United Nations Security Council
1st Topic:
“The situation in the Middle East: religious
terrorism as a possible threat to international
peace and security.”
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Table of Contents
Welcoming message .................................................................................................................. 3
The Security Council: composition and mandate ...................................................................... 4
General Introduction to the Topic ............................................................................................. 5
An introduction to religious terrorism ...................................................................................... 6
Historical background of extremism and religious terrorism in the Middle East ..................... 6
Most popular active terrorist Groups in Middle East .......................................................... 12
Jabhat al-Nusra (Victory Front) ....................................................................................... 12
Ansar Al-Shari’a (Supporters of Islamic Law) .................................................................. 13
Hezbollah (Party of God) ................................................................................................. 14
Hamas (Harakat Al Muqawama Al Islamiyya (Islamic Resistance Movement) ............... 14
Al – Qaeda (The base)...................................................................................................... 15
ISIS: The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (some call it ISIL: Islamic State in Iraq and the
Levant or IS: Islamic State) .............................................................................................. 17
The definition of terrorism .................................................................................................. 18
Type of terrorism: Religious terrorism ................................................................................ 20
International Action ................................................................................................................ 21
Ideas for propositions.............................................................................................................. 29
Bloc positions and key players ................................................................................................ 32
USA ...................................................................................................................................... 32
UK ........................................................................................................................................ 33
France .................................................................................................................................. 34
Russia ................................................................................................................................... 35
China .................................................................................................................................... 35
Israel .................................................................................................................................... 36
Iran....................................................................................................................................... 36
EU ........................................................................................................................................ 37
Arab League ......................................................................................................................... 38
Issues to be addressed during debate and resolution-writing................................................ 39
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 39
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Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 40
Welcoming message
Dear delegates,
We are more than delighted to welcome you all to the Security Council of
ThessISMUN 2015! We are absolutely confident that as members of the simulated
Council we will all manage to cooperate efficiently and effectively both during and
prior to the conference. However, in order to make that happen, we would like to
provide you with some valuable information just before you embark on your exciting
research on our topic area.
First of all, as you will have realized by now, you are holding or looking at the study
guide that we have meticulously prepared for you. This guide aims to offer you some
general information on the topic and, mostly, to show you the direction towards
which you should conduct your personal research. We can assure you that, should
you combine the present study guide with the additional information you will find on
your own, you will be sufficiently prepared for the Council Sessions.
Secondly, please be reminded that from this point on and until the closing ceremony
of ThessISMUN 2015 we remain at your disposal for any questions or remarks you
might have. You can always contact us through e-mail, either on our personal
accounts, which have been posted on the official website of ThessISMUN, or on the
Council’s official e-mail, which will be made public a couple of months before the
conference.
Furthermore, we would like to kindly ask you to be punctual in terms of the
deadlines we will set for the submission of your position papers. The sooner you
submit your work, the sooner we will correct it and thus, the more time you will
have to revise your argumentation and perfect your preparation for the sessions.
Besides, we strongly encourage you to start your preparation early enough, in order
for you to efficiently elaborate on the topic and produce an exquisite piece of work.
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Last but not least, keep track of news updates on our topic area. Religious terrorism
in the Middle East is currently one of the headlines in international news reports and
we expect it to be one up until the conference. Therefore, make sure you are fully
informed on the latest developments; it will definitely make your argumentation
more realistic and more concrete.
Tiresome as it may, this brief message is coming to its end and all that is left to say
(once again) is: Welcome to the Security Council!
Alexander Wenzel, President
Maria Ntourlia, Vice-President
The Security Council: composition and mandate
The Security Council is one of the six main organs of the United Nations. The UN
Charter appoints to the Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of
international peace and security. The Council holds formal meetings but it can also
meet whenever peace is threatened. All members of the United Nations agree to
accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of the
United Nations make recommendations to member states, only the Security Council
has the power to make decisions that member states are then obligated to
implement under the Charter1.
Under the United Nations Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council
are: to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles
and purposes of the United Nations; to investigate any dispute or situation which
might lead to international friction; to recommend methods of adjusting such
disputes or the terms of settlement; to formulate plans for the establishment of a
system to regulate armaments; to determine the existence of a threat to the peace
or act of aggression and to recommend what action should be taken; to call on
Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use of
force to prevent or stop aggression; to take military action against an aggressor;
recommend the admission of new Members; to exercise the trusteeship functions of
the United Nations in "strategic areas"; to recommend to the General Assembly the
1
United Nations Security Council, What is the Security Council? (http://www.un.org/en/sc/about/)
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appointment of the Secretary-General and, together with the Assembly, to elect the
Judges of the International Court of Justice2.
The Council is composed of 15 members: 5 permanent (USA, UK, France, China and
Russia) and 10 non-permament members elected for two-year terms by the General
Assembly. The current non-permanent members of the Council are: Argentina,
Australia, Chad, Chile, Jordan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Nigeria, Republic of Korea and
Rwanda. In addition, a State which is a member of the United Nations but not of the
Security Council may participate, without a vote, in its discussions when the Council
considers that that country's interests are affected. Finally, both members and nonmembers of the United Nations, if they are parties to a dispute being considered by
the Council, may be invited to take part, without a vote, in the Council's discussions;
the Council sets the conditions for participation by a non-member State3.
General Introduction to the Topic
According to the most widely-accepted definitions, the Middle East constitutes a
region consisting of the following states or territories: Turkey, Cyprus, Syria,
Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Israel, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Egypt, Sudan,
Libya, and the various states and territories of Arabia proper (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Yemen, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States, or Trucial Oman [now United
Arab Emirates])4. In the course of the last decades, the Middle East has witnessed
ongoing conflict, severe unrest and extended casualties. To top it all, the recent
violent activity of the religious extremist group ISIS, which aims to seize control of
the entire region and form an Islamic state ruled by Sharia law, has drawn the
attention of the International Community to an alarming predicament: how can we
preserve international peace and security when today’s most fervent terrorist
groups are based and mobilized in the Middle East, one of the most turbulent and
unstable regions in the world? In the following paragraphs, we will give you a general
overview of relevant factors and actors. Please keep in mind that you are to
represent the policies and
2
United Nations Security Council, Functions and Powers
(http://www.un.org/en/sc/about/functions.shtml)
3
United Nations Security Council, Current Members (http://www.un.org/en/sc/members/index.shtml)
4
Middle East, Encyclopedia Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/381192/MiddleEast)
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views of a specific State and will have to deepen your research as this is merely a
introduction to highly complicated issue.
An introduction to religious terrorism
Historical background of extremism and religious terrorism in the Middle East
Throughout the centuries, there have been several religious terrorist cases, not only
in Middle East but also in the entire world where people were committing horrible
crimes in the name of faith. Not only Islamists but other believers tortured or
brutally killed millions of people to reassure their faith and promote their systems.
Some religious terrorists are inspired by defensive motives, others seek to ensure
the predominance of their faith, and others are motivated by an aggressive amalgam
of these tendencies.5
Religious terrorism can be communal, genocidal, nihilistic, or revolutionary. It can be
committed by lone wolves, secret cells, large dissident movements, or governments.
And, depending on one’s perspective, there is often a debate about whether the
perpetrators should be classified as terrorists or religious freedom fighters.6
In this chapter we will focus on the Middle East, in order to examine terrorism and
its effects to the international community’s security further.
Christianity, world’s most popular religion has been accused several times, even
nowadays for terrorist actions against civilians and groups of people that they do not
agree with or that do not follow Christian beliefs.
Crusades are the strongest example of how Christians were forcing other states to
convert. For Crusaders, fighting and dying in the name of the cross would make them
martyrs and send them to paradise.78
Christian terrorism still exists and especially in the United States where attacks on
Jewish centers, attempts to poison municipal water supplies, bombing of abortion
clinics, and shooting of abortion providers have been reported.
5
Religious terrorism, pg. 131, as above
Religious terrorism, pg. 131, as above
7
Religious terrorism, pg. 131, as above
8
History, Crusades http://www.history.com/topics/crusades
6
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Timothy McVeigh’s bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City during
1995 killed 168 people. It showed that extremist Christians can be as deadly as their
extremist Islamic counterparts.910
Hasan ibn al-Sabbah, a caliph of the Ismaili sect of Islam founded the Order of
Hashhashins-Assassins, in order to defend this interpretation of the faith in the 11th
century. The Hashhashin, whose name gave us the English word "assassin," were
very adept at disguise, stealth, and surprise killings, and thus the word assassination
was coined. To kill or be killed was done in the name of the faith and ensured a place
in paradise after death. This belief is practiced by many of today’s religious terrorists.
The Assassins were conducting suicide missions and killed many fellow Muslims as
well as Christians.11
Terrorism in the name of Islam is the most familiar type of terrorism in the 21st
century. The violations of human rights and the growing tension in the Middle East
keep escalating and spreading fear across the World. The main division in Islam is
between the Sunni and the Shi’a who are initially stemmed not only from spiritual
differences, but historical ones as well12.
Sunni Muslims, historically accept all four caliphs as successors to Mohammed,
including the caliph Ali, Mohammed’s son-in-law and cousin. They believe that only
the prophet Mohammed and the holy Quran are authorities on questions of religion.
The Shi’a succession of imams is rejected. Also, Sunni’s believe that historically,
leaders within the Islamic world have been political leaders and heads of
governments rather than religious leaders and there is no strictly organized clergy.
For example, no single religious leader can claim ultimate authority, and non clergy
may lead prayers.13
Shi’a Muslims, historically reject the first three caliphs before Ali as being illegitimate
successors to Mohammed and as the first legitimate caliph, Ali was also the first in a
9
Amy Zalman, Religious Terrorism, A Short Primer on Religion and Terrorism, 2014
http://terrorism.about.com/od/politicalislamterrorism/tp/Religious-terrorism.htm
10
Vladimir Tomek, Religiously motivated terrorism, Terrorist acts by Christians and members of other
faiths, 2012 http://www.religioustolerance.org/tomek34d.htm
11
Religious Terrorism, pg 134, 135 http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/33557_6.pdf
12
What is the difference between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims?
http://islam.about.com/cs/divisions/f/shia_sunni.htm
13
Religious Terrorism, pg 147 http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/33557_6.pdf
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historical line of imams, or leaders within Muslim communities. They also believe
that Imams serve as both political and religious leaders and
that Imams have strict authority, and their pronouncements must be obeyed. Imams
are without sin and appoint their successors.14
Islam is linked from the beginning with the practice of divinely sanctioned warfare
and lethal injunctions against apostates and unbelievers while Islam experienced no
period of wandering and exclusion; from its inception, it formed a unitary state bent
on military conquest. While the Quran enjoins that there shall be "no compulsion in
religion," Islam still regards it as a holy duty to extend militarily the borders of the
House of Islam against the demonic world of unbelievers.15 Groups that justify their
violence on Islamic grounds, Al Qaeda, Hamas, Hezbollah, use tactics as suicide
bombers or tortures and executions in order to spread their beliefs and succeed
their goals. It is a common phenomenon that these groups not only want to prove
the world that they have an upper goal designed by God but also, as we will see
below by examining those groups, that they have political or geopolitical ambitions.
The most well known example of Islamic terrorism, took place in 9/11 2001 in New
York City where Al Qaeda was responsible for the attacks on the World Trade Center
(WTC) and the Pentagon16. Nineteen men hijacked four commercial airlines17and
this terrorist attack on the United States was orchestrated by al Qaeda leader Osama
bin Laden. A total of 2,977 people were killed in New York City, Washington, DC and
outside of Shanksville, Pennsylvania, in the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history.18
The aftermath of these attacks is well known, a counter-terrorism war escalated and
the international community was shocked by the brutality of both parties.
14
Religious Terrorism, pg 147 as above
Phillip Blond and Adrian Pabst, The New York Times, The roots of Islamic Terrorism, 2005
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/27/opinion/27iht-edpabst.html?_r=0
15
16
Prof Michel Chossudovsky, The 9/11 Reader, The September 11, 2001 Terror Attacks, Global
Research, 2012 http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-911-reader-the-september-11-2001-terrorattacks/5303012
17
September 11th Hijackers Fast Facts, CNN Library, 2014
http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/27/us/september-11th-hijackers-fast-facts/
18
September 11th Fast Facts, CNN Library, 2014
http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/27/us/september-11-anniversary-fast-facts/
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The war of terror as it is known today has been exercised, as mentioned above, by
several groups, that all fight under the flag of Islam but for different purposes.
Modern Arab Islamic Extremism came to existence gradually and only following the
geopolitical developments in the Middle East. After the Ottoman Empire’s overlordship ended in 1918 it was followed by a European domination through
colonialism which ended after World War II, in 1945.During the decolonization era,
the new Arab and North African states, were at first ruled by monarchs or civilians
who were always authoritarian and frequently despotic. Those regimes lead to a
series of military coups and other political upheavals which led to the modern era of
governance. 19
Postwar activism in the Arab Muslim world likewise progressed through several
intellectual phases, most of them secular expressions of nationalism and socialism.
At first it was the anticolonial nationalism, during which the Arab nationalists
resisted to the European presence in the region and demanded their departure
along with their armed forces. Then, in the early 60’s, the Egyptian President Gamel
Abdel Nasser who is also known for the failure of the Six days war with Israel in 1967,
lead the Pan-Arab movement for the creation of a single dynamic United Arab
Republic. Ideologically the secular leftist radicalism which was based on the
promotion of Marxist or other socialist principles of governance, was often opposed
to their governments. 20
All those theories gradually failed to deliver political reforms, economic prosperity,
and the desired degree of respect from the international community. For instance,
Arab countries were humiliated from their military defeats during the wars with
Israel and the seemingly intractable plight of the Palestinians so they were distanced
from the secular movements they were once embracing. On the other hand, their
religion along with their ideologies had struggled since the end of World War II to
resist what they perceived as Western domination and exploitation, and some
tradition-oriented nationalists began to interpret Western culture and values as alien
to Muslim morality and values.21
The failure of the previous generation’s ideologies, resulted in the rise of new
movements promoting Islamist extremism as the only viable solution to unify their
19
Religious Terrorism, pg 136, http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/33557_6.pdf
Religious Terrorism, pg 136 , as above
21
Religious Terrorism, pg 136 , as above
20
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people and claim their emancipation from the West. Especially after the Cold War,
Muslims in Arab countries were counting on the radical interpretation of Islam as a
vehicle for liberation.
There are several cases where theories have been invented in order to demonize a
group of people, such as the denial of the Holocaust. Nazi’s Germany, during the
Second World War launched a genocide and brutally murdered more than 6.000.000
Jewish people. Among the many conspiracy theories circulating in Middle Eastern
extremist circles, is the argument that the Nazi’s holocaust never occurred. They
claim that it is a hoax and that inside the camps such as Auschwitz and Dachau there
were workers and not victims of one of the world’s cruelest genocides. In order to
demonize Israel and Jewish people in general, many terrorist, far right groups not
only in the Middle East but also in the United States (Ku Klux Klan) adopt this theory
in order to marginalize the Jewish people. In December 2006, a major international
conference was convened in Tehran, Iran, to promote Holocaust denial. Also in a 2day conference sponsored by the Iranian government at the behest of President
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, he publicly called the Holocaust a myth in 2005.22 The
United Nations General Assembly condemned the Holocaust denial in January 2007.
In our era, religious terrorism is mostly practiced by radical Islamists. In the Western
world there is a huge misunderstanding regarding the historical and cultural origins
of the growth of the radical interpretation of Islam, such as that Muslims are united
in supporting jihad. 23
Jihad: It literally means a sacred struggle or effort rather than an armed conflict or
fanatical holy war. Although a jihad can certainly be manifested as a holy war, it
more correctly refers to the duty of Muslims to personally strive “in the way of God”.
This is the primary meaning of the term as used in the Quran, which refers to an
internal effort to reform bad habits (such as alcohol consumption) in the Islamic
community or within the individual Muslim. The term is also used more specifically
to denote a war waged in the service of religion.
Greater Jihad: It is referred to the struggle each person has within him or herself to
do what is right. Because of human pride, selfishness, and sinfulness, people of faith
must constantly wrestle with themselves and strive to do what is right and good.
22
23
Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above
Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above
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Lesser Jihad: Involves the outward defense of Islam. Muslims should be prepared to
defend Islam, including military defense, when the community of faith is under
attack.
Mujahedeen: Are those who engage in armed jihad and they are considered as holy
warriors. Mujahedeen who receive martyrdom by being killed in the name of the
faith will find that awaiting them in paradise are rivers of milk and honey, beautiful
young women and eventually reunion with their families.24
The causes for the modern resurgence of the armed and radical jihadist movement
are two: the revolutionary ideals and ideology of the 1979 Iranian Revolution and
the practical application of jihad against the Soviet Union’s occupation of
Afghanistan.25
Some radical Muslim clerics and scholars have concluded that the Afghan jihad
brought God’s judgment against the Soviet Union, leading to the collapse of its
empire. As a consequence, radical jihadists strongly believe that they are fighting in
the name of an inexorable force that will end in total victory and guarantee them a
place in paradise.26
These type of religious terrorists’ conceder their actions only justifiable but also
blessed. They consider themselves as the defenders of their beliefs against the
attacks of the non-believers or that their faith is indisputable and a universal guiding
principle must be advanced for the salvation of the faithful.27
There are examples confirm that religious terrorism in the Middle East occurs
between and within, local religious groups. Radical believers of many faiths attack
not only those of other religions but also “fallen” members of their own. Attacks
against proclaimed apostates can be quite violent. 28
Iraq is also a strong example of sectarian violence as the Hussein (Sunni’s leader, in
a country that Sunni population is a minority) years led to difficulty in fully
integrating all groups into accepting a single national identity. More ominously, the
Sunni minority, which had dominated the country under Hussein, found itself recast
24
Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above
Religious Terrorism, pg 140, 141, as above
26
Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above
27
Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above
28
Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above
25
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as a political minority when the country began to move toward democracy and an
interim government was established in June 2004. Iraqi religious extremists,
it is unclear whether they are Sunnis or Shi’a, conducted a series of attacks on nonMuslim cultural institutions. These included liquor stores (often owned by Christians)
and barber shops (that offered Western-style haircuts).29
Most popular active terrorist Groups in Middle East
Jabhat al-Nusra (Victory Front)
Also known as al-Nusra Front was formed in late 2011 when Iraq and more
specifically emir Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi (today’s head of Islamic State) sent operatives
to Syria in order to establish jihadist’s cells in the region and fight against the alAssad regime. He aimed at the creation of a salafist-oriented Sunni Islamist state in
Syria, once the al-Assad regime would fall. Jabhat al-Nusra is regarded as one of
Syria's main rebel groups which intends to establish an Islamist caliphate across the
Levant and it is considered as one of the best-equipped rebel groups in Syria. It also
believes that the fight against the Syrian regime is supported by religious texts, and
its fighters hope to fulfill 'God's wish' for an 'Islamic caliphate'. 30
In 2013, tensions rose between al-Nusra and its parent organization AQI (Al Qaeda in
Iraq) when Baghdadi unilaterally proclaimed that the two organizations had been
merged to create the Islamic State in Iraq and al Sham, but al-Nusra’s leader Julani,
rejected the merge and a number of al-Nusra fighters defected to ISIS, furthering
tension between the groups. By March 2014, over 3,000 fighters had been killed in
battles between ISIS and al-Nusra. In the summer of 2014, ISIS drove al-Nusra and a
number of its allies out of one of its key strongholds in Deir al-Zor, which included oil
fields that were an important source of al-Nusra's income. Regardless of the
documented confrontations, there is evidence of cooperation between ISIS and alNusra on the battlefield in some areas. There have been several attacks from alNusra ,the latest on 3 November 2014 when al-Nusra attacked and defeated the
Syrian Revolutionary Front (SRF) and Harakat Hazm in the Jabal al-Zawiya region in
Idlib. The two groups, moderate rebels linked to the FSA, surrendered local towns to
29
Religious Terrorism, pg 142, as above
Australian National Security,
http://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/Jabhatal-Nusra.aspx
30
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al-Nusra. Some members of the FSA-linked groups were arrested, and others
defected to al-Nusra.3132
Ansar Al-Shari’a (Supporters of Islamic Law)
The naming trend actually started in Yemen, when al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula
(AQAP), the powerful and ambitious local al Qaeda branch, established the front
group Ansar al-Sharia in Yemen in April 2011. It is possible this was born out of
Osama bin Laden's musings over whether to rebrand al Qaeda. However none of the
names in the documents captured from the late al Qaeda leader's compound,
mentioned Ansar al-Sharia as a potential example. More recently, one of the
preeminent global jihadi ideologues, Shaykh Abu al-Mundhir al-Shinqiti, put his
stamp of approval on the new wave of Ansar al-Sharia groups. They are fighting in
different lands using different means, but all for the same end, an approach better
suited for the vagaries born of the Arab uprisings. 33
In March 2011 Ansar al-Sharia was established in Tunisia and declared itself
responsible for the attack on September 14, 2012 against the U.S. Embassy and the
American school in Tunis, which put the lives of over one hundred United States
employees in the Embassy at risk. Members of both organizations continue to pose a
threat to U.S. interests in Libya. In Morocco and Egypt, Ansar al-Sharia has not
publicly announced itself as an organized group on the ground, while the Moroccan
organization was only created few months ago. Ansar al-Sharia is said to have links
to Al-Qaeda, but the group denies these allegations. ASM's raison d'etre is to spread
the word of God and his law, provide social and economic services to the
downtrodden, and expose the West's decadence and to free society from its grip.3435
31
Stanford University, Mapping Militant Organizations,
http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/493
32
Sven Pöhle, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, 26/06/2014,
http://www.dw.de/islamist-terror-groups-in-africa-and-middle-east/a-17739751
33
Aaron Y. Zelin, The Washington Institute, Know Your Ansar al-Sharia, 2012
http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/know-your-ansar-al-sharia
34
US Department of State, Terrorist Designations of Three Ansar al-Shari'a Organizations and Leaders,
Office of the Spokesman, Washington DC, 2014
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/01/219519.htm
35
Sven Pöhle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East, Deutche Welle, 26/06/2014
http://www.dw.de/islamist-terror-groups-in-africa-and-middle-east/a-17739751
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Hezbollah (Party of God) 36
Hezbollah is an extremist’s Shiite group founded in 1982 after the Iranian
revolution of 1979 and active especially in Lebanon. This group receives support
from Syria and Iran and its units are fighting in Syria on the side of President Bashar
al-Assad's forces.37 Hezbollah had two goals when it was founded: removing the
Israeli presence in South Lebanon that remained following the 1982 invasion, and
establishing a Shi’a Islamic state in the image of the post-revolution Islamic state of
Iran.38 Hezbollah later abandoned its goal of an Iranian-style Islamic state, and is now
nationalist and Islamic in its political orientation. 39 Hezbollah's raison d'etre,
resistance to Israel and Western involvement in the Middle East, has made it an
effective proxy for Iranian foreign policy while earning the group some support from
beyond its Shiite base. 40 In 1985 in their manifest they stated: "Our primary
assumption in our fight against Israel states that the Zionist entity is aggressive from
its inception, and built on lands wrested from their owners, at the expense of the
rights of the Muslim people. Therefore our struggle will end only when this entity is
obliterated. We recognize no treaty with it, no ceasefire, and no peace agreements,
whether separate or consolidated." 41 Also in October 1983 suicide attacks on the
U.S. embassy and Marine Corps barracks in Beirut (258 Americans killed) furthered
the group's image as leaders of the Shiite resistance.42 Hezbollah's military arm is
listed as a terrorist organization in the US and the EU. Hezbollah is a clear example of
State- sponsored religious terrorist group which as already mentioned, operates
under the names of Islamic Jihad, Revolutionary Justice Organization. 43
Hamas (Harakat Al Muqawama Al Islamiyya (Islamic Resistance Movement)
The group is the Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood founded in 1987
after the beginning of the first intifada uprising against Israel’s occupation of the
Gaza Strip and the West Bank.44 Until 2005, Hamas had two purposes.
36
Oxford dictionary http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Hezbollah
Sven Pöhle, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East 26/06/2014, as above
38
Amy Zalman, Hezbollah, a profile of the Lebanese Militant Group,
http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/Hezbollah.htm
39
Amy Zalman, Hezbollah, a profile of the Lebanese Militant Group, as above
40
Jonathan Masters, Zachary Laub, Council on foreign relations, Hezbollah, 2014
http://www.cfr.org/lebanon/hezbollah-k-hizbollah-hizbullah/p9155
41
Jonathan Masters, Zachary Laub, Council on foreign relations, Hezbollah, 2014 as above
42
Jonathan Masters, Zachary Laub, Council on foreign relations, Hezbollah, 2014 as above
43
Religious Terrorism, pg 143,144 http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/33557_6.pdf
44
Sven Pöhle, Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East , 26/06/2014,
http://www.dw.de/islamist-terror-groups-in-africa-and-middle-east/a-17739751
37
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First, waging war against Israel. Second, the delivery of social welfare programs.45 It
was in that year that Hamas began participating in the Palestinian political process
and became the first Arab Islamist group to obtain power through democratic
means.
Since 2007 Hamas has the control of the Gaza strip and in their manifest they state
that they are seeking for the distraction of Israel while the modest Fatah has the
control of the West Bank. Israel never recognized Hamas due to the fact that they
are responsible for 1990’s suicide bombings and several attacks in Israeli’s territories
targeting mostly, civilians so as the United States, European Union, Canada and
Japan designate Hamas as a terrorist group. During 2014 there was an escalation
between Hamas and Israel which lead to a 50 days war between the two sides. The
U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reports that 2,104
Palestinians were killed in Gaza, including 1,462 civilians, among them 495 children
and 253 women. Those U.N. numbers would mean that 69 percent of the totals
killed were civilians. 46Hamas used to fire rockets from homes or UN facilities and as
the Israeli government said they used Palestinians as ‘human shields’ while Israelis
were destroying the tunnels Hamas created in order to kidnap or assassinate
civilians. Since September 2014 there has been no further escalation to this crisis
and both sides agreed to a ceasefire.4748
Al – Qaeda (The base)
Al-Qaeda is the strongest and most dangerous terrorist group around the world and
responsible for severe terrorist attacks such as 9/11. It is considered as the mother
of all the other terrorist groups and was founded in 1988 by Osama bin Laden in
Afghanistan after which it soon spread to other countries. Al-Qaeda consisted of
Mujahedeen, Muslim fighters who fought the Soviets following their 1979 invasion
of Afghanistan. In early 1990’s Osama relocated to Sudan, where he started
searching for nuclear materials, weapons and started forming links with other Islamic
45
Gregory Baskin, Liberty Voice, Gaza Strip: A short history of Hamas, 2014
http://guardianlv.com/2014/08/gaza-strip-a-short-history-of-hamas/
46
William Booth, The Washington Post, The UN says, 7 in 10 Palestinians killed in Gaza, where
civilians. Israel disagrees, August 2014 http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/the-unsays-7-in-10-palestinians-killed-in-gaza-were-civilians-israel-disagrees/2014/08/29/44edc598-2faa11e4-9b98-848790384093_story.html
47
Amy Zalman, Hamas, http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/Hamas.htm
48
William Booth, The Washington Post, Here’s what really happened in the Gaza war (according to the
Israelis), September 2014 http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/09/03/hereswhat-really-happened-in-the-gaza-war-according-to-the-israelis/
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groups including the Islamic Jihad Movement of Eritrea and al-Itihaad al-Islamiya, a
Somali group. In 1996 Bin Laden is asked to leave Sudan and returns to Afghanistan,
where the Taliban militia is in the ascendancy. He calls for a jihad against the US to
end the presence of "American crusader forces" in Saudi Arabia. On September 11,
2001 al-Qaeda, after a series of “smaller” acts of terrorism , attacks the World Trade
Center in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania kill close to 3,000 people. After
this tragedy, the United States launched heavy airstrikes followed by US-coordinated
attacks on Taliban positions by Afghan opposition groups which destroyed the
regime Al-Qaeda’s terrorist attacks continued in Europe, Russia and other countries
by groups related to al-Qaeda where suicide bombers, beheadings of civilians,
usually Americans took place during a war or terror. The US troops invaded Iraq in
March 2003 and in 2006 the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq is killed during a targeted air
strike conducted by U.S. forces..
In the past three years alone, the United States has killed four of the top five leaders
of the organization, and eventhough Osama Bin Laden is dead, al-Qaeda still exists
and grows stronger under its new leader Ayman al-Zawahri. Groups related to alQaeda are active not only in Middle East but also in African countries and there are
trying to strengthen Islam by using attacking civilians. These groups share al-Qaeda's
Sunni Muslim fundamentalist views. Some terror experts theorize that Al-Qaeda,
after the loss of its Afghanistan base, may be increasingly reliant on sympathetic
affiliates to carry out its agenda. Intelligence officials and terrorism experts also say
that al-Qaeda has stepped up its cooperation on logistics and training with
Hezbollah, a radical, Iran-backed Lebanese militia drawn from the minority Shiite
strain of Islam. The group ISIS in Iraq split off from Al-Qaeda.49505152
Comparing ISIS and Al-Qaeda
49
Leah Farrall, Foreign Affairs, How Al Qaeda works, What the organization Subsidiaries say about its
strength, 2011 http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67467/leah-farrall/how-al-qaeda-works
50
Deutche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East http://www.dw.de/islamist-terrorgroups-in-africa-and-middle-east/a-17739751
51
Amy Zalman, Al Qaeda, Profile of al Qaeda,
http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/AlQaeda.htm
52
BBC News, Al Qaeda remaining leaders, 2014 http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia11489337
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There is a new threat rising in the Middle East which compared to the most
dangerous and alarming group in the world, namely Al-Qaeda, seems very strong
and capable of causing severe damage not only to the Arab states, but also to
international security. ISIS is a salafist group which abandoned the Saudi Arabian
model and is based on how Mohammed organized his dominion in Medina. ISIS is a
great threat given the fact that they are wealthy and they have access to and control
of the media. Contrary to Al-Qaeda, ISIS occupies territories including oilfields and it
also obtains Iraq’s and Syria’s weaponry. Their leadership is charismatic, based on
western education and is more than familiar with war tactics, by organizing their
“state” in a centralized administration with expansionism in the region.
ISIS: The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (some call it ISIL: Islamic State in Iraq and
the Levant or IS: Islamic State)
ISIS is a Jihadist group known for carrying out public executions, beheadings,
crucifixions and other brutal actions.53 It all started in 2004 when the late Abu Musab
al-Zarqawi formed an al Qaeda splinter group in Iraq. Within two years, al-Zarqawi's
al Qaeda in Iraq was trying to fuel a sectarian war against the majority Shiite
community.54
In April 2013, Islamic State in Iraq absorbed the al Qaeda-backed militant group in
Syria, Jabhat al-Nusra.55 Its leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi said his group will now be
known as Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. Since then, the English-speaking world
seems to have had a hard time settling on a name for them. In February 2014 Al
Qaeda renounces ties to ISIS after months of infighting between al-Nusra Front and
ISIS due to Al-Nusra’s Front leader Abu Mohammed al-Jawlani rejection attempt to
merge with the ISIS.56
ISIS regularly employs the vicious hudud punishments to enforce sharia law in the
areas it controls in Syria and Iraq. In June 29, 2014 ISIS announces the creation of a
caliphate (Islamic state) that erases all state borders, making al-Baghdadi the selfdeclared authority over the world's estimated 1.5 billion Muslims. The group also
announces a name change to the Islamic State (IS). During July 2014 in Syria, all the
cities between Deir Ezzor city and the Iraq border have fallen to ISIS, says Omar Abu
53
Ray Sanchez, CNN, ISIS, ISIL or the Islamic State?, September 2014
http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/09/world/meast/isis-isil-islamic-state/
54
Ray Sanchez, CNN, ISIS, ISIL or the Islamic State?, September 2014 as above
55
CNN, ISIS Fast Facts, November 2014 as above
56
Ray Sanchez, CNN, ISIS, ISIL or the Islamic State?, September 2014 as above
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Leila, a spokesman for the rebel Free Syrian Army and few days later, ISIS takes
control of a major Syrian oil field, al-Omar. It is the country's largest oil field and can
produce 75,000 barrels of oil daily. In Syria's Homs province, ISIS claims to have killed
270 people after storming and seizing the Shaer gas field and ISIS militants blow up
Jonah's tomb, a holy site in Mosul. During August and September 2014, ISIS has
relieved videos where British and American journalists were beheaded by jihadists
and also the CIA warns that ISIS fighter can muster between 20.000 and 31.500
across Iraq and Syria. Their objective is to create a large-scale theocracy made up of
Syria, parts of Iraq, Lebanon, and much of Palestine and Jordan. The militant group is
considered more radical than Al-Qaeda. More than 11,000 people have traveled
from abroad to fight in Syria and Iraq, officials suggest, many Europeans and
Americans have traveled to join ISIS including Chechen snipers, Saudi car bombers,
and many Western subjects, although some have gone back home again.57 They align
themselves with different factions, and sometimes change loyalties as groups merge,
disband or change allegiances.
The brutality of ISIS embraces such an extreme, violent ideology that it makes even
al Qaeda squeamish, argue many Western experts. On this reading, al Qaeda leader
Ayman al Zawahiri was forced to distance himself from ISIS’s bloody
practices.5859606162 ISIS has promised to govern as effectively as it intimidates, but its
talent lies in extortion and ethnic cleansing, not in sanitation and job creation.
The definition of terrorism
The international community has been trying for years to unanimously define
terrorism but it seems extremely difficult to agree on the use of violence in the
context of national liberation conflicts and the right to self-determination. As the
57
Hussain Abdul- Hussain and Lee Smith, The Weekly Standard, On the origin of ISIS, September,
2014 http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/origin-isis_804002.html
58
Elizabeth Schumacher, Deutsche Welle , Islamic State, A chronology of key developments,
14/09/2014, http://www.dw.de/islamic-state-a-chronology-of-key-developments/a-17920159
59
Nick Thompson, Richard Allen Greene and Inez Torre, CNN, ISIS, everything you need to know
about the rise of the militant group, November 2014
http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2014/09/world/isis-explained/
60
Sven Pöhle, Deutsche Welle, Islamist Terror groups in Africa and Middle East , 26/06/2014
http://www.dw.de/islamist-terror-groups-in-africa-and-middle-east/a-17739751
61
Holly Yan, CNN, What’s the difference between ISIS, al-Nusra and the Khorasan Group?,
September 2014 http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/24/world/meast/isis-al-nusra-khorasan-difference/
62
Steve Coll, The New Yorker, In search of a strategy, September 2014
http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09/08/return-war
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disputes continue, many states defined terrorism in their own ways in order to
reassure stability and set the framework to examine such cases. For instance, the
United Kingdom uses the following definition: “terrorism covers the use of violent
acts designed to influence the government or to intimidate the public, and for the
purpose of advancing a political, religious, or ideological cause”.63
According to Dr. H. H.A. Cooper, “terrorism is the international generation of
massive fear by human beings for the purpose of securing or maintaining control
over other human beings”64. What is underlined in his work is that the definition of
terrorism should not be focused on who are victimized and the reasons they are
targeted, but on what is done. This is also his explanation on what the already
existing Conventions define as ‘terrorist acts’.
As mentioned above, the international community has not yet been able to agree on
a comprehensive definition of terrorism despite several attempts by the United
Nations General Assembly and the Security Council in this regard. Most notably, in
1994 the General Assembly, in the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate
International Terrorism, declared that criminal acts intended or calculated to
provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular
persons for political purposes are in any circumstances unjustifiable, whatever the
consideration of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or
other nature that may be invoked to justify them. In 2004, the Security Council, in its
resolution 1566, identified elements of a definition, referring to “criminal acts,
including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious
bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in
the general public or
in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a
government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act”.65
It is also a fact that many would accuse states of terrorism. Israel has for many years
been characterized by critics, especially in the Arab world, United Nations
63
Definition of Terrorism and Self-Determination, Harvard International Review, December 20, 2008
http://hir.harvard.edu/archives/1757
64
American Behavioral Scientist 2001; H. H.A. COOPER, Terrorism: The Problem of Definition
Revisited, American Behavioral Scientist http://www.sagepub.com/martin3study/articles/Cooper.pdf
65
UNODC, Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, pg 16
http://www.unodc.org/documents/terrorism/Handbook_on_Criminal_Justice_Responses_to_Terrorism
_en.pdf
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Resolutions, and human rights organizations, as perpetrating terrorism against the
population of the territories it has occupied since 1967 Six Days War.
Critics also accuse the United States of terrorism for backing not only the Israeli
occupation, but other repressive regimes willing to terrorize their own citizens to
maintain in power. Palestinian militants call Israel terrorist, Kurdish militants call
Turkey terrorist, Tamil militants call Indonesia terrorist; and, of course, the nationstates call the militants who oppose their regimes “terrorists”. Long debates and
negotiations finally led to two different definitions that were presented by UNbodies, however both were rejected.66 The question that posed itself, was whether
States wanted to work with a politically oriented definition based on existing
frameworks such as the Geneva Conventions and adding the element of
“intimidation”, or a more typical criminal law oriented definition that elevated
“terrorist acts” into a separate international crime. In the end neither were adopted.
Instead, the international community opted for a sectorial approach, which will be
specified under the chapter “International Action”. A new question that raises itself,
is whether the current frameworks and actions are still sufficient and applicable to
organizations such as IS.
Type of terrorism: Religious terrorism
In order to define and understand better what religious terrorism really is, we should
first compare it with the secular one. At first the quality of violence between secular
and religious terrorism differs on the limitless religious terrorism scale of violence
which has as a result the unconstrained choice of weapons and tactics. In secular
terrorism the scale of violence is constrained and the choices of weapons and tactics
adjust to the scale.
Moreover in religious terrorism the scope of violence when it comes to define the
targets is expansive, where in secular terrorism it is focused on specific targets. The
result in the first case is the indiscriminate use of violence and in the second case the
discrimination in the use of violence.
66
These can be found in pr. 164 of the Report of the High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and
Change "A more secure world: Our shared responsibility”
(http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/report.pdf ) and Annex II, art. 2.1. Report of the Ad Hoc
Committee established by General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996, Sixth session (
http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N02/248/17/PDF/N0224817.pdf?OpenElement )
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Concerning the constituency profile, religious terrorism is narrow, insular, and
isolated so it does not appeal to a broader audience. The secular terrorism on the
other hand, is inclusive, for the championed group so it appeals to actual or potential
supporters. This argument is questioned nowadays due to ISIS exposure which lead
to thousands of Europeans flying to Iraq or Syria in order to join the jihadist group
and fight in the name of their caliphate.
Last but not least, religious terrorism’s relation with the existing system seems to
alienate the definition of “true believers” and as a result it completely reconfigures
the social order. Especially in the case of Islam, the different interpretations of Quran
led to misunderstanding and confusion on who and how a “true believer” is.
Religious terrorism is a type of political violence motivated by an absolute belief that
another worldly power has sanctioned and commanded terrorist violence for the
greater glory of the faith. Acts committed in the name of the faith will be forgiven by
the otherworldly power and perhaps rewarded in an afterlife. In essence, one’s
religious faith legitimizes violence as long as such violence is an expression of the will
of one’s deity.67
Some terrorists are motivated primarily by faith, whereas others use religion
secondarily. The latter movements are motivated by nationalism or other ideology as
a primary inspiration but are united by an underlying religious identity. The goals of
both primary and secondary religious terrorism are to construct a new society based
on a religious or ethno-national identity. The terrorist behavior of both tendencies is
active and public. State-sponsored religious terrorism arises in governments that
pursue international agendas by mentoring and encouraging religious proxies. Cases
of religious terrorism and state-sponsored religious terrorism will be examined later
on.68
International Action
Both comprehensive and sectoral international legal instruments have been adopted
to counter the rise of terrorism. The first comprehensive treaty to be signed was the
Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism of 1937 (Geneva
Convention of 1937), which however never entered into force due to its attempt to
67
68
Religious terrorism, pg.130,131,153 http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/33557_6.pdf
Religious terrorism, pg.130,131,153 as above
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define acts of terrorism69 in a way that was not welcomed by the required number of
states for its entry into force70.
Nevertheless, despite the failure of the Geneva Convention to produce legally
binding effects, the International Community did not cease its efforts to create
sufficient legal instruments against terrorism. Thus, to this date the following
comprehensive international Conventions have been drafted and adopted:
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally
Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents (1973), International Convention
against the Taking of Hostages (1983), International Convention for the Suppression
of Terrorist Bombings (1997), International Convention for the Suppression of the
Financing of Terrorism (1999) and the International Convention for the Suppression
of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005).
As far as sectoral international Conventions on terrorism are concerned, these
include: Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board
Aircraft (1963), Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (1970)
and its Supplementary Protocol (2010), Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation (1971) and its Protocol (1988), Convention on
the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (1980) and its Amendments, Convention
for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation
(1988) and its Protocol (2005), Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against
the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continent Shelf (1988) and its Protocol,
Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the purpose of Detection (1991)
and the Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International
Civil Aviation (2010).
Given the diversity and the length of the above-mentioned legal instruments, we
believe it would be helpful to make some collective and comparative remarks with
regards to the definition of terrorist acts, the obligations of states provided in the
legal documents and issues of jurisdiction and extradition. As Galicki explains71,
sectoral Conventions were able to provide less disputed definitions of what
69
Article 1 par.1 defines “acts of terrorism” as criminal acts directed against a state or intended to
create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons, or a group of persons, or the general public.
70
Zdzislaw Galicki, International Law and Terrorism, American Behavioral Scientist, SAGE
Publications, 2004
71
Zdzislaw Galicki, as above.
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constitutes a “terrorist act” due to the fact that their substantial scope of operation
is limited to specific kinds and forms of terrorist activities. Thus, we have a series of
universal sectoral definitions of terrorist acts, including such offenses as “unlawful
acts against safety of civil aviation” (in 1971), “crimes against internationally
protected persons, including diplomatic agents” (in 1973), “taking hostages” (in
1979), “theft, robbery or any other unlawful taking of nuclear material or of credible
threat thereof” (in 1979), “unlawful acts of violence at airports serving international
civil aviation” (in 1988), “unlawful acts against the safety of fixed platforms located
on the continental shelf” (in 1988), “terrorist bombings” (in 1997), and “financing of
terrorism” (in 1999). In virtue of all these sectoral Conventions, state-parties are
obliged to criminalize acts described by these treaties as offenses.
Encouraging as that may seem, the truth is that to this day no comprehensive
definition on international terrorism has been unanimously endorsed. The UN Ad
Hoc Committee on Terrorism, which was first created in 1972 and was revived in
1996, has long been elaborating, along with the Legal Committee of the General
Assembly, on a comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism. According to
Galicki72, the most problematic issue with regards to the definition of terrorist acts
is not the definition itself rather than its exceptions and exclusions. For that
reason, a compromise is deemed mandatory for the resolution of two major
disputes among state-parties: which is the legally binding distinction between
terrorist acts and armed liberation movements? This is not to be confused with the
Right to Self-determination, as this can under no circumstance provide a justification
for those acts that we typically consider as terrorist acts.
Coming to the issue of jurisdiction, all antiterrorist conventions base states’
jurisdictional obligations and rights on the four fundamental principles of
jurisdiction: territoriality, nationality, protection/security and universality, but with
different extensions of their application. In fact, the Conventions concluded in the
past few years have developed a variety of possibilities for optionally established
jurisdiction. Though technical it might seem, the issue of jurisdiction, especially when
based on the principle of universality, is of utmost importance in the issue under
discussion since it constitutes one of the best guarantees for the effective
72
Zdzislaw Galicki, as above.
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suppression of international terrorism through the punishment of terrorists
whenever and wherever they may be found73.
With regards to extradition, the Conventions do not provide directly for mandatory
extradition of the offenders to states obliged or entitled to establish their jurisdiction
over them; still, there are some provisions on extradition based on the principle aut
dedere aut punire (either extradite or punish). In any case the possibility of
regarding a terrorist act as a political offense or as an offense connected with a
political offense or as an offense inspired by political motives is eliminated, whereas
all terrorist acts shall be deemed to be included as extraditable offenses in all
extradition treaties74.
Before reaching our closing remarks on what concerns the analysis of the provisions
of Antiterrorism Conventions, we could not but refer to the significant provisions on
international cooperation and on the potential role that the Convention Against
Transnational Organized Crime (2000) can play in the fight against terrorism. Firstly,
in all above-mentioned legal instruments there are meticulous provisions on mutual
assistance in connection with investigations or criminal or extradition proceedings
in respect to the offenses in question, including assistance in obtaining evidence
necessary for the proceedings and wide cooperation in the domain of prevention.
This continuous development of international legal norms cannot but be considered
of paramount importance to the end of diversifying the methods and forms of
counter-terrorism strategies. Finally, as Galicki underlines, given the legal lacuna in
terms of defining what constitutes a terrorist act, the Convention Against
Transnational Organized Crime (2000) can prove to be a useful legal tool within the
concept of measures to eliminate international terrorism since its wide definition of
“organized criminal groups” could be applicable75 to international terrorist groups76.
Apart from the adoption of the international antiterrorist Conventions, the
International Community has been significantly mobilized with the purpose of
addressing the issue of terrorism, especially in the Middle East, under the auspices of
73
Zdzislaw Galicki, as above.
Zdzislaw Galicki, as above.
75
The exact opposite is expressed by Elisavet Symeonidou-Kastanidou, who claims that terrorist acts
essentially contain the majority of the component elements of organized crime, with the exception
however of the use of commercial and business structures with the purpose of financial or other
material benefit, which is fundamental for the definition of organized crime. More thorough analysis in
Elisavet Symeonidou-Kastanidou,The definition of terrorism.
76
Zdzislaw Galicki, as above.
74
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the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council. In fact, numerous are
the Resolutions and Declarations voted upon by the UN General Assembly, all of
which
can
be
retrieved
through
the
following
link:
http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/resolutions.shtml . Nevertheless, it is the actions of
the Security Council to the end of preventing and suppressing terrorism that have
had the most determining effects on counter-terrorism efforts and therefore
demand closer attention on our behalf.
Prior to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States, the
Security Council had established the 1267 Committee77 (UNSC RES 1267/1999),
which is made up of all Council members and tasked with monitoring the sanctions
against the Taliban and subsequently Al-Qaeda as of 200078. In the aftermath of the
attack, the Council established a Counter Terrorism Committee 79 (UNSC RES
1373/2001), also comprising of all Council members. UNSC RES 1373 obliges
Member States to take a number of measures to prevent terrorist activities and to
criminalize various forms of terrorist actions, as well as to take measures that assist
and promote cooperation among countries including adherence to international
counter-terrorism instruments80. In 2004 the Security Council unanimously adopted
UNSC RES 1540/2004 under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, obliging
States, inter alia, to refrain from supporting by any means non-State actors from
developing, acquiring, manufacturing, possessing, transporting, transferring or using
nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their delivery systems81 and establishing
the 1540 Committee82. Finally, in the same year the Council created the 1566
Working Group, pursuant to UNSC RES 1566/2004 83 , made up of all Council
members to recommend practical measures against individuals and
77
Official website of the 1267 Committee (http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1267/index.shtml)
Security Council Actions to Counter Terrorism
(http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/securitycouncil.shtml)
79
Official Website of the Counter Terrorism Committee (http://www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/)
80
United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Related Bodies
(http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/sc_bodies.shtml)
81
United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Related Bodies, as above.
82
Official Website of the 1540 Committee (http://www.un.org/en/sc/1540/)
83
Official Document of UNSC RES 1566/2004
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1566(2004))
78
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groups engaged in terrorist activities that were not subject to the 1267 Committee's
review, as well as to explore the possibility of setting up a compensation fund for
victims of terrorism84.
As far as resolution drafting is concerned, solely since the beginning of 2014 the
Security Council has adopted 6 resolutions: UNSC RES 2133/201485, on suppressing,
inter alia, the financing of terrorist acts, UNSC RES 2160/201486, on concrete
measures, under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, aiming to resolve the security
predicament in Afghanistan, exacerbated by the activity of Taliban, Al-Qaeda and
other extremist groups, UNSC RES 2161/201487, on specific propositions under
Chapter VII to the end of addressing the challenges arisen mostly by the activity of
Al-Qaeda, UNSC RES 2169/2014 88 , on tackling the security situation in Iraq,
aggravated by the presence of ISIS, under the auspices of the United Nations
Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI), UNSC RES 2170/201489 on suppressing, under
Chapter VII, the recruitment of foreign terrorist fighters and the financing of terrorist
groups and examining the imposing of sanctions, and UNSC RES 2178/201490, on
international cooperation, under Chapter VII, with the purpose of countering violent
extremism as a means to prevent terrorism. Finally, it is definitely notable that the
first prominent UNSC Resolution was 1373/200191, which was adopted immediately
following the terrorist attacks on the United States of America on 11 September
2001 and which imposes extensive counter-terrorism legal obligations on all States.
84
United Nations Actions to Counter Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Related Bodies, as above.
Official Document of UNSC RES 2133/2014
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2133(2014))
86
Official Document of UNSC RES 2160/2014
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2160(2014))
87
Official Document of UNSC RES 2161/2014
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2161(2014))
88
Official Document of UNSC RES 2169/2014
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2169(2014))
89
Official Document of UNSC RES 2170/2014
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2170%20(2014))
90
Official Document of UNSC RES 2178/2014
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2178%20(2014))
91
Official Document of UNSC RES 1373/2001
(http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1373%282001%29)
85
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Its binding provisions require every country to freeze the financial assets of those
who commit or attempt to commit acts of terrorism and their supporters, deny them
travel or safe haven and prevent terrorist recruitment and weapons supply92.
At this point it would be useful to mention the UN Global Terrorism Strategy93,
concluded in 2006, The Hague-Marrakech Memorandum on Good Practices for a
More Effective Response to the Foreign Terrorist Fighters Phenomenon94, the Abu
Dhabi Memorandum on Good Practices for Countering Violent Extremism and
Education95, The Hague Memorandum on Good Practices for the Judiciary in
Adjudicating Terrorism Offenses96, the Recommendations for Using and Protecting
Intelligence Information in Rule of Law-Based, Criminal Justice Sector-Led
Investigations and Prosecutions97 and the Algiers Memorandum on Good Practices
for Preventing and Denying the Benefits of Kidnapping for Ransom by Terrorists98,
all of which constitute initiatives that fuel the governments and international
operations against terrorism with valuable good practices and propositions99.
Last but certainly not least, given the immense threat that the violent activity of ISIS
currently poses both to the sovereignty and stability of the Middle Eastern states
and to international peace and security, it would be negligent on our behalf not to
refer, even in brief, to the recent actions of the US-led Coalition, mainly comprising
of UK, France, Australia, the Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Turkey, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Qatar, Bahrain and the Iraqi Kurdistan,
92
UNODC, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, Criminal Justice Handbook Series,
2009
(http://www.unodc.org/documents/terrorism/Handbook_on_Criminal_Justice_Responses_to_Terrorism
_en.pdf)
93
UN Global Counter Terrorism Strategy (http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/strategy-counterterrorism.shtml)
94
FTF Initiative (https://www.thegctf.org/documents/10162/140201/14Sept19_The+HagueMarrakech+FTF+Memorandum.pdf)
95
Abu Dhabi Memorandum
(https://www.thegctf.org/documents/10162/140201/14Sept19_GCTF+Abu+Dhabi+Memorandum.pdf)
96
The Hague Memorandum
(https://www.thegctf.org/documents/10162/140201/14Sept19_GCTF+The+Hague+Memorandum.pdf)
97
Recommendations
(https://www.thegctf.org/documents/10162/140201/14Sept19_GCTF+Rabat+GP+6+Recommendations
.pdf)
98
Algiers Memorandum
(https://www.thegctf.org/documents/10162/36031/Algiers+Memorandum+on+Good+Practices+on+Pre
venting+and+Denying+the+Benefits+of+KFR+by+Terrorists-English)
99
Apart from the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, which was adopted by the UN General
Assembly, all the remaining documents were adopted by the Global Counter-Terrorism Forum.
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and Iran with the aim of suppressing the forceful march of ISIS. On the 8th of August
2014 US military aircrafts conducted strikes on ISIS artillery100, an operation which
signaled the inauguration of a large scale air campaign as well as the dispatch of
ground forces on behalf of the USA and its allies. As the American President Barack
Obama has declared, it is a matter of “hunting down terrorists who threaten
America wherever they are”101. In terms of what has been done by some of USA’s
major allies102, Australia has participated in airstrikes, has offered aircrafts to the
United Arab Emirates and contributes to the resolution of the humanitarian crisis
with the dispatch of humanitarian aid. The Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott
has played down, though, the possibility of Australian troops’ involvement in ground
fighting103. As far as Great Britain is concerned, the Royal Air Force has conducted
airstrikes whereas the British government supports the Iraqi government, helps arm
Kurdish forces and keeps supplying humanitarian aid104. France has already launched
reconnaissance flights over Iraq, participating also in air operations, and keeps
providing ammunition to antiterrorist fighters and making humanitarian drops, while
Canada offers equipment and ammunition likewise and has deployed operations
troops to Iraq to serve as adviser missions105. Finally, Iranian President Hassan
Rowhani vowed to support the Shiite-led Iraqi government in its battle against ISIS,
during a diplomatic meeting with his Iraqi counterpart Prime Minister Haidar alAbadi106, however Iran’s Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei seems to reject the
possibility of a cooperation between his country and the US-led Coalition, due to the
fact that he perceives their involvement as an attempt to seize control over the
region107.
100
Brett Logiurato, US conducts air strike in Iraq, Business Insider, 8/8/2014
(http://www.businessinsider.com/us-air-strike-in-iraq-isis-2014-8)
101
Tom Cohen, Obama outlines ISIS strategy: Airstrikes in Syria, more US forces, CNN, 11/9/2014
(http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/10/politics/isis-obama-speech/)
102
Ashley Fantz, Who is doing what in the coalition battle against ISIS?, CNN, 7/10/2014
103
Daniel Hurst and Katharine Murphy, First Australian air strike in Iraq bombs Isis target, says ADF,
The Guardian, 9/10/2014( http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/oct/09/first-australian-airstrike-in-iraq-drops-two-bombs-on-isil-facility)
104
Ashley Fantz, as above.
105
Ashley Fantz, as above.
106
Iran’s Rowhani vows to back Iraq against ISIS, Al Arabiya News, 21/10/2014
(http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/10/21/Iran-president-pledges-to-back-Iraqamid-attacks.html)
107
Khamenei rejects cooperation with US against ISIS, Al Arabiya News, 15/9/2014
(http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/09/15/Khamenei-Iran-rejects-U-S-request-forcooperation-against-ISIS.html)
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Ideas for propositions
The violent march of ISIS, which has resulted in indiscriminate killing and deliberate
targeting of civilians, numerous atrocities, mass executions and extrajudicial killings,
persecution of individuals and entire communities on the basis of their religion or
belief, kidnapping of civilians, forced displacement of members of minority groups,
killing and maiming of children, recruitment and use of children, rape and other
forms of sexual violence, arbitrary detention, attacks on schools and hospitals,
destruction of cultural and religious sites and obstruction of the exercise of economic,
social and cultural rights108, constitutes tangible proof that the issue of religious
terrorism in the Middle East remains unresolved and utterly likely to compromise
international peace and security. For these reasons, not only does the United
Nations Security Council need to remain actively seized of the matter, but it also
must designate an efficient and effective strategy for countering extremism in the
Middle East as a means to establish peace and stability in the region.
First of all, as underlined both by the Sixth (Legal) Committee of the UN General
Assembly109 and by the European Union Delegation to the UN110, the completion of
the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism is of utmost
importance, mostly in order to regulate the issue of the definition of terrorism and
distinguish the latter from the right to self-determination. Certainly, as equally
important is deemed the ratification and full implementation of the existing related
Conventions by States which have not complied with international legality so far. In
this domain the “Terrorism Prevention Branch” of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime
can be of great significance, since it is destined to assist States in becoming parties in
Counter-Terrorism Conventions and help them implement them.
Due to the fact that terrorist acts are not considered as “core international crimes”,
terrorist crimes fall in the category of national criminal law of international
108
All these incidents, in the present layout, were condemned by UNSC RES 2170/2014.
Legal Committee Urges Conclusion of Draft Comprehensive Convention on International
Terrorism, United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases, 8/10/2012
(http://www.un.org/press/en/2012/gal3433.doc.htm)
110
EU Presidency Statement – Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, European Union
Delegation to the United Nations, 6/10/2005
(http://eu-un.europa.eu/articles/en/article_5098_en.htm)
109
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concern111. Therefore, it is urgent that States develop adequate domestic capacity
and
reform their domestic legislation in compliance with international law and in
specific with International Counter-Terrorism Conventions, UNSC Resolutions,
International Human Rights Law, Humanitarian Law, Refugee Law and Customary
Law. Legislative reforms need to include the criminalization of terrorist acts
designated as such by the international legal instruments, as well as of the
incitement to such activity, and a revision of domestic procedural law. Finally, to the
end of monitoring States’ compliance with international norms, legal judicial
institutions, the civil society and the public media need to be mobilized.
Nevertheless, what constitutes the cornerstone of a criminal justice response is an
effective international cooperation112. In the judicial domain, the main mechanisms
for the establishment of international cooperation and coordination of efforts are
mutual legal assistance, extradition, transfer of prisoners, transfer of proceedings,
assistance in obtaining evidence, confiscation and asset recovery. In a broader
approach, States must develop increased information-sharing for the purpose of
identifying foreign terrorist fighters, sharing and adoption of good practices as well
as a bolstered cooperation with INTERPOL. Moreover, strengthening cooperation
among States can be proven extremely crucial in combating crimes that might be
connected with terrorism, such as drug trafficking, illicit arms trade, money
laundering and arms smuggling. Finally, the establishment of cooperation between
States and the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime, the International Atomic Energy Agency and the
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons could pave the way towards
an effective response to the financing of terrorism and the acquisition of Weapons of
Mass Destruction on behalf of terrorist groups113.
As it has been repeatedly pinpointed by the Security Council, the issue of foreign
terrorist fighters, often recruited in European countries with the purpose of
participating in international terrorist networks, is of undeniable significance. Thus,
national measures are necessary in order to suppress the flow of foreign terrorist
111
UNODC, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, as above. It was only recently
though that UNSC RES 2170/2014 in operative clause 3 expressed that a terrorist act may constitute a
crime against humanity.
112
UNODC, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism, as above.
113
UN General Assembly Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, as above.
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fighters and bring them to justice. These measures may include border controls,
controls on the issuance of identity papers and travel documents, advance passenger
information provided to States’ intelligence agencies by airlines,
detection mechanisms for alteration or fraudulent use of travel documents,
exchange of information and cooperation among competent authorities.
Finally, the designation of rehabilitation and reintegration strategies for returning
foreign terrorist fighters should also not be neglected.
It seems rather needless to mention that measures to prevent the direct or indirect
supply, sale or transfer to terrorist groups of arms, weapons, ammunition, military
vehicles and paramilitary equipment as well as technical advice, assistance or
military training should also be taken. For instance, such an arms embargo could be
imposed via the intensification and acceleration of the exchange of operational
information regarding traffic in arms and via the enhancement of the coordination of
efforts in this domain.
However, given the fact that the effectiveness of terrorist groups relies greatly on
their financial potential, it is mandatory that States prevent and suppress the
financing of terrorist acts and refrain from providing any form of support, active or
passive, to terrorist individuals of entities. In particular, States must ensure that no
funds, financial assets or economic resources are made available, directly or
indirectly, for the benefit of terrorist groups and prohibit their nationals or
individuals/entities within their territories from creating such funds. After all, such
measures fall within the scope of UNSC sanctions imposed on individuals, groups and
entities associated with Al-Qaeda, such as ISIS and ANF, along with a travel ban and
an arms embargo.
At this point it would be useful to underline that despite the effectiveness of the
above-mentioned propositions, no counter-terrorism strategy can be utterly
successful unless it addresses the root causes of terrorism, which in the case of
religious terrorism are summarized in violent extremism. Consequently, the
prevention of radicalization, recruitment and mobilization of individuals into
terrorist groups, mainly through the removal of extremist material from the
Internet, must emerge as a priority. Furthermore, as the UNSC has previously
proposed 114 , States must engage relevant local communities and non114
UNSC RES 2178/2014
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governmental actors to address the conditions conducive to the spread of violent
extremism through empowering the youth, families, women, religious, cultural and
education leaders, adopting tailored approaches to countering recruitment and
promoting social inclusion and cohesion.
After all, as the United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has stated: “The
education sector has an important role to play. Member States must strengthen
their education systems to promote tolerance and mutual understanding among our
children and youth, and to foster a global alliance of civilizations. Stronger civil
society participation is equally necessary.115” A similar conclusion is reached by Sara
De Silva, RMS fellow at the International Center for Political Violence and Terrorism
Research: with regards to suicide attacks and the ways to prevent them, she
proposes a monitoring and threat assessment, proactive preventive measures,
incident response and a consequence management. However, what she considers of
paramount importance, especially on what concerns religious terrorism, is a sociopolitical approach, which will enable us to understand the motivations behind
terrorism and create a vigilant society. In the field of religious terrorism, such an
approach translates in the combat against the extremist religious ideology and the
creation of a dialectical space to condemn suicide bombings, both practically and
ideologically116.
Last but not least, pursuant to the UN General Assembly Global Counter-Terrorism
Strategy, counter-terrorism measures can under no circumstances ignore or
damage human rights. Hence, such measures need to be structured in compliance
with international human rights law, refugee law and humanitarian law, whereas
States must develop and maintain effective and rule-of-law-based national criminal
justice systems.
Bloc positions and key players
USA
In an address from the State Flour of the White House, US President Barack Obama
designated his strategy on combating ISIS: “Working with the Iraqi government, we
115
UN News Center, At UN meeting, tolerance and education highlighted as critical allies against
terrorism, 30/9/2014
(http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=48969#.VGkhFWczDC4)
116
Sara De Silva, Preventing Suicide Terrorism, Terrorism Risk Debriefing, June 2009
(http://www.pvtr.org/pdf/commentaries/preventingsuicideterrorism.pdf)
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will expand our efforts beyond protecting our own people and humanitarian
missions, so that we’re hitting ISIL targets as Iraqi forces go on offense.[…] I will not
hesitate to take action against ISIL in Syria, as well as Iraq. This is a core principle
of my presidency: If you threaten America, you will find no safe haven.[…]I [have]
deployed several hundred American service members to Iraq to assess how we can
best support Iraqi security forces.[…] These American forces will not have a combat
mission […] but they are needed to support Iraqi and Kurdish forces with training,
intelligence and equipment.[…] Across the border, in Syria, we have ramped up our
military assistance to the Syrian opposition.[…] In the fight against ISIL, we cannot
rely on an Assad regime that terrorizes its own people.[…] Instead, we must
strengthen the opposition as the best counterweight to extremists like ISIL, while
pursuing the political solution necessary to solve Syria’s crisis once and for all.[…]
Working with our partners, we will redouble our efforts to cut off its funding;
improve our intelligence; strengthen our defenses; counter its warped ideology;
and stem the flow of foreign fighters into and out of the Middle East”117.
UK
In the words of British Prime Minister David Cameron: “The Joint Terrorism Analysis
Center has increased the threat level in the United Kingdom from substantial to
severe.[…] The ambition to create an extremist caliphate in the heart of Iraq and
Syria is a threat to our own security here in the U.K. And that is in addition to the
many other Al Qaeda-inspired terrorist groups that exist in that region.[…] This threat
cannot solved simply be dealing with the perceived grievances over Western foreign
policy. Nor can it be dealt with by addressing poverty, dictatorship or instability in the
region, as important as these things are. The root cause of this threat to our security
is quite clear. It is a poisonous ideology of Islamic extremism that is condemned by
all faiths and all faith leaders.[…] [It] is a battle between Islam on the one hand and
extremists who want to abuse Islam on the other. It is absolutely vital that we make
this distinction between religion and political ideology. […] Islamist extremism is a
poisonous political ideology supported by a minority. These extremists, often
funded by fanatics living comfortably far away from the battlefields, pervert the
Islamic faith as a way of justifying their warped and barbaric ideology.[…] The key
point is that military force is just one element of what we can do and we need a
much wider approach working with neighbors in the region and addressing not just
117
David Hudson, Barack Obama: “We will degrade and ultimately destroy ISIL”, The White House
Blog, 10/9/2014 (http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2014/09/10/president-obama-we-will-degrade-andultimately-destroy-isil)
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security but politics too. We know that terrorist organizations thrive where there is
political instability and weak or dysfunctional political institutions. So we must
support […] the rule of law, the independence of the judiciary, the rights of
minorities, free media, free association.[…] We are stopping suspects from traveling
by seizing passports, we're barring foreign nationals from reentering the U.K., we're
depriving people of citizenship and we are legislating so we can prosecute people for
all terrorist activity even where that activity takes place overseas.[…] We need a
tough, intelligent, patient and comprehensive approach to defeat the terrorist
threat at its source”118.
France
As declared by M. Bernard Cazeneuve, Minister of the Interior, in response to
questions in the National Assembly: “We are determined to prevent these acts of
barbarism. This is why we've set up a platform for people to report information,
leading to the mobilization via prefects and public prosecutors, on French territory,
of all France's government departments so that these young nationals do not
succumb to their temptation of falling in with terrorist groups in Iraq and Syria. We
are also taking preventive measures by bringing in, under the act passed by a large
majority in Parliament, an official ban on leaving French territory; this ban prevents
our nationals from becoming part of these terrorist groups and committing
despicable crimes such as those of which images were released only recently. We are
also taking preventive measures by proposing that, under the control of the
administrative judge, websites and blogs inciting terrorism are blocked, since 90%
of those who join terrorist groups in Iraq and Syria leave because of propaganda put
out on the Internet. We also want to render harmless those who return by creating a
new offence - that of an individual terrorist undertaking - so that judges can bring
within the jurisdiction of the courts all situations arising when terrorists return.
Finally, we are cooperating internationally by trying, with the European Union
interior ministers, to set up the PNR, deepen Schengen and monitor these jihadists
when they return to our countries so as to be able to render them harmless”119.
118
David Cameron Speech on ISIS, CNN Newsroom transcripts, 29/8/2014
(http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1408/29/cnr.02.html)
119
M. Bernard Cazeneuve Statements on ISIS, France Diplomatie, Foreign Policy Statements,
18/11/2014(http://basedoc.diplomatie.gouv.fr/vues/Kiosque/FranceDiplomatie/kiosque.php?type=baen
#Chapitre1)
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Russia
As the Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov underlined in September: “Terrorist
threats must be eliminated and terrorists liquidated.[…]We have repeatedly
suggested to the US, the EU and leading European states to realize the extent of this
threat. We have called on the UN to resolutely condemn terrorist attacks staged by
Islamists in Syria. But we were told that it was Bashar Assad’s politics that gave rise
to terrorism, and that denouncing such acts was possible only alongside with the
demand for his resignation. […]In Moscow’s view, this represents a double
standard and an attempt to justify terrorism. […]Up until the Syrian conflict, Russia
and the West were unanimous that terrorism cannot be justified no matter what
motive was behind them. […]But in the case of Syria the West had a different, twofaced stance. It was only when the terrorism threat which originated in Libya crept to
Lebanon and then Iraq that Western countries realized it was time to deal with
that.[…] Having admitted it with a huge delay, western partners for some reason
think that this threat should be eliminated on the territory of Iraq, while on the
territory of Syria it might be left to the consideration of those who conduct the
operation.[…]There are reasons to suspect that air strikes on Syrian territory may
target not only areas controlled by Islamic State militants, but the government
troops may also be attacked on the quiet to weaken the positions of Bashar
Assad’s army.[…] Not a single country should have its own plans on such issues.
There can be only combined, collective, univocal actions. Only this way can a result
be achieved.120”
China
So far China remains reluctant in launching tangible action against ISIS121. Discreet
are its official statements: “China supports Iraq in upholding independence,
sovereignty and territorial integrity, accelerating political reconstruction and
national reconciliation and fighting against terrorism. All factions in Iraq should build
up solidarity, form an inclusive government as soon as possible and make concrete
efforts for political reconciliation and economic reconstruction122. […]The Chinese
government staunchly fights against any form of terrorism. […] The international
community should increase cooperation on the basis of mutual respect and
120
Lavrov: West may use ISIS as pretext to bomb Syrian govt forces, RT, 9/9/2014
(http://rt.com/news/186356-lavrov-syria-bombing-west/)
121
Zihao Liu, Why China will not fight ISIS?, The Diplomacist, 21/9/2014
(http://diplomacist.org/articles/2014/9/18/why-china-will-not-fight-isis)
122
Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hong Lei's Regular Press Conference, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
4/7/2014 (http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/t1171644.shtml)
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equality, effectively combat terrorism and safeguard security and stability of the
world and the region”123.
Israel
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has warned that “ISIS has got to be
defeated because it's doing what all these militant Islamists are trying to do. They all
want to first dominate their part of the Middle East, and then go on for their twisted
idea of world domination.[…] The difference between ISIS and Hamas and ISIS and
Iran and so on is they all agree that the world should be an Islamist hill, but ... each
of them wants to be the king of the hill.[…]Israel is ready to help in any way that
we’re asked.[…] The greatest danger that I see from these militant Islamists is that
they will marry their mad ideologies to weapons of mass death. That is a threat not
only to my people, the Jewish people and the Jewish state of Israel, but to your
people. They view us as one because of our tolerant societies, whom they think is
weak and corrupt”124.
Iran
On the 25th of September 2014, Iranian President Hassan Rouhani addressed the UN
General Assembly: “To the East and West of my country, extremists threaten our
neighbors, resort to violence and shed blood. They of course do not speak a single
language; […] they have come to the Middle East from around the world. They do
however have a single ideology: violence and extremism. They also have a single
goal: the destruction of civilization, giving rise to Islamophobia and creating a
fertile ground for further intervention of foreign forces in our region. Extremism is
not a regional issue that just the nations of our region would have to grapple with;
extremism is a global issue. Certain states have helped creating it and are now
failing to withstand it. […] Certain intelligence agencies have put blades in the hand
of madmen, who now spare no one. All those who have played a role in founding
and supporting these terror groups must acknowledge their errors that have led to
extremism.[…] To fight the underlying causes of terrorism, one must know its roots
and dry its source fountains. Terrorism germinates in poverty, unemployment,
discrimination, humiliation and injustice. And it grows with the culture of violence.
To uproot extremism, we must spread justice and development and disallow the
123
Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying's Regular Press Conference, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 10/9/2014 (http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/t1189900.shtml)
124
Rebecca Kaplan, Netanyahu: ISIS, Hamas, Iran all want to be "king of the hill", Face the Nation,
CBS News, 5/10/2014 (http://www.cbsnews.com/news/netanyahu-isis-hamas-iran-all-want-to-be-kingof-the-hill/)
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distortion of divine teachings to justify brutality and cruelty. The pain is made
greater when these terrorists spill blood in the name of religion and behead in the
name of Islam. […] I am astonished that these murderous groups call themselves an
Islamic group. What is more astonishing is that the Western media, in line with them,
repeats this false claim, which provokes the hatred of all Muslims.[…] The experience
of creation of Al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and modern extremist groups have
demonstrated that one cannot use extremist groups to counter an opposing state
and
remain impervious to the consequences of rising extremism. The repetition of these
mistakes despite many costly experiences is perplexing.[…] The right solution to this
important quandary comes from within the region and regionally provided solution
with international support and not from the outside the region”125.
EU
Following the EU Foreign Ministers meeting in Luxembourg this past October, High
Representative Catherine Ashton declared: “We remain extremely concerned about
the security and humanitarian situation in Iraq and Syria. And we all agreed on the
fact that the actions of ISIS are totally unacceptable and we need to do all we can to
contribute to the international efforts to defeat such terrorist groups126.” Among the
conclusions reached by the participant ministers were the following: “EU is
committed to tackling in a comprehensive and coordinated manner the regional
threat posed by terrorism and violent extremism and addressing the underlying
instability and violence which has given ISIS and other terrorist groups a foothold.
The EU supports efforts by more than sixty States to tackle the threat from ISIS,
including military action in accordance with international law. It notes that military
action in this context is necessary but not sufficient to defeat ISIS and it is part of a
wider effort comprising measures in the political/diplomatic, counter-terrorism and
terrorism funding, humanitarian and communication field. The EU calls on all
partners to enforce relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions, including
2170 and 2178 and to step up efforts at national level to deny ISIS the benefits of
illicit oil sales and other goods. […]As a consequence of its policies and actions, the
Assad regime cannot be a partner in the fight against ISIS. […]EU reiterates its firm
125
Full text of Iran’s Hassan Rouhani at UN, The Times of Israel, 25/9/2014
(http://www.timesofisrael.com/full-text-of-irans-hassan-rouhani-at-un/)
126
EU Ministers support fight against Ebola, condemn ISIL & discuss Ukraine, EUROPA, 21/10/2014
(http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/2014/211014_foreign-affairs-council_en.htm)
United Nations Security Council – Topic Area A
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commitment to counter the serious problem of foreign fighters who have joined the
ranks of ISIS and other terrorist groups. The Council endorses the EU counter
terrorism / foreign fighters strategy, which is an integral part of the response to the
August 2014 European Council Conclusions and to United Nations Security Council
Resolutions 2170 and 2178.”127
Arab League
Arab League chief Nabil El-Araby stated in October that “the Arab League would like
to see progress and stability in Iraq despite the difficulties it now faces.
The entire Arab world is facing a period unlike any it has gone through, including
ideas and ideologies incompatible with the modern era”. In a joint news conference
with the Arab League delegation, Iraqi Foreign Minister Ibrahim Jaafari noted that
some Arab states have pledged to help Iraq with arms, humanitarian aid, logistics,
air power, intelligence and training; however they would not be sending ground
troops. An Arab coalition including Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Bahrain, the United Arab
Emirates, Kuwait and Qatar have been working with the U.S. and Britain, France
and Australia, to conduct airstrikes against Islamic State militants who have seized
wide areas of Syria and Iraq. Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Sabah al Khaled al Sabah
stated that “Arab states must work together to battle the extremist ideas of Islamic
State militants”. He added that Arab states pledged to support the Iraqi government
at a conference in Jeddah on September 11, both politically and with humanitarian
aid and by stopping extremist ideas and financial support from nearby states."The
Arab League should get engaged more and more with Iraq, especially in its fight
against ISIS, and also in national reconciliation," said Iraqi parliament member and
former national security adviser Mowaffak al Rubaie, adding that "we need to
mobilize all our resources and encourage members to make it difficult for any
money transfers to ISIS from Arab countries, movement of young men from these
countries to Iraq and also any logistical or political support from the Arab
League128”.
127
Press Release on the 3340th Meeting on Foreign Affairs, 20/10/2014
(http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/145218.pdf)
128
Edward Yeranian, Arab League Reaffirms Support for Iraq in Fight Against IS Militants, Voice of
America, 19/10/2014 (http://www.voanews.com/content/arab-league-reaffirms-support-for-iraqi-fightagainst-is-militants/2488929.html)
United Nations Security Council – Topic Area A
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Issues to be addressed during debate and resolution-writing
What is the definition of terrorism, if any? Which are the disputed issues with
regards to it? Is a definition needed?
At what point does the character of faith-motivated activism become
extremist and terrorist?
Are there any economic or socio-political factors that help religious terrorism
strive? If so, how can they be faced? Did foreign powers play a role in this
destabilization?
Which are the principal terrorist groups based on the Middle East today?
Is terrorism in the Middle East inherent to Islam?
How did terrorist organizations evolve? How are they maintaining their
power?
How or why do religious terrorist organizations keep finding new recruits and
financial means? What can be done to prevent this?
Which international legal instruments have been adopted to this day and
which UN SC Resolutions address the issue of religious terrorism in the
Middle East?
How sufficient do you consider their provisions and, given the ongoing ISISrelated crisis in Iraq and Syria, which further measures would you propose for
the resolution of the crisis?
Is there a possibility that the situation will deter further, creating a
permanent breeding ground for terrorists?
Are there other armed groups active in the Middle east that are not
considered terrorist organizations? If so, what is their role?
Can terrorist be effectively disarmed and if so, how?
Are groups such as IS a new phenomenon? Should it be dealt with
differently?
What is the significance of drafting a UNSC Resolution under Chapter VII of
the UN Charter?
Conclusion
Violent extremism leading to religious terrorism is now more real than ever. Recent
terrorist activity in one the economically and politically most destabilized regions in
the world, the Middle East, constitutes solid proof that terrorism has an
international dimension which can readily compromise international peace and
security, seeing that terrorist organizations have developed clear geopolitical
United Nations Security Council – Topic Area A
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ambitions. For these reasons, the need for the international community to
effectively tackle this threat has emerged as imperative and the role of the United
Nations Security Council can be determining.
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