Brazilian Journal of Biomotricity
ISSN: 1981-6324
marcomachado@brjb.com.br
Universidade Iguaçu
Brasil
Suzana, M. A.; Pieter, Willy
MOTOR ABILITY PROFILE OF JUNIOR AND SENIOR TAEKWONDO CLUB ATHLETES
Brazilian Journal of Biomotricity, vol. 3, núm. 4, diciembre, 2009, pp. 325-331
Universidade Iguaçu
Itaperuna, Brasil
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Suzana & Pieter: Motor ability of Taekwondo athletes
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ORIGINAL PAPER
MOTOR ABILITY PROFILE OF
JUNIOR AND SENIOR TAEKWONDO
CLUB ATHLETES
M. A. Suzana1 and Willy Pieter2
2
International Taekwondo Federation of Malaysia, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia
Department of Physical Education, University of Asia and the Pacific, Pasig, Philippines
Corresponding author:
Willy Pieter, Ph.D.
Department of Physical Education
University of Asia and the Pacific
Ortigas Center
Pasig 1605
Philippines
Phone: +63-2-637-0912, x286
Fax: +63-2-637-0912, x382
Email: yshin516@yahoo.com
Submitted for publication: Sep 2009
Accepted for publication: Nov 2009
ABSTRACT
SUZANA, M. A.; PIETER, W. Motor ability profile of junior and senior taekwondo club athletes. Brazilian
Journal of Biomotricity, v. 3, n. 4, p. 325-331, 2009. The purpose of this study was to assess and compare
motor abilities in young and adult male taekwondo athletes. Subjects were senior (n = 10, 21.20 ± 1.23
years, 173.90 ± 8.45 cm, 73.30 ± 19.59 kg) and junior (n = 10, 15.90 ± 1.20 years, 166.80 ± 7.98 cm, 65.90 ±
16.86) males from a local taekwondo (ITF) club in Malaysia. Flexibility was assessed through the sit-andreach test. Abdominal strength and endurance was measured by means of the 60-second sit-ups test.
Explosive leg power was assessed using the vertical jump test, while general speed was determined by the
distance covered in 6 seconds of all-out sprinting and the stork stand test to assess static balance. To
determine differences in motor abilities between juniors and seniors, the Mann-Whitney U Test was
employed. There was no difference in the 6-second dash between juniors (35.80 ± 3.69 m) and seniors
(40.18 ± 6.02 m, p = 0.104, ES = 0.36). The seniors did more sit-ups (median 39.50 repetitions vs. 33.50
repetitions), (p = 0.037, ES = 0.47).
Keywords: Young; Adult; Martial arts; Taekwondo
INTRODUCTION
Compared to research on Olympic taekwondo (e.g., MARKOVIC et al., 2005; PIETER et
al., 2006; TOSKOVIC et al., 2004), less is known about taekwondo as practiced by the
International Taekwondo Federation (ITF). Early studies focused on aggressive behaviour
(SKELTON et al., 1991) and personality characteristics (KURIAN et al., 1993). Heller et al.
(1998) concluded that, generally, physiological and kinanthropometric characteristics do
zilian Journal of Biomotricity, v. 3, n. 4, p. 325-331, 2009 (ISSN 1981-6324)
1
Suzana & Pieter: Motor ability of Taekwondo athletes
www.brjb.com.br
not seem to be highly correlated with performance. The athletes were found to have a high
anaerobic endurance, low body fat and well developed flexibility when compared to the
general population.
Research on Malaysian taekwondo athletes in general, regardless of affiliation (ITF or
World Taekwondo Federation, WTF), is scarce. Aiwa and Pieter (2007) reported that
contrary to what was expected, no 3-way or 2-way interactions were found in absolute
isokinetic peak torque in adolescent recreational Malaysian full-contact taekwondo
participants. When scaled to height2, there were still no interactions, while the difference in
relative peak torque became smaller between boys and girls, although the effect was still
moderate.
The only study on Malaysian exponents of the ITF was conducted by our team. Suzana
and Pieter (2006) reported that collapsed over gender, the athletes covered more distance
in the 6-sec dash during the pre-test of an intervention project (42.17 vs. 38.37 m). The
boys jumped higher than the girls (56.30 vs. 37.72 cm) and did more sit-ups (median: 37
vs. 26 reps) during the post-test, but there was no difference in push-ups (median: 49 vs.
47 reps) at the post-test. In view of the paucity of data on Malaysian taekwondo
practitioners in general and those practicing the sport according to ITF rules, the purpose
of this study was to assess and compare motor abilities in young and adult male
taekwondo athletes.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
- Subjects
Subjects were senior (n = 10) and junior (n = 10) males from a local taekwondo (ITF) club
in Malaysia. Table 1 shows the demographic data of the participants. Ethical approval was
obtained from the Technological University of Malaysia from which the first author received
her degree and informed consent signed by the subjects or their parent/guardian.
- Procedures
In addition to height, measured to the nearest 0.1 cm on a wall-mounted wooden
stadiometer and weight, measured to the nearest 0.5 kg on a digital weighing scale
(Kubota KA-10-150V, Tokyo, Japan), flexibility of the lower back and hamstrings was
assessed through the conventional sit-and-reach test (JOHNSON and NELSON, 1986;
SAFRIT and WOOD, 1995). Two trials were allowed and the highest score used for
statistical analysis. Abdominal strength and endurance was measured by means of the 60second sit-ups test. Explosive leg power was assessed using the vertical jump test with
the highest score out of two attempts used for statistical analysis, while general speed was
determined by the distance covered in 6 seconds of all-out sprinting (JOHNSON and
NELSON, 1986). The stork stand test was used to assess static balance (JOHNSON and
NELSON, 1986). The reciprocal ponderal index (RPI, cm.kg-0.333) was utilized as a
measure of weight for height.
zilian Journal of Biomotricity, v. 3, n. 4, p. 325-331, 2009 (ISSN 1981-6324)
Erie et al. (2007) revealed that adolescent boys jumped higher than the girls (both 17
years old) in absolute terms: 35.63 vs. 26.00 cm. The difference became smaller when
jump height was scaled to height2 (12.79 cm/m2 and 10.45 cm/m2 for the boys and girls,
respectively). In 18-year old Malaysian recreational taekwondo-in (taekwondo athletes),
there was no difference in flexibility between boys and girls. However, the boys had a
higher aerobic endurance: 42.18 ml.kg-1.min-1 vs. 30.71 ml.kg-1.min-1 (NOORUL et al.,
2008).
Suzana & Pieter: Motor ability of Taekwondo athletes
www.brjb.com.br
- Statistical Analysis
To determine differences in motor abilities between juniors and seniors, the Mann-Whitney
U Test was employed. Since the sample size was relatively small, no adjustment for the
type 1 error was made for multiple comparisons (FEISE, 2002). The objective was to
unearth any possible leads regarding the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables (BENDER and LANGE, 2001; ROTHMAN, 1990). The estimated
power for the sample size used was 80%. The level of significance for all analyses was set
to 0.05.
RESULTS
Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics of the performance variables in senior and junior
taekwondo-in. Although the seniors covered more distance in the 6 s dash, this difference
was not statistically significant (p = 0.104, ES = 0.36). However, the seniors did more situps (p = 0.037, ES = 0.47). No other differences in motor ability were found.
Variables
Senior
Junior
Age (years)
21.20 ± 1.23
15.90 ± 1.20
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
RPI (cm.kg-0.333)
Balance (sec)
173.90 ± 8.45
73.30 ± 19.59
42.05 ± 2.56
87.50 ± 25.48
166.80 ± 7.98
65.90 ± 16.86
41.69 ± 2.26
89.60 ± 17.00
39.50 (36.75 - 43.00)
40.18 ± 6.02
55.50 ± 7.04
16.83 ± 6.54
33.50 (29.50 - 40.25)
35.80 ± 3.69
51.30 ± 2.83
17.20 ± 3.19
Sit-ups (reps; median ± IR)
Six-second dash (m)
Vertical jump (cm)
Flexibility (cm)
Table 2 - Comparative reciprocal ponderal index (cm.kg-0.333) data in male taekwondo
athletes
Study
Level
Senior
Junior
This study (ITF)
Heller et al. (1998; ITF)
Suzana & Pieter (2006; ITF)
Recreational
Czech elite
Malaysian elite
42.05
43.52
--
41.69
-43.46
Olds & Kang (2000; WTF)
Olds & Kang (2000; WTF)
Olds & Kang (2000; WTF)
Pieter (1991; WTF)
Taaffe & Pieter (1990; WTF)
Chan et al. (2003; WTF)
Pieter (2009; WTF)
Korean elite
Korean state
Korean club
American elite
American elite
British club
Olympic
43.32
42.60
42.37
43.16
42.83
43.06
43.71
---44.87
----
zilian Journal of Biomotricity, v. 3, n. 4, p. 325-331, 2009 (ISSN 1981-6324)
Table 1 - Descriptive statistics for demographic data and performance variables in
Malaysian taekwondo athletes
Suzana & Pieter: Motor ability of Taekwondo athletes
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DISCUSSION
Even though it is recognized that RPI depends on weight division in weight-categorized
sports such as taekwondo (CHAN et al., 2003), weight for height in this sample compares
favourably to those reported in the literature. Table 2 depicts comparative RPI data of
senior and junior male taekwondo athletes. Too much weight for height, especially if the
weight consists of fat, will negatively affect the weight-to-strength ratio (SINNING, 1985)
and, as a result, taekwondo performance (PIETER, 1991).
Compared to published norms for college students, both groups of taekwondo athletes
exceeded the lower cut-off point of the advanced category (51 seconds) for static balance
(JOHNSON and NELSON, 1986). The boys of the Malaysian national taekwondo team
investigated previously (SUZANA and PIETER, 2006) improved their balance after the
intervention: 34.86 vs. 51.85 sec, both of which are lower than those found in the current
study for juniors as well as seniors.
American 16-year old boys recorded a median for the sit-ups of 45 repetitions (FU, 1994),
while the 50th percentile for 16-year old boys in the National Children and Youth Fitness
Survey (NCYFS) was 43 repetitions (SAFRIT and WOODS, 1995). However, comparative
data in the literature for the sit-ups are usually reported in means. The mean for the juniors
in the current study was 33.90 repetitions compared to 47.13 repetitions for Chinese boys
of the same age, 35.84 repetitions for Hong Kong boys and 37.50 repetitions for Japanese
counterparts (FU, 1994). American adult male recreational taekwondo-in scored 53.7
repetitions (THOMPSON and VINUEZA, 1991), while Malaysian adolescent counterparts
recorded 39 repetitions (NOORUL et al., 2008). It is suggested to develop the musculature
around the trunk as optimally as possible, since they are involved in punching from various
stances in taekwondo or executing such kicks as the roundhouse and spinning hook kicks.
The seniors scored in the ‘average’ range of norms for college men, while the juniors were
in the ‘poor’ range (JOHNSON and NELSON, 1986) for general speed in high school boys.
The boys of the national team tested by SUZANA and PIETER (2006) were faster (45.07
m) than both juniors and seniors in the current study. Given the difference in level of skill
between the groups, this is not surprising.
Compared to boys (16.81 years) from the Malaysian junior national taekwondo team
assessed during the pre-test of their intervention program (SUZANA and PIETER, 2006),
the juniors in this study scored lower on the vertical jump (51.30 vs. 56.14 cm) and were
also less flexible (17.20 vs. 19.93 cm), which is to be expected. The national team boys
investigated by SUZANA and PIETER (2006) also performed better than the seniors in the
current study.
Adolescent (19.18 years) taekwondo-in participating in the 2004 Malaysian Games
according to WTF rules were reported to score 54.96 cm (winners) and 52.13 cm (losers)
for the vertical jump (PIETER, 2009). Explosive leg power is suggested to be related to
both kicking force and performing jump kicks in competition in that the initial movement of
the vertical jump during the downward phase resembles that of many kicks. The vertical
jump of the juniors ranked between the 70th and 80th percentile for their age group in the
zilian Journal of Biomotricity, v. 3, n. 4, p. 325-331, 2009 (ISSN 1981-6324)
Although static balance is more appropriate to assess the maturity of the neuromuscular
system of subjects younger than those investigated in the current study (BLOOMFIELD et
al., 1994), it serves as an initial measure of establishing baseline data for future
assessments. If it is known how junior taekwondo athletes score on static balance, any
future talent identification program will have a criterion with which to compare its test
results, especially since the age at which children start their first taekwondo training is as
young as 5 years old (PIETER, 2009).
Suzana & Pieter: Motor ability of Taekwondo athletes
www.brjb.com.br
general population, while that of the seniors was between the 60th and 70th percentile
(SAFRIT and WOOD, 1995). However, the seniors jumped higher than American adult
male recreational taekwondo-in (51.5 cm) (TOSKOVIC et al., 2004).
Flexibility plays an important role in taekwondo, where high kicks are often performed, and
is regarded as an important component of motor fitness (e.g., HELLER et al., 1998;
THOMPSON and VINUEZA, 1991). Compared to the NCYFS norms, the boys scored
below the 10th percentile for their age group (SAFRIT and WOOD, 1995). Chinese boys of
the same age had a sit-and-reach flexibility of 38.01 cm, while their Japanese counterparts
recorded 32.60 cm (FU, 1994).
American male adult recreational taekwondo-in registered 53.2 cm during the sit-andreach test (THOMPSON and VINEUZA, 1991). On the other hand, the sit-and-reach
flexibility of Czech national elite taekwondo-in was 36.9 cm for the men (HELLER et al.,
1998). Adult college male recreational taekwondo athletes scored 53.4 cm (TOSKOVIC et
al., 2004). It is acknowledged that in these comparisons, the effect of the proportional limb
differences, i.e., relative sitting height, between the Malaysian taekwondo-in and their
Western counterparts has been disregarded (PHEASANT and HASLEGRAVE, 2006).
Future research should assess the relationship between general taekwondo and
competition experience on the one hand and motor abilities on the other.
Information about motor abilities is useful in assisting taekwondo coaches in the selection
process at the recreational or higher levels of competition. Depending on the level of
competition and age of the practitioner, general motor ability profiling, as was done in this
study, should always be followed up by more taekwondo-specific and competition-specific
tests.
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Suzana & Pieter: Motor ability of Taekwondo athletes
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
Name: M. A. Suzana
Employment: International Taekwondo Federation of Malaysia, Kota Bharu,
Kelantan, Malaysia.
Degree: B.Sc.
Research interests: Coaching science, martial arts, sports business
E-mail: zuanass@yahoo.com
Name: Willy Pieter
Employment: Department of Physical Education, University of Asia and the Pacific,
Ortigas Center, Pasig, Philippines
Degree: Ph.D.
Research interests: Epidemiology and modeling of sports injuries, martial arts,
modeling of sport performance
zilian Journal of Biomotricity, v. 3, n. 4, p. 325-331, 2009 (ISSN 1981-6324)
E-mail: yshin516@yahoo.com