted in Denmark and passed only narrowly in Fr.
and GB making clear that it couldn’t be enforced w/o wider pouplar support
o EEC was renamed the European Union-launched the EURO
o Several major political concerns: 1st-how to relate to host of newly independent states
in E. Europe, 2nd profound influence of Germany, 3rd-differences in political
leadership
VIII. Brezhnev Era in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
o
o
o
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o
SU resisted change both internally and w/I Eastern Europe
o Brezhnev who governed from 1964-1982, SU became more repressive at home
o Dissidents rose up against internal repression: accused gov. of violating HR in Helsinki
o
o
A.
o
o
o
o
o
B.
C.
Accords, included Andrei Sakharov, Noble Prize winner
Gov. responded w/ further repression, placing opponents in house arrest/psychiatric
hospitals
Communist Party became rigidified and corrupt
United States and Détente
Foreign policy under Brezhnev combined attempts to reach an accommodation w/ the
U.S. w/ continued efforts to expand Soviet influence and maintain Soviet leadership
Under Nixon, the U.S> began a policy of détente w/ the SU and the 2 countries
concluded agreements on trade and reducing strategic arms
Soviet spending on defense was damaging the consumer sectors of the economyDuring
Ford’s presidency, both the U.S> and the SU along w/ European nations signed the
Helsinki Accords-recognized the Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, but recognized the
HR of the signer’s citizens which every gov. agreed to protect
Jimmy Carter sought to induce the SU to comply, a policy that cooled relations
Through this period of Détente, the SU pursued an activist foreign policy, after Cuban
Missile Crisis, SU was determined to build up its military forces and by the early 1980s,
the SU possessed the largest armed force in the world and achieved virtual unclear parity
w/ the U.S.
Invasion of Afghanistan
o It was at this moment of great military strength in 1979, that Brezhnev decided to
invade Afghanistan
o Brezhnev gov. was determined to send troops to ensure its influence in central Asia
and to support a client Afghan gov.
o Invasion brought a sharp response from the U.S>, Senate refused to ratify a 2nd
Strategic Arms Limitation agreement ,embargoed grain shipments to the SU,
boycotted the 1980 Olymipc Games in Moscow and sent aid to the Afghan rebels
through various 3rd parties
o U.S> CIA also became directly involved w/ the Afghan forces
o Eventually, SU forces were bogged down in Afghanistan and couldn’t defeat their
guerrilla enemies
o Same demoralizing effect and strength-sapping effect on the SU as the Vietnam
conflict had in the U.S.
Communism and Solidarity in Poland
o Events in Poland challenged both the authority of the Polish Communist Party and
the influence of the SU
o Polich Communsit Party had accommodated itself to Soviet domination
o After the Polish crisis in 1956, Poland was plagued by chronic economic
mismanagement and shortages of food and consumer goods
o In 1978, election of karol Wojtyla, cardinal archbishop of Krakow as pope proved
important for Polish resistance to communist control and Soviet domination
o New Popoe was outspoken opponent of communism and occupied a position of
authority and enormous public visibility well beyond the reach of Soviet communist
control
o Poolish gov. raised meat prices, lead to hundreds of protest strikes, workers occupied
the Lenin shipyard at Gdansk, strikers led by Lech Walesa refused to negotiate
through gov. controlled unions
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o Gdansk strike ended after gov. promised the workers the right ot org. an independent
union called Solidarity
o The head of the Polish Communist Party was replaced, Polish courts recognized
Solidarity, state-controlled radio broadcast a RC mass for the 1st time in 30 yrs
o Secret election for the party congress were permitted
o This extraordinairy Polish experient ended abruptly
o General Wojciech Jaruzelski became head of the Polich CP and the army imposed
martial law, leaders of the Solidarity were arrested
o Polish military acted to preserve its own position and perhaps to prevent a Soviet
invasion similar to the one in Czeh
D. Relations with the Reagan Administration
o Early in the admin of Ronald Rxed its grain embargo and placed less emphasis on
HR-Reagan intensified Cold War rhetoric describing SU as “Evil Empire”
o Reagan increased U.S> military spending, slowed arm limitation negotiations,
deployed a major new missile system in Europe, and proposed the Strategic Defense
Initiative (STAR WARS) involving a high-tech space-based defense against nuclear
attack
o Forced the SU to increase its own defense spending and contributed to the economic
probelsm that helped bring about its collapse
IX. The Collapse of European Communism
• Withdrawal of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe is the most important event in 2nd half
of 20th century
o All other governments fell because of domestic revolution or military defeat
 Soviet Union imploded and became divided
• Under Brezhnev, the Soviet government became more Repressive
o 1974 expelled Solzhenitxyn and harassed Jews, blocking immigration to Israel
o Some criticized the people by repressing them
 Communist party became more and more corrupt
A. Gorbachev Redirects the Soviet Union
• Gorbachev brought a dramatic collapse to the soviet union
• Gorbachev hoped to rejuvenate the original Bolshevik vision, which he believed that
corruption and political terror had prevented from being realized
o Brezhnev’s 2 successors died within 13 months of each other
 Gorbachev started reforms that forced him in 7 years to retire and end
communist rule
• Economic Perestroika
o Gorbachev tried to raise standard of living in order to improve economy
o Under policy of perestroika or “restructuring” he reduced the size and power of
centralized economic ministries
 1989 promised striking Coal workers better wages and political liberties
o 1990, Gorbachev began to advocate private ownership of property and
liberalization of the economy toward free market mechanisms
o Followed Lenin’s model of the NEP
o However, Soviet econ was still stagnant and the failure of Gorbachev’s economic
policies affected his political policies
• Glasnost
o Gorbachev allowed lots of public discussion and criticism, openness or glasnost
o Censorship was relaxed and Dissenters were released from prison
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Underestimated unrest that internal national discontent could generate
Allowed national minorities w/I the SU to demand political autonomy
Applied perestroika to the political arena
 1988 openly contested elections
o Open discussion allowed nationalities to demand autonomy
 Glasnost brought forward discontent and Gorbachev was unable to
answer the complaints
Persetroika and the Army
o Army was single most important national institution of the SU
o Enjoyed enormous prestive, instiution through which a people w/ many different
national and ethnic loyalties had been given a national identity
o Gorbachev had concluded that only a significant redployment of military
spending to domestic concerns could stimulate the ECOn growth
o Gorbachev began to retreat from the Afghan war and reduce weapon spending
o Caused massive dislocations in what was still a centrally planned economy
o Soviet military faced new problem: army was ordered to put down several
instances of domestic unrest involving ethnic groups, greater openness meant
media covered these clashes and the central gov. allowed the army to take the
blame for the incidents
o Morale and military prestige suffered
o Gorbachev undermined the military just by cutting its size-tried to convince the
West that the SU was serious about arms reduction
o Some of Woviet republics began to org. their own national military forces
o Resistance against conscription in the army
B. 1989: Revolution in Eastern Europe
• Solidarity Reemerges in Poland
o 1980s, the government relaxed martial law
 1988 new strikes appeared and the government couldn’t control them
 Solidarity was legalized, and Lech Walesa became a mediator became a
mediator
o Jaruzelski began political reforms, and started free elections in 1989
 Majority elected was filled with Solidarity candidates and Jaruzelski
appointed a Solidarity prime minister
• Toward Hungarian Independence
o 1989 more soviet –dominated states moved twords independence.
 The Hngarian government opened it’s border with Austria
 This was a breach in the Iron curtain and thousands of East Germans
moved through Hungary and Austria to West Germany
 Hungarian party changed it’s name to socialist party and allowed free
elections
• German Reunification
o 1989 popular demonstrations erupted in East German cities
 Gorbachev said that he would not response with force
 The East German Government resigned
o November 1989 they opened the Berlin Wall
o Faced the Issue of German reunification
 1990 reunified
• The Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia
o
o
o

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o Revolution in Czechoslovakia followed
Soviet Stance on Revolutionary Developments
o None of the revolutions of 1989 could have taken place unless the SU had refused to
intervecne military, it became clear that Gorbachev wouldn’t rescue the old=line
communist governments
o Formally renounced the Brezhnev Doctrine
o Major question facing SU was peaceful withdrawal of its troops from EE
o Peaceful nature could’ve resulted from shock of repression of Tiananment Square
demonstration
C. The Collapse of the Soviet Union
• Gorbachev believed his behavior showed that the SU couldn’t support communists
governments while busy with their own economy
o Concluded Communist Party must restructure itself
• Renunciation of Communist Political Monopoly
o Didn’t want to abandon communism, but wanted to open the political process to
genuine competition
o Confronted challenges from 3 political forces:
 Conservatives who wanted old Soviet power, appeared to control large
groups of the economy, appointed them to key positions b/c he was
disturbed by nation’s turmoil and was facing opposition from a 2nd group
 Those who wanted much more extensive and rapid change, leading
spokesman was Boris Yeltsin, wanted to move quickly to a market econ
and a more democratic government, was elected president of the Russian
Republic-had a firm political base
 Third force was growing regional unrest in some of the republics of
the SU
 Greatest unrest came from the 3 Baltic republics
 1989-1990 Baltic republics tried to decrease Soviet control
 Gorbachev used military force
o Discontent arose in Soviet Islamic republics and Riots in Azerbaijan and
Tajikistan
 Failed to make arrangements and lead to the collapse of the Soviet Union
• The August 1991 Coup
o Conservative forces attempted a coup-turning point in all of these events
 Troops occupied Moscow
 Coup collapsed in 2 days, and Gorbachev returned in humiliation
 Boris Yeltsin climbed on a tank in front of the Russian Parliament to
denounce the coup and ask the world for help to maintain the SU’s
movement toward democracy
o W/I days the coup collapsed and Gorbachev returned to Moscow in humiliation
o One of the largest demonstrations celebrated the failure of the coup
 Yeltsin became the dominate political group
 The communist Party, collapsed as they supported the coup
o December 1991 the SU ceased to exist and Gorbachev left office. Constitutional
arrangements b/t central gov. And individual republics were revised
o Closed the era of Marxism and Marxist socialism was discredited
o Commonwealth of Independent States came into being
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D. The Yeltsin Decade and Putin
• Yeltsin became the strongest leader, as prez of Russia he was head of the largest and
most powerful state
o 1992 had high popularity, but he faced serious economic and political problems
 Bad relations between the president and the parliament (made up of
former communists)
 September 1993, Yeltsin suspended the parliament
o Parliament tried to incite uprisings but the military backed Yeltsin
 Crushed opposition with tanks
 This centralized him and the Western powers concerned with political
turmoil supported him
o December 1993, Russians voted for a new parliament and new constitution
o New conflict in Chechnya in the Caucasus-conflict ongoing today w/ radical
Muslims
o Privatization of state-owned industries created oligarchs.
 Russian economy remained stagnant and in 1998 it defaulted on it’s debt
 Yeltsin resigns with political unrest and econ downturn being major
reasons
 Putin takes over
E. The Collapse of Yugoslavia and Civil War
• Yugoslavia was made after WWI
o Borders with lots of people that had conflicts
o Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Montenegrins, Macedonians, Bosnians, and Albanians
o 1st communist leader was Marshal Tito who acted independently of Stalin, and
muted ethnic difference through making a cult of personality and complex
political power sharing
 After his death, lots of economic difficulties and Yugoslavia went into
civil war
o 1980s, ethnic differences came again as Nationalist leaders Milosevic in Serbia
and Tudjman in Croatia got authority
 Serbs wanted more influence, and outside Yugoslavia Serbs encountered
discrimination
 Violence ensured
o 1990, Slovenia and Croatia declared independence from Yugoslav, and many
nations granted them recognition, most importantly Germany
• Serbia, concerned about Serbs in Croatia, was determined to maintain the Yugoslav state
• Croatia was equally determined to secure independence
• Croatian serbs demanded safeguards against discrimination and violence providing
Serbian army w/ justification to move agaisnt Croation
o June 1991 an ethnic war emerged
o 1992, Croatian and Serbian forces determined to divide Bosnia-Herzegovina
o Muslims in Bosnia soon became crushed b/t opposinig forcew, in particular,
Serbs pursued ethnic cleansing and removed Bosnian Muslims
o Bombing of Sarajeva (capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina) brought the violence to the
eyes of the war
 UN imposed sanctions that didn’t work
 1994, a shell exploded in the marketplace and NATO forced Serbs to
withdraw their artillery
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 1995, started strategic air strikes
o Peace in Dayton Ohio: recognized independent Bosnia, enfoced by NATO
troops
• Late 1990s, Serbian aggression went to Albanians in province of Kosovo drew NATO
into Yugoslavian affairs
o Media showed Serbians carrying out forcible removals of ethnic Albanians from
Kosovo, closely resembled Bosnia
 1999, NATO carried another Air campaign which was largest military
action since WWII, introduced NATO forces into Kosovo to restore
ethnic Albanians
 A brief revolution overthrew the gov. of Milosevic and the new
Yugoslav gov. turned the former leader over to the International War
Crimes Tribunal
F. Implications of the Collapse of Communism
o Closed the era in which Marxism dominated European socialism
o Marxist socialism has been discredited-other groups like feminists and environmentalists
provide kind of social criticism
o Altered international relations w/I Europea: demise of Warsaw Pact made future of
NATO unclear
X. Europe at the Opening of the Global Century
o IN 1900, major European nations dominated the entire world
o Euroepans in the next century will play a major role, but not the dominant role
o Emergence of the European community has opened new ways of thinking about Europe
as a single community
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I. The Twentieth-Century movement of people
o Movement of people transformed European society
o Forced removal one way
o Economic transformations brought extensive migrations
 Move from countryside to cities
o Stalin literally moved whole nationalities, and transformed cities
A. Displacement through war
o WWII made a vast refugee problem as 46 mil people were displaced
o Many cities were destroyed
o Changes in borders caused countries to expel people
 This ‘solved’ the problem as Germanys now only lived in Germany
B. External and Internal Migration
o 1945-1960, half a mil Europeans left Europe a year
o A bit down, but included educated city dwellers
o De-colonization had Europeans returning
 1 mil French colonials moving to France after the end of the Algerian
war in 1962
 Led non-European inhabitants to migrate to Europe
 This lead to social tension and conflict
C. The New Muslim Population
o Muslims usually were not in Europe
o Christian missionaries clashed with Muslim religious teachers
o Most identified themselves as Christian or secular
o Muslims came due to European economic growth and decolonization
 After WWII a labor shortage developed and Western Europe imported
labors from Muslim nations
 Faced some discrimination
 Only in great Britain there was none
o Few countries had experience with large scale immigration
 Muslims became isolated, and with no skills had trouble finding jobs
 Became the target of groups such as Le Pen which placed the blame of
unemployment
D. European Population Trends
o During past ¼ century, pop. of Europe measured in terms of European birthrate has
stabilized
o Europeans are having so many fewer children that they are no longer replacing
themselves
o Birthrate is 1.4 children per European woman
o Europe will face an aging population
II. The Welfare State
o GD, rise of authoritarian states, and WWII led to a marked change in how Europeans
thought about social welfare
o Gov’ts began to spend more on social welfare than they did on the military
o Reaction to the state violence of the 1st half of the century and NATO defense umbrella
offered protection
o Before WWII, 2 basic models for social legislations: German and British
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German: Bismarck had introduced social insurance in Germany to undermine the
German Social Democratic Party, German gov. provided workers w/ social insurance and
a sense of social security while denying htem political participation
o Britain: social insurance was targeted toward the very poor, all classes ahd access to the
political system
o Both forms insured worekkrs against risks arising from disease, injury on the job, and old
age
o After WWII, concept emerged that social insurance against predictable risks was a social
right and should be universally available to all citizens
o Concept most famously set forth in GB by William B. Beveridge
o Making converage universal was attractive to conservatives as well as soiclaists
o GB was 1st major European nation to begin to create a welfare state, during the 1945 to
1951 ministry of Clement Attlee, creation of the National Health Service
o Western European attitudes toward welfare have reflected 3 periods that have marked
economic life since WWII: 1st period was reconstruction, 2nd period was almost 25 years
of steady econ growth and 3rd period brought inflation and relatively low growth
o During 1st 2 periods, general convinction existed based on Keynesian economics that the
foundation of econ policy was gov’t involvement in a mixed economy
o From the late 1970s more ppl came to believe the market should be allowed ot regulate
itself and the gov’t should be less involved in the economy
o Welfare services have begun to encounter resistance, funding assumes a growing pop.
and low unemployment, but the leveling off of population growth means welfare
structures can’t work
III. New Patterns in the Work and Expectations of Women
o Decades since WWII have witnessed striking changes in the work patterns and social
expectations of European women
o Women have begun to assume larger economic and political roles
o More women have entered learned professions/managerial positions
o Despite enormous gains, gemder inequality remained a major characteristic of the social
life of Europe at the opening of the 21st century
A. Feminism
o European feminism has set forth a new agenda: most widely read postwar work on
women’s issues was Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex, published in 1949
o De Beauvoir explored the difference being a woman rather than a man had made in her
life-part of Fr. intellectual establishment and wrote fro ma privileged position
o European feminists argued that at all levels, European women experienced distinct social
and economic disadvantages
o Recent feminism has been a less political movement than a social movement offering a
broader critique of European culture
o Emphasis on women controlling hteir own lives may be the most important element of
recent European feminism-whereas earlier women wanted civic equality, women are now
pursuing personal independence and issues that are particular to women
B. More Married Women in the Work Force
o # of married women in the work force rose sharply
o Middle-class and working-class married women have sought jobs outside the home
o B/c of low birthrate, few young single women were employed in the years just after
WWII, married women entered the job market to replace tehm
o No need for child care and financial necessity were two major causes
C. New Work Patterns
o
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o Work pattern of European women has been very consistent in 20th century
Single women enter workforce after schooling and continue to work after marriage,
stop working to care for their young children, but return to work when children begin
school
o Childbearing takes place at a later age
o Controversy over abortion
D. Women in the New Eastern Europe
o Women generally enjoyed social equality and welfare, but no significant women’s
movements and which are regarded with suspicion
o New gov’ts of the region are free, but they have shown little concern w/ women’s
issues
o Economic difficulties hurt women
III. Transformations in Knowledge and Culture
o Knowledge and culture were rapidly transformed
o Higher education expanded
o Existentialism challenged traditional intellectual attitudes
A. Communism and Western Europe
o Europe had large, organized communist parties until the final decade of the 20th century
o The Intellectuals
o 1930s, intellectuals supported communism
o Soviet actions then disillusioned people
 Some still supported marx, and looked to Yugoslavia or china
 Also tried to redefined the basic message of marx, marx did have nonrevolutionary works
B. Existentialism
o Intellectual movement that perhaps best captured the predicament and mood of midtwentieth century European culture
o Movement represented in part a continuation of the revolt against reason
o Roots in Nietzsche and Kierkegaard-Nietzsche was major forerunner of
existentialism, Kierkegaard was a rebel against both Hegelian philosophy and
maintained that the truth of Christianity could be grasped only in the lives of those
who faced extreme situations. Kierkegaard criticized Hegelian philosophy and all
modes of academic rational philosophy. Faith in rational human development and
advancement hadn’t withstood extreme experiences of war
o Questioning of Rationalism-emajor existential writers included the Germans
Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers and Jean-Paul Sartre-questioned primacy of
reason and scientific understanding
o Existentialists were more radical than the romantic writers
o According to existentialists, human beings are compelled to form their own ethical
values and can’t depend on society
o Existentialists protested against reason, tech, and politics
C. Expansion of the University Population and Student Rebellion
o Increasing #s of Europeans received university education
o Student rebellion of the 1960s-radical political critique of the U.S>, E. Europe
resentment was also directed toward the SU, movement was generally antimilitarist,
students questioned middle-class values
o Student movement reached its peak in 1968 w/ student demonstrations agaisnt U.S>
involvement in Vietnam
o
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Students at the Sorbonne in Paris seriously challenged the gov’t of Charles de Gaulle
and in Czech students were in the forefront of the liberal socialist experiment
o Era of student rebellion passed in the early 1970s, students remained active agaisnt
nuclear weapons and abandoned disruptive protests
D. The Americanization of Europe
o Word Americanization-appears as a term of criticism in European publications,
refers in part to the economic and military influence of the U.S> and also concerns
about cultural loss
o America is the culture hegemon
E. A Consumer Society
o Consumer sector has expanded during the last half century
o Western Europe has enjoyed expansion of consumer goods and services
F. Environmentalism
o In expansive times, there was little room for public debate about the ethics of econ
expansion and their effects on the environment
o Club of Rome and the German Greens-formed a political party in 1979 that
immediately became an electoral force
o Several developments behind new concern for environment: Arab oil embargo
showed West that natural resources are limited and environmental consequences
became apparent
o German Green movement originated among radical students of the late 1960s, it was
anticapitalists and antinuclear-avoided violence and mass demonstrations seeking to
enter the electoral process directly
o 1968 Chernobly disaster in the nuclear reactor heightened concerns about
environmental isues
o Virtually all European governmentsbegan to respond to environmental concerns
IV. The Christian Heritage
o Christianity in Europe has continued to be as hard pressed during the 20th century as
during the 19th century
o Things replaced faith, but Euroepan Christian churches still exercised considerable social
and political influence
o Churhces weren’t subdued by Nazis, opposed Hitler and communism
o Religious affiliation provided much of the initial basis for the Christian Democratic
parties, have influenced state and society through critical questions about colonialism,
nuclear weapons, human rights, and other issues
A. Neo-Orthodoxy
o Liberal theology protrayued human nature as close to the divine
o Most important Christian response to the experience of WWI appeared in the
theology of Karl Barth-Swiss pastor published A Commentary on the Epistle to
the Romans, which reemphasized transcendence of God and the dependence of
humankind on the divine
o Barth portrayed God as different from humankind, returned to the Reformation
theology of Luther, like Kierkegaard Barth regarded the lived experience of men and
women as the best testimony to the truth of Luther’s theology
o View challenged much 19th century writing about human nature, became known as
Neo-Orthodoxy
B. Liebral Theology
o
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o Neo-Orthodoxy didn’t sweep away liberal theology which had a strong advocate in Paul
Tillich-German American theologian tended to regard religion as a human rather than a
divine phenomenon
o Whereas Barth saw God as dwelling outside humankind, Tillich believed that evidence of
the divine had to be sought in human nature and human culture
o Other liberal theologians such as Rudolf Bultmann continued to work on the problems
of naturalism and supernaturalism that had troubled earlier writers
C. Roman Catholic Reform
o Most significant postwar changes have been in the Roman Catholic Church
o Pope John XXIII initiated these changes, the most extensive in Catholicism fore more
than a century, summoned the Twenty-first Ecumencial Council-requred masses to be
celebrated in vernacular languages rather than Latin, permitted freer relations w/ other
Christian denominations, fostered new spirit toward Judaism, gave more power to
bishops
o Transformed church into a truly world body
o John Paul II, former Karol Wojtla, pursued a 3-pronged policy: maintained
traditionalist doctrine, took firm stand against communism, encouraged expansion of the
church in the non-Western world
V. Late-Twentieth-Century Technology: The Arrival of the Computer
o Tech crossed international bordersno tech achievement will so influence Western life as
well as the computer
A. The Demand for Calculating Machines
o Thinkers attempted to construct machines that would carry out mathematical calculatiosn
that human beings would find iompossible
B. Early Computer Technology
o 1st machine recognized as a modern digital computer was the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)
o Built at Moore Laboratories of the UPENN and put inot the U.S> army
C. The Development of Desktop Computers
o Computers became smaller
o 2 remarkable innovations transformed computing technology: 1st-direction for the control
of the computer became transferred to a bitmap coverin the screen of a computer monitor,
2nd-microchip became the heart of all future computers
VI. The Rise of Radical Political Islamism
o Radical Islamism-term used to describe an interpretation of Islam that came to have a
significant impact in the Muslim world following decolonization, describes motivation of
attacks by Islamic terrorists on the Western world guided by ideologies in the Islamic
world
A. Arab Nationalism
o RI arose primarily in reaction to the secular Arab nationalism that developed in countries
like Egypt and Syria
o Advocates of radical Islam wanted to reject Western ideas and create a society based on a
rigorous interpretation of Islam and its teachings
o In wake of WWII, many of the foremost leaders of Arab nationalism such as Gamal
Abdul Nasser of Egypt were sympathetic to socialism or the SU
o Wahhabism-rigorist, puritanical form of Islam that the Saudi royal familiy turned over
its educational system to
B. The Iranian Revolutio
o Iranian Revolution of 1979 transformed the ME
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o Ayatollah Khomeini managed to unite the middle and lower classes of a major ME
nation against a modernizeing gov. that had long coop w/ the U.S.
o For the 1st time, a religiously dominated gov. defined itself and its mission in distinctly
Islamic as well as nationalistic terms took control of a major state
o Revolutionary gov. of Iran was a teeocracy, Iranian Revolution challenged the
Westernization of Iranian society and shocked the world
o Embodied and emboldened the forces of what is commonly called Islamic
fundamentalism, but is more correctly termed Muslim reformism-believed that a
reformed or pure Islam must be established in the contemporary world
o After the IR, conservative Arab governments began to fear the rev would challenge their
own legitimacy, began to pay more attention to their own religious authorities and
cracked down on radical reformist or fundamentalist Muslims
C. Invasion of Afghanistan
o Russian invasion of Afghanistan of 1979 illustrated the convergence of Cold War and
Islamist politics
o SU sought to impose a communist, and both Western and athest government
inAfghanistan
o Certain Muslim religious authorities declared jihad-“a struggle”, commonly interpreted
as a religious war agaisnt the SU, the Afghan resistance to the Soviets became
simultaneously nationalistic, universalistic, and religious
o 1000s of Muslims mostly fundamentalist in outlook arrived in Afghanistan to oust the
Soviets and their Afghan puppets
o Conservative Arab states and the U.S> supported this effort which succeeded by the late
1980s
o Conservative Arab states was war as opportunity to resist expansion of Soviet influence
and divert energies of their own religious extremist
o U.S. saw it as another round in the Cold War
o Militant Muslim fundamentalists saw it as a religious struggle agaisnt an impious
Wetsern power
D. Dispersion of Afghan Muslim Fighters
• After Soviets withdrew in 1989, a power vacuum in Afghanistan lasted almost a decade
• By 1998, The Taliban-rigorist muslims had seized control of the country, imposed strict
Islamic law (anti-Women, public executions for crimes) and allowed groups of Muslim
rerrorists known as Al Qaeda (which means Base) to establish training camps in their
country
• Ideology of these groups had emerged over several decades from different regions of the
Islamic world but had been impressed upon in Pakistan
• Pakistani gov. had assigned considerable control over edu. To Islamic schools or
madrasas, that taught reformed/pure Islam, rejection of liberal and nationalist secular
values, repudiation of Western civilization, hostility to Israel and hatred of the U.S>
• Once the jihad against the SU ahd succeeded, radical Muslims turned their attention to
the U.S>
• Event that brought about this redirection was the Perisan Gulf War of 1991-Saddam
Hussein had invaded Kuwait, conservative Arab gov. most importantly Saudi Arabia
permitted U.S to construct military bases on their territory and supported them
• Islamic extremists interpreted the establishment of U.S> bases in SA as a new arrival of
Western Crusaders into Muslim territory
• U.S> became a target b/c of its secular public morality, hegemonic power, and ongoing
support for Israel and adherence to the UN sanction imposed on Iraq after the Gulf War
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•
Throughout the 1990s, a number of terrorists attacks were directed agaisnt targets in or
associated w/ the U.S>
VII. A Transformed West
• 9/11 transformed American foreign policy into Bush’s “war on terrorism”
• U.S> attacked Taliban rapidly overthrowing it, dispersed Al QWaeda’s leadership
• Adminsitration set forth a policy of preemptive strikes and intervention
• Saddam Hussein had maintained repressive control over Iraq, resisted work of UN
inspectors charged w/ discovering and destroyin WMD in Iraq, U.S> adopted a policy of
regime change in Iraq
• Bush was convinced Saddam Hussein must be removed