Bollywood movies and cultural identity construction among secondgeneration Indian Americans
by
Lakshmi N. Tirumala, M.S.
A Thesis
In
MASS COMMUNICATIONS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the
Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Approved
Harsha Gangadharbatla
Committee Chair
Todd Chambers
Kent Wilkinson
Fred Hartmeister
Dean of the Graduate School
August, 2009
Copyright 2009, Lakshmi N. Tirumala
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Acknowledgements
I acknowledge my family who supported me throughout this study. I would like to
thank my parents for their emotional support during stressful times, and my brother and
sister-in-law for their patience, critiques and valuable inputs.
I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Todd Chambers, who served the roles of a
Chairperson, mentor and friend throughout my masters program at Texas Tech. His very
presence and positive encouragement gave me the much needed motivation and mental
strength to continue with the research at times when I was completely lost. He was
always there to assist me with my academic and personal growth, and I am very grateful
for his invaluable guidance throughout this process.
Also, I would like to acknowledge Dr. Kent Wilkinson, whose support and
encouragements gave me the confidence to take on any daunting tasks. He was able to
find time to listen to my ideas and lead me towards the right path when I was completely
clueless. I am very thankful to him for being there whenever I needed him. Also, other
faculty members and staff in the College of Mass Communications at Texas Tech
University should be acknowledged for their help and encouragements throughout my
graduate program. Specifically, I would like to thank Dr. Michael Parkinson, one of the
best graduate student advisors the college could ever find, for his support.
A special thanks goes out to Dr. Harsha Gangadharbhatla who served as much
more than a primary thesis advisor, but also the role of a friend throughout my masters
program. And lastly, thanks to Josh Robinson, Randy Hays, Jessica Robinson, and Brian
who were always willing to help whenever called upon.
Finally, my good friends Andrea Smith, Anthony Galvez, Arijit Basu, Emily
Buck, and Philip Madison who helped with providing the much needed laughs and
memories. Thank you for understanding and being there for me.
ii
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .............................................................................................................................v
List of Tables.................................................................................................. vi
I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
Bollywood Movies and Identity ......................................................................................1
Reasons for the Popularity...............................................................................................5
On being “Indian”..........................................................................................................10
The Indian Diaspora ......................................................................................................11
Cultural Identity.............................................................................................................12
II. Literature Review ....................................................................................................15
A Brief History of Bollywood Industry .........................................................................15
Bollywood & Diaspora ..................................................................................................20
Asia ............................................................................................................................21
Africa and Russia.......................................................................................................21
Oceania ......................................................................................................................22
United Kingdom and Europe .....................................................................................22
Bollywood in United States .......................................................................................23
III. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................25
Cultural Studies .............................................................................................................25
The Circuit of Culture....................................................................................................26
The Concept of Ethnic Identity......................................................................................28
Cultural Identity of Asian Americans............................................................................31
IV. Methodology ...........................................................................................................37
Qualitative research .......................................................................................................37
iii
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
In-depth interviews ....................................................................................................39
Focus Groups .............................................................................................................41
Coding ...........................................................................................................................43
V. Findings and Discussion ........................................................................................44
Constructing Identity .....................................................................................................46
Family ............................................................................................................................50
Institutions .....................................................................................................................53
Friends ...........................................................................................................................55
Media .............................................................................................................................58
The influence of Bollywood movies on cultural identity ..............................................64
VI. Conclusion and Limitations ................................................................................71
References.......................................................................................................................80
A. Plot Summaries ........................................................................................................88
B. Discussion Guide .....................................................................................................92
C. Interview Consent form .........................................................................................94
D. Focus group Consent form ....................................................................................95
iv
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Abstract
Indian cinema has been one of the most dominant and distinguishing features of
the subcontinent’s culture for the past sixty years. And, as Indians continue to seek out
jobs and educational opportunities worldwide, they are bringing these cultural artifacts
with them. Previous research suggests that the Indian Diaspora may use these types of
media products as a form of cultural maintenance. This thesis explores the role of
Bollywood movies in constructing and maintaining the cultural identity among secondgeneration Indian Americans. In particular, this study seeks to demonstrate how
Bollywood film viewing practices of the second-generation Indian Americans intersect to
create a notion of “Indianness.” Discussions generated across in-depth interviews (N =
8) and focus groups (N = 8) about the process of participants’ cultural identity
construction and maintenance showed that the cultural identity of second-generation
Indian Americans depended on various interpersonal and mediated communication
activities. Interestingly, the study found that though social factors such as family and
peer groups have played a dominant role in constructing the Indian identity, Bollywood
movies appeared to have a significant influence on second-generation Indian Americans
in maintaining those identities. Bollywood movies not only act as a bridge between home
and diaspora, but they help transmit the culture and traditions that play a crucial role in
maintaining the “Indianness,” among second-generation Indian Americans.
v
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
List of Tables
1. Indian Film Industry vs Hollywood in 2008 ...................................................................3
2. Demographics and movie watching frequency .............................................................45
3. Summary of research findings.......................................................................................72
vi
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Chapter I
Introduction
Films are a common source of entertainment, education, and information across
the United States. Beard (1994) observed that films are among the most common artifacts
of modern popular culture that generate and reflect diverse cultures and the traditional
values of a society. Consequently films have become a major part of modern society,
through which people are becoming aware of different cultures from all over the world.
This qualitative research study is based on cultural studies and seeks to explore
the role of Bollywood movies in identity construction among second-generation Indian
Americans, using the circuit of culture (du Gay, Hall, Janes, Mackay, and Negus, 1997).
The three moments from the circuit of culture (consumption, identity, and representation)
are explored through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with secondgeneration Indian Americans. The circuit of culture suits the proposed study well because
of the consumption of Bollywood movies by second-generation Indian Americans,
representations of the Indian culture in the movies, and the connections that viewers
make with the movies themes, plots, and characters.
Bollywood Movies and Identity
In today’s world of global movement and cultural hybridity, our personal
identities are in constant flux. So, ‘What is my true “identity”?’ has become a
fundamental and yet significant question in one’s life. In recent times, a great deal has
1
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
been studied in the area of “cultural identity” and on the concept “home” with some of
the most important contributions towards this research study coming from cultural studies
area (Bandyopadhyay, 2008; Appadurai, 1990; Palmer, 1999).
According to Basu (2004), in this globalized world, preserving and maintaining
one’s own culture and identity has become a serious challenge. However, with
technological advancements, diasporic communities are able to stay connected with their
homeland and maintain their self-identity. Electronic media have been the essential tools
for the diaspora in re-rooting their identities (Appadurai, 1996). While commenting on
the influence of electronic media on the diapsoric community, Appadurai has argued that
“because of its sheer multiplicity in which they appear (films, TV, internet and
telephones) and because of the rapid way in which they move through daily life,
electronic media provide diapsoric communities with resources for self-imagining that
help maintain the identity” (Appadurai, 1990, p.4).
With the increasing popularity of electronic media, and especially the phenomenal
success of Hindi movies (also known as Bollywood) among the Indian diaspora (Dudrah,
2006; Uberoi, 1998), it is important to study the role of Bollywood movies in Indian
diasporic identity construction. However, before we look into the significance of
Bollywood movies, it is essential for us to know about Indian cinema and the reasons for
its popularity among Indians as well as for the Indian diaspora.
Indian cinema has been one of the most dominant and distinguishing features of
the subcontinent’s popular culture for the past sixty years. The Indian cinema industry,
most commonly known as Bollywood (although Bollywood represents Hindi film
2
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
industry alone), is the world’s largest film industry in terms of the number of films
produced, though not for its financial returns (Dwyer, 2006). To satisfy the 14 million
Indians who go to the cinema every day, the Indian film industry produces more than
1000 films each year compared to Hollywood, which only produces about half that
number. Table 1 compared the size and global reach of the two most prolific film
industries. Pricewaterhouse Coopers Ltd (FICCI-Pricewaterhouse, 2008) provided the
following figures and estimates.
Table 1. Indian Film Industry vs Hollywood in 2008
Indian Film Industry
Hollywood
Films Produced*
1,100
800
Tickets sold
4 billion
3 billion
World Wide revenues**
U.S $ 2.2 billion
U.S $ 56 billion
Average cost per film
U.S $ 3 million
U.S $60 million
*National Film Production 2008 ** Estimates 2009 (FICCI-Pricewaterhouse,
2008)
Unlike Hollywood, the film business in India is decentralized (Srinivas, 2002).
Mumbai, or ‘Bollywood’ as it is commonly called, produces Hindi-language films, which
are popular throughout India and among expatriate Indians living abroad. Though
Bollywood is the best-known Indian film industry, individual states such as West Bengal,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala also produce films in regional
languages (Booth, 1995).
3
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Indian cinema has always found a market overseas with a limited number of films
being exported to countries such as the Soviet Union, Middle East, parts of Africa,
Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, the United States, Australia and Great Britain (Srinivas,
2002). Recently, western interest in Bollywood has been rapidly growing as India’s
largest film industry based in Mumbai has been producing more than 400 films every
year (Rao, 2007).
Through the years, Bollywood’s annual output of more than 400 films a year that
accumulates 3.6 billion audience members across the world has become a necessary
comfort for the South Asian diaspora communities (Chopra, 2007). Through its rich
cultural textures and images, Bollywood cinema has facilitated a platform by which the
South Asian diaspora can stay connected to the homeland. Hindi film blockbusters are
now exported in large numbers of subtitled prints to the United States, United Kingdom,
and Australia. Popular newspapers such as The New York Times and The Washington
Post have started publishing regular reviews of Bollywood movies. Stadtler (2005)
observed that the popularity of Bollywood cinema in the United States and United
Kingdom has been on the rise since the year 2000, with the exposure of South Asian
popular culture reaching an all time high.
As Rajadhyaksha (2003) noted, “there is a craze for ‘Bollywood’ movies that
quite exceeds anything we have seen before” (p. 24). This fondness for Bollywood
cinema began with films like Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995), Dil To Pagal Hai
(1997), Taal (1999), Lagaan (2001) and Kal Ho Na Ho (2003), which achieved success
in overseas markets; in fact these movies stayed among the top ten grossing films of the
4
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
year in United States and United Kingdom (Rajadhyaksha, 2003). Since then, India’s
movie exports to the United States increased dramatically from $10 million a decade ago
to $2 billion last year. The following are some of the reasons for Bollywood’s everincreasing popularity.
Reasons for the Popularity
One of the significant reasons for the increase in popularity is due to the change in
producers’ attitudes towards the motion picture business. Film producers like Ronnie
Screwvala and Aditya Chopra have begun professionalizing the cinema business,
bringing in outside investors and aggressively marketing films with novel plots (Gyalzen,
2007). Their production companies have successfully cut the old format of three-and-half
hour movies to a fast-paced 120 minutes and have hired Hollywood scriptwriters to make
films more appealing and watchable.
This is particularly a significant factor in Bollywood’s popularity as the new
movie format that will break into the Indian diapsora more often that the age-old
Bollywood movies (Overdorf, 2007). One example for such successful collaboration was
the recent blockbuster by Mira Nair’s New York based production, The Namesake, a
story about the relationships and identity struggles between the son and his Indian
immigrant parents. The film grossed close to $14 million at the box office with nearly 95
percent of the ticket sales generated from the United States (Overdorf, 2007). This
international reach of Bollywood is rather important as it assures financial returns and
5
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
also increases the interest among Indian diasporic community to watch the new short and
slick Bollywood movies.
Second, the Indian movie industry started enjoying an impressive boom due to the
improved Indian economy with a significant number of Indians getting wealthier and
spending more on entertainment. Lovgren (2004) observed that the telecommunications
revolution and information technology explosion witnessed an all-time growth in the
Indian economy that propelled the middle class life style into newer heights. A study by
the McKinsey Global Institute also discovered that Indian consumer spending increased
from $250 billion in 2004 to $400 billion by 2007 (Ablett, Baijal, Beinhocker, Bose,
Farrell, Gersch, Greenberg, Gupta, and Gupta, 2007).
The economic boom and improved conditions of the middle class sector greatly
encouraged Bollywood producers to invest more money in films and to improve technical
quality in order to ensure maximum financial returns both in domestic and overseas
market. According to Aditya Chopra, one of the popular Bollywood producers, as
technical quality advances, moviegoers come in increasing numbers to watch these latest
movies (Overdorf, 2007).
Another important reason for Bollywood’s popularity can be attributed to the
growing Indian population overseas. The Indian population around the world is estimated
around 25 million consisting of both non-resident Indians (a.k.a. NRI) and persons of
Indian origin (a.k.a. POI) (Indian diaspora, n.d.). The Indian community in the United
States alone increased from 1.68 million in 2000 to close to 2.5 million in 2005 (Joseph,
2006). The U.S. census bureau found that the Indians are the fastest growing community
6
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
among Asian communities in U.S (Indian American population, n.d.). As stated earlier,
the most common tool for a force of bonding through entertainment media would be
“Hindi cinema,” a phenomenon unique to the Indian diaspora community to stay
connected to the homeland.
New media technologies like satellites, the Internet and digital home video
devices such as DVD’s have opened new distribution channels to bring Bollywood into
the living rooms. Thussu (2008) observed that the availability of these new delivery and
distribution mechanisms have contributed to the global visibility of popular Indian
cinema. Researchers like Kaur and Sinha (2005) suggested that DVD, the Internet, and
satellite television have cultivated and increased number of fans in countries like Great
Britain, the United States, and Australia. Representation of the Indian diaspora, and
foreign locations made Bollywood movies a household name amongst diasporic
communities (Kaur and Sinha, 2005).
Finally, Bollywood exports play an important role in Indian film industry’s
growing popularity overseas. The era of globalization effectively placed Indian film
industry on a global platform. This essentially popularized Bollywood movies in
countries like the United States, Great Britain, New Zealand, and Australia. Dave (2007)
observed that roughly half of Bollywood’s estimated $2.2 billion annual revenue comes
largely from these overseas markets where Indian communities provide a great number of
audiences for theatrical releases and DVD sales. According to the Internet Movie
7
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Database, films from India do more business in the United States than films from any
other country (Joseph, 2005).
Yash Raj Films, one of India’s largest film production and distribution
companies, reported that Bollywood films in the United States earn approximately $100
million a year through theatre screenings, video sales and the sale of movie soundtracks
(Overdorf, 2007). Although it seems a small number in comparison to Hollywood
financial returns, these revenues contribute significantly to drive Indian filmmaking to
new heights in terms of quality, cinematography, and innovative story lines (Bose,
2006), as the $100 million accounts to a huge amount in Indian currency. According to
the table 1 estimations this $100 million represents film production costs for
approximately 33 Indian films compared to about 2 films in Hollywood.
The aforementioned reasons make Bollywood films a much sought after
entertainment source for Indians living in India as well as abroad. Dissanayake (2006)
argued that the diaporic communities are becoming more interested in Bollywood films
that deal with Indian history, Indian heritage and culture and Indian nationhood. With
popular Indian television channels playing Bollywood movies at least once a day and the
Internet providing various options to watch Bollywood movies, one may safely assume
that Bollywood movies are becoming an integral part of the Indian diaspora through
which they can stay in touch and maintain Indian traditions and culture. As Chopra
(2007) observed Bollywood is not just a style of filmmaking; it is a culture and a religion
unto itself.
8
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Though some of the following will be discussed in greater detail in the next
chapter, it is important to touch base with concepts such as fan culture and Indianness.
Bollywood films strongly influence dress codes, language, and rituals for both the
educated person and a layman alike. For example, Chopra (2007) noted that members of
a certain Bollywood film club from South Korea wore Sharukh Khan (a popular
Bollywood actor) t-shirts and goggles while watching a Hindi film. In fact, many ardent
Indian movie fans of Indian origin copy their favorite actor’s mannerisms, dress styles,
and body language with utmost sincerity, which relates to a concept called fan culture
(Srinivas, 1998). This suggests the emergence of a particular Bollywood culture in India,
which is now being spread by new media technologies even within the Indian diaspora.
Considering the popularity of Bollywood movies amongst the Indian diaspora,
particularly in United States, it is surprising to see that little research work is done in the
area of Bollywood movies and cultural identity formation among second-generation
Indian Americans. Most studies, however, have focused on Indian immigrants,
demographic characteristics, cultural adjustments patterns like changes in life styles,
living conditions and socio economic ties between home and Diaspora (Rao, 2007;
Punathambekar, 2005; Dawson, 2005; Juluri, 1999).
Therefore, to fill the gap in the diaporic identity literature, the current study
investigates the identity construction process of second-generation Indian American
students, who were born and brought up in the United States, and examines the role of
Bollywood in maintaining their identities. In other words, I seek to demonstrate how
Hindi film viewing practices in second-generation Indian Americans intersect to create a
9
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
notion of “Indianness.” Before examining literature on cultural identity construction, it is
important to understand the concepts like “Indianness” and cultural identity.
On Being “Indian”
According to Bhat (2006), Indianness is nothing but a “psycho-social product of
colonialism as much as post colonialism” (p.243), a notion of independent nation that
brought the people together despite their diversity in many aspects. In his book, The
Discovery of India, Jawaharlal Nehru (1946) defined this quality as “unity in diversity.”
Cohn (1972) defined Indianness or being Indian as something that is unique, something
that can be distinctly experienced, described or measured, a quality that makes
quintessentially India.
Taking cues from Cohn’s (1972) definition many scholars define Indianness in
terms of religious tolerance and simple acceptance of unity in diversity while others
define the notion focusing on the otherworldly aspects of this culture like family
togetherness, traditions and value system (Bhat, 2006). From the definitions and
observations it can be said that Indianness is one notion that is considered to be inherent
and inseparable from all Indians.
Some key elements of Indianness are language and regions, religions, sects and
sub-sects, castes and sub-castes, customs and traditions. As Nehru (1946) stated, even the
universal religious faiths like Christianity and Islam will have a distinct Indian touch to it
that makes them Indian Christians and Indian Muslims. However, the importance of
10
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Hinduism cannot be ignored or overlooked from the concept of Indianness as it plays a
crucial role in unifying various castes and tribes (Singh, 2003; Bhat, 2006).
The reason behind such importance given to Hinduism is that many scholars
believe Hinduism as an ethnic religion that has strong roots in India. This suggests that
religion is a significant aspect of the notion “Indianness”, apart from language and
region. As Singh (2003) points out that these very elements like religion, language, and
region define the identity of Indian diasporic communities.
The Indian Diaspora
Recent population estimates suggested that the Indian diaspora has reached 25
million, spreading across the globe in more than 130 countries (Bhuyan, 2006). Because
this study was limited to the United States, it fits to discuss the Indian diaspora in the
United States. Indians started migrating to United States only after the Immigration and
Nationality Act was revoked in 1965. The majority of Indians who migrated to U.S. are
white-collar professionals such as engineers, doctors, lawyers or businessman (Bhat,
2006).
Religion, language and caste factors play a dominant role in the lives of U.S.
based Indians now numbering about three million according to the United States Census
calculations and are most heavily concentrated in the states of California, New York,
New Jersey, Texas, and Illinois (How a burgeoning, 2006). Many regional associations
like TANA (Telugu Association of North America), ATA (American Telugu Association),
Gujarat Samaj, along with other Indian Associations like Global Organization of People
11
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
for Indian Origin (GOPIO) have emerged to maintain a separate identity for Indians by
facilitating an opportunity to meet with people from same regions.
New communications technologies like satellite television, the Internet, mobile
phones and DVDs have helped this cause of connecting with the home culture. As Bhat
(2006) and Singh (2003) noted, while the notion of “Indianness” becomes significant in
India only when it is challenged, it is a part of the Indian diaspora that comes out every
time they involve and interact with other ethnic groups. Rao (2008), argued that mass
media, electronic media in particular, frequently enables the notion of “Indianness”
through its various programs, films, etc.
Research scholars (Rao, 2008; Bhat, 2006) also noted that there is a continuous
effort among members of the Indian diaspora to maintain cultural identity through their
activities that are distinctly Indian. Thus, as mentioned in this thesis, it is worth exploring
the cultural identity construction process among second-generation Indian Americans and
the role of Bollywood in maintaining these identities.
Cultural Identity
Cultural identity can simply be defined as an individual’s way of identifying
himself/herself with the culture, whether it is a home culture or host culture. Jung and
Lee (2004) defined cultural identity as a “socially and historically constructed outcome of
locating the self in relation to interactions with others as well as to socially and culturally
conditioned communicative structures within a given society” (p.147). Thus, the cultural
12
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
identity of Indian Americans, especially the second-generation Indian Americans, is
continually negotiated between the U.S. culture and Indian culture.
Cultural identity is also an important contributor to a people’s wellbeing.
Identifying with a particular culture makes people feel they belong and gives them a
sense of security. Most importantly, an individual’s identity is maintained through social
interactions with others as well as with media. In fact, Moorti (2003) argued that these
social interactions play a significant role in constructing and maintaining one’s identity
and this holds true particularly with diasporic communities.
Lee (2006) observed that when individuals with minority status, for example
Indian Americans, experience multiple cultures and are trapped by the dynamics of these
cultures, they will report conflicting ideas, beliefs, and attitudes toward a particular
cultural group. These factors influence in shaping the overall cultural identity among
minority individuals and make them choose to identify themselves with certain culture
they often come into contact with cultural “in-groups” and “out-groups.” Secondgeneration Indian Americans naturally fall under this scenario by constantly experiencing
the dynamics of both the Indian as well as American cultures.
Hence, it makes an interesting study to explore the role of Bollywood movies and
factors influencing the identity construction among second-generation Indian Americans.
This study is primarily based on the second-generation Indian American undergraduate
students from Texas Tech University and how they construct their cultural identity.
This thesis investigated the role of Bollywood movies in second-generation Indian
Americans via in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. To accomplish this, the
13
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
study examined the role of Bollywood movies using three moments (consumption,
identity, and representation) of circuit of culture.
14
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Chapter II
Literature Review
A Brief History of Bollywood Industry
The birth of Indian cinema has coincided with the freedom struggle against
British colonialism. Since that time cinema has been successfully engaged in defining a
cultural identity that was Indian both in its shape and form (Rao, 2007). The first
exposure to motion pictures for India was in the year 1896, when Lumiere Brothers’
Cinematographe unveiled six soundless short films in Bombay (Bose, 2006). However,
Dada Saheb Phalke was responsible for the production of country’s first silent feature
film, Raja Harishchandra (1913), which signified the birth of the Indian film industry.
Indian cinema gradually took the shape of a regular industry during the late
1920s. Due to the phenomenal expansion of Hollywood industry and lack of better Indian
filmmakers, almost 85 percent of movies shown in India were American. However, with
the arrival of talkies in the early 1930s, the Indian film industry was able to free itself
from foreign influence and produce movies that were related to Indian social and culture
system (Nayar, 1996). The first Indian talkie, Alam Ara, was produced by the Imperial
film company and directed by Irani in 1931. It brought revolutionary changes in the
whole set up of India’s film industry (Bose, 2006).
The 1930s witnessed the arrival of many new production companies and
filmmakers from all over the country, which led to an increase in number of films being
15
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
made. With the advent of sound, Indian film producers and directors were able to focus
on scripts and dialogues that pertained to the Indian society and culture. Regional issues
and a desire to see and hear one’s own language had spurred new regional film industries
producing Bengali, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and several other dialects around the time.
This is about the time when song and dance sequences were introduced in Indian films
that gave the films unique and aesthetic look. The Indian audiences accepted the
innovative idea with great enthusiasm, which helped transform Indian movies into a
commodity in later years.
The late 1930s and early 1940s were recognized as the decade of social protests in
the history of Indian cinema. Three major studios during this period made some serious
but entertaining films for all social classes of the Indian audience. This was also the
period the country was united by Mahatma Gandhi’s civil disobedience and non-violence
movement against the British demanding for Indian independence. Films helped the
cause by uniting Indians and getting them to think and act as citizens of a sovereign
nation. The Indian film industry, however, had fallen within the purview of the law
during the late 1930s, which gave a little chance to the filmmakers to fight against the
British colonialism. However, with the British withdrawal from India in 1947, Indian
cinema finally emerged as an undisputed vehicle for national unity focusing heavily on
reality and aesthetics (Kalkar, 1980).
Rao (2007) noted that it was the period when “a tension between modernity and
tradition, westernization and indigeneity, have evolved in the cinematic imagination” (p.
58). From these tensions has emerged a unique ideology called Indian identity, an
16
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
identity that is associated with family, religion and moral values – important
characteristics that movies frequently focused upon. The first International film festival
(IFF) of India that was held in early 1952 at Bombay has had a significant impact on
Indian cinema and inspired filmmakers toward producing art films. The notable turning
point, however, arrived in 1955 with the introduction of Satyajit Ray and his classic
Pather Panchali, which positioned Indian film on the world film platform.
Throughout the late 1950s, directors like Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy, Guru Dutt and
Mehboob Khan made films with social messages such as Do Bigha Zamin (1953),
Pyaasa (1957), and Mother India (1957) that were focused on underprivileged
populations and inequities in Indian society (Jaikumar, 2003). Among the films,
Mehnoob Khan’s Mother India was the first Indian film to be nominated for an Oscar
(Chopra, 2007). During the late 1960s, Bollywood cinema shifted its social concerns
towards romantic genres, introducing new film stars like Shammi Kapoor, and Rajesh
Khanna.
However, political and economic turmoil during 1970s and early 1980s saw
Indian cinema return to the concept of social concerns, which appealed to the
underprivileged sections of society (Iordanova, 2006). The poor, angry, young man was
the primary audience of these films. The tremendous success of Zanjeer (1973)
introduced the figure of “angry young man” to the Indian screen. The male protagonist
was portrayed as a cynical and rebellious worker who was often seen fighting rich
businesses and corrupt politicians (Rao, 2007). It was a strategy through which Hindi
17
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
films have ensured that viewer, both men and women, identified with the working and
lower middle class populations.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the revival of the musical love stories in
Hindi cinema. The significant changes that were brought in by the liberalization of the
Indian economy throughout the 1990s enabled the already growing internationalization of
the production and distribution of Hindi films (Rajadhyaksha, 2003). With the advent of
cable and satellite television, Indian filmmakers began operating in a new media
landscape, where easy access to Bollywood and Hollywood films were made available to
viewers at home.
Rajadhyaksha (2003) termed this shift as “Bollywoodization of the Indian
cinema,” and stated that Bollywood became a part of the culture industry, a phenomenon
coined by Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer (1976). According to this theory,
popular culture not only mirrors society, but also shapes the society through the process
of standardization and commodification through films, radio and magazines (Adorno,
1975). The culture industry claims to serve the needs of the consumers for entertainment,
but hides the way it regulate these needs and manipulates the consumers to desire what it
produces (Adorno, 1975).
Based on this culture theory it can be assumed that the Bollywood film industry
often manipulates the viewer to desire what it produces rather making films that viewers
would be interested to watch. Though the Bollywood industry specializes in
understanding what the audience wants, more often than not, it succumbs to the elite
whims, interests and influences the audiences to desire what it produces. As discussed
18
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
earlier, Bollywood as a cultural industry influences dress codes, hairstyles and even
mannerisms. Baym and Punathambekar (2007) observed that “fandom” is a significant
element of Indian film culture. Moviegoers in India take pride in associating themselves
with an actor or actress and diligently follow their mannerisms (Srinivas, 2002). Given
the immense popularity of Indian film stars and the large number of fan communities that
have emerged over the years, it is not surprising to see that the audience desires to imitate
dress codes, hair styles, etc., that they see in Indian movies.
Rajadhyaksha (2003) further argued, “Bollywood is not the Indian film industry
or not the film industry alone. It might be best seen as a more diffuse cultural
conglomeration involving a range of distribution and consumption activities from
websites to music cassettes, from cable to radio, from New Delhi to New York” (p.27).
His argument about Bollywood industry was in line with the cultural industry concept of
commodification. Accordingly, overseas distribution rights for a big budget movie have
doubled in price than that in the Indian market (Jaikumar, 2003). Television and music
rights generated more revenues than the entire movie production cost. This trend based in
synergies across different media platforms has encouraged Bollywood film producers to
focus on urban and niche audiences who have ample disposable income and are active
consumers.
In the past decade, some of the most popular films such as Don (2006) Rang De
Basanti (2005), Black (2004), Dhoom (2004), Swades (2004), Kabhi Kushi Kabhi Gham
(2001), Kaho Na Pyar Hai (2000), Dil Chahta Hi (2003) (see Appendix A for some of
the plot summaries) achieved success both in the domestic and overseas market alike.
19
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Interestingly, all these films featured westernized themes, foreign locations, and
considerable use of English language in the dialogues. These techniques demonstrated a
trend toward reaching a global audience as opposed to the industry’s earlier objective of
resisting western influence. The new age film producers argue that films with western
themes and usage of “Hinglish” (a blend of Hindi and English language) will not attract a
large of number of the diasporic audience. These innovative strategies adopted by
filmmakers by taking global formats and visual styles, while localizing and Indianizing
them can best be labeled as “glocalization” (Ganti, 2002).
The period between 2001 and 2008 is very significant with the exposure of South
Asian popular culture reaching an all time high. During this period, the big budget
musical drama, Bombay Dreams, opened to sold-out crowds in London. Movies such as
Monsoon Wedding (2001), The Name Sake (2006), both directed by Mira Nair, and
Danny Boyel’s Slum Dog Millionaire (2008) achieved tremendous success in the Indian
diaspora, particularly in U.S. and U.K. Athique (2005) noted that it is surprising to see
that the Bombay cinema has not generated much interest among scholars of cultural
studies. This is slowly changing as the popularity and importance of Bollywood cinema
amongst the large South Asian diaspora is now being recognized as an important cultural
object for scholars of socio-cultural studies.
Bollywood & Diaspora
Following is a brief description of Bollywood’s presence in a few important
regions of the world:
20
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Asia
Among Asian countries, Pakistan and Bangladesh arguably enjoy an upper hand
in the consumption of Bollywood movies, because most of the people from these
countries speak/understand Hindi (Kaur and Sinha, 2005). Although Pakistan’s
government banned Indian films, a few Bollywood films like Tajmahal (2005) were
legally released in Pakistan. However, for the most part, Bollywood movies are watched
on cable and DVDs. Bollywood movies are also popular in other South Asian countries
such as Nepal and Sri Lanka due to their proximity with the Indian subcontinent. Also
Afghanistan, Israel and Arab countries have been witnessing a gradual increase in
popularity for Bollywood films since 2001 (Mishra, n.d.).
Africa and Russia
Bollywood is now being recognized and achieving box office success in some
parts of Africa such as Nigeria, Morocco and South Africa because of its increasing
Indian diaspora. According to Larkin (1997), Indian movies offer an alternative style to
Hollywood movies and music videos that both Indian diaspora and African youth could
follow without the fear of becoming western.
Bollywood films are particularly popular in the former Soviet Union. Iordanova
(2006) noted that Bollywood movies are dubbed to Russian and shown in prominent
theatres. Although, Bollywood is not so popular in this part of the world compared to
Oceania, the U.K. and the U.S., it has made a slow but steady progress over the years
(Irodanova, 2006).
21
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Oceania
Bollywood ranks second only to Hollywood in countries such as Australia and
New Zealand, thanks to its ever-increasing Indian population (Kaur and Sinha, 2005).
Australia is one of the few countries where there is a large Indian diaspora. Since 1997,
Australia has been providing a backdrop for a number of Bollywood films, especially for
song and dance sequences. Indian filmmakers have been attracted to the country’s diverse
locations and rich landscapes to film significant number of song and dance sequences
(Shah, 2005). For example, the Yash Raj film Salaam Namaste (2005) was one of the
first Indian films to be shot entirely in Australia. This trend was followed by most recent
movies like Heyy Babyy and Chak de India (2007).
United Kingdom and Europe
As per industry sources, Bollywood films do exceptionally well in United
Kingdom (Sheth, 2006). Many films such as Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham (2001), Bend it
Like Beckham (2002), and Bride and Prejudice (2005) have been filmed entirely in
United Kingdom. With the growing Indian diaspora, Bollywood films have been
gradually improving its box office revenues in the UK and it is fitting to say that the UK
plays a significant role in Bollywood’s global share (Dawson, 2005). Dawson observed
that the Bollywood is also popular in Western Europe where India’s mega film industry
has carved an identity for itself. Two television channels—RTL II (German) and Rai Uno
(Italian)—have recently started to broadcast Indian movies every week (Sheth, 2006).
22
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Bollywood in United States
Bollywood has been experiencing tremendous growth in revenues in North
American markets and is most popular among the South Asian communities in cities such
as Chicago, Washington D.C., and New York (Overdorf, 2007). As mentioned in the
previous chapter, Indian films do more business in the United States than films from any
other country. Many big-budget Bollywood films are debuting in the top 20 box office
charts in cities where the Indian diaspora is large. Yash Raj Films, one of the India’s
largest production houses and distributors, reported that Bollywood films in the U.S.
make an average of $100 million a year through theatre screenings, video sales and the
sale of audio tracks from the movies (Overdorf, 2007).
During the past 10 years, Indian filmmakers have set their sights on the United
States when it comes to locations for filming significant scenes and song and dance
sequences. With ever growing numbers of South Asians immigrating to the United
States, many Bollywood filmmakers have been shooting significant number of scenes in
America. A few recent prominent films like Kaante (2002), Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003), and
Chocolate (2005) were shot in United States.
With the Indian movie industry gaining popularity in the West, Bollywood started
entering into American living rooms through “Bollywood On Demand” provided by
Comcast Corporation, the largest cable television provider in the United States (Sikka,
2005). Also, video rental retailers such as Netflix are offering more Bollywood movies
through their online stores. Some of the more recent music-oriented films have
23
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
influenced the first Bollywood musical, Bombay Dreams, to hit Broadway during 20042005 season.
There is no question that the Indian movie industry has experienced exceptional
growth in the number of films produced, the generation of revenues through movie ticket
sales, raise of multiplexes, and the creation of overseas markets through the exportation
of theatrical and home video consumption. The growth of the Bollywood film industry in
foreign markets, especially in the United States, has provided an opportunity to explore
issues related to the creation and maintenance of cultural identity. The next chapter
examined the theoretical frameworks that could be used to analyze the relationship
between Bollywood and the development of cultural identity among the secondgeneration Indian Americans. Specifically, the following chapter examines the cultural
identity in terms of cultural studies.
24
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Chapter III
Theoretical Framework
Cultural Studies
Cultural studies combine sociology, film/video studies, and cultural anthropology
to explore cultural phenomena in industrial societies. Johnson (1987) explained cultural
studies with three main characteristics: culture is associated with social relations, it
involves power structures, and it display social disparity. He maintained that the way to
understand culture as “a whole, and in situ, located, in their material context” (p. 50).
Williams (1961) conceptualized the culture “as a whole way of life” (p. 41). Additionally,
he positioned the culture in two general categories:
There is, first, the ideal in which culture is the body of intellectual and
imaginative work, human thought and experience are variously recorded.
…Second …is the social definition of culture. …Culture is a description of a
particular way of life, which expresses certain meanings and values not only in art
and learning but also in institutions and ordinary behavior (p. 41).
Culture represents certain meanings and values of a society. Cultural studies are
the way to analyze and understand the systems and values of our daily lives. Taylor
(1874) defined culture as “it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief
systems, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society” (p. 67). According to Stuart Hall (1997), in today’s global world,
mass media play a significant role in representing and even projecting a society’s culture.
25
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Hall (1997) observed that the images and the values of a society would be provided by
mass media, especially electronic media. Accordingly, Hall (1982) described the role of
media in the society as functional.
No matter what the audience perceives about the content of mass media,
consciously or unconsciously, social ideology is always present in culture. However, it
does not create new culture or a social phenomenon but it repackages and reforms
cultural practices. Hall (1997) suggested that the audience could learn other cultural
values through media and so they might recognize that they live in different cultures.
Accordingly, audience could get other cultural perspectives through mass media so that
they might realize that the culture they are living in differs from other cultures.
Moreover, Hall (1996) explained that the media play an important role in the
formation of the things that they reflect. In short, cultural studies focus on how
individuals understand their culture through mass media. For the Indian diaspora in the
United States, Bollywood movies should provide links to the Indian culture. One
explanation for this process is through the Circuit of Culture, a cultural studies
framework that can be used to explore and examine the process of cultural identification.
The Circuit of Culture
Circuit of culture is a model that offers a holistic view of the process of
communication. It suggests that to study a cultural text or artifact, one needs to look at its
representation, identity, production, consumption, and regulation (du Gay et al., 1997). du
Gay et al. suggested that combining these five elements completes a circuit and to
26
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
examine or analyze how cultural processes are accomplished in our daily lives, one must
take this circuit into consideration if it is to be studied adequately (du Gay et al., 1997).
The circuit of culture consists of five major moments: representation is the first
stage of the circuit as it is a process by which cultural meaning is generated and given a
shape. As Hall (1997) suggested cultural meaning is socially constructed through systems
of symbolic representations. So, visuals and language play a predominant role in the
process of representation. At the moment of identity, the circuit examines how people
find similarities with themselves and messages encoded during the production.
Production is pursued on the basis of targeted audience and at this stage we are concerned
with understanding how various meanings are encoded in messages. Consumption deals
with how these messages are decoded and the meaning that audiences make of them. On
the final moment of Regulation, the circuit examines how cultural messages affect
consumers in their daily lives.
The moments of the circuit -- representation, identity, production, consumption,
and regulation -- play a significant role in how we send and receive messages. As
indicated above, this process helps us to understand the complexity of communication;
like Hall (2005) suggested, the communication process is much more than sending a
message from point A to B. Likewise, the meaning of any cultural text or artifact can be
examined and understood from these five interdependent elements of the circuit of
culture. Curtin and Gaither (2005) argued that the circuit of culture is a useful framework
for better understanding the values and meanings of any cultural product.
27
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
du Gay et al. (1997) observed that people consume products to project certain
cultural identities that they want others to recognize they possess. Based on this
statement, the current study attempted to examine whether consumption of Bollywood
movies helps second-generation Indian Americans understand and maintain their cultural
identity among. The cultural process engaged by Indian American adults was examined
on the basis of circuit of culture framework, mainly focusing on the elements of
representation, identity and consumption.
The concept of ethnic identity
The cultural identity of immigrated minority groups has been an issue in the fields
of mass communications and social sciences (see Gillespie, 2000; Johnson, 2000). We
may infer that diaspora identities have always been unstable because of their constant
exposure to home and host culture influences. However, according to Johnson (2000),
ethnic minorities are successfully finding a balance between their home and host cultures
and trying not to steer away from the ancestral culture and traditions. Globalization and
new media technologies like the Internet and satellite television help the diaspora
communities to stay connected with their ethnic roots as often as possible and restore the
old traditions and value system (Appadurai, 1996).
Scholars have defined ethnic identity in different ways and interestingly there
seems to be no distinction in identity literature when it comes to defining racial, ethnic,
and cultural identity (as referred in Jung and Lee, 2004). Jung and Lee (2004) observed
that the definitions provided by past researchers with respect to ethnic, racial and cultural
28
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
identities are similar. It is not at all surprising considering the number of ethnicities and
cultures in U.S. today, it only make things complicated and difficult to draw out a
universal definition.
Kelly (1996) defined ethnic identity as “a group’s or individual’s cultural
construction of their ethnic past which is grounded in an historical context but which also
responds to changes in the lives of both groups and individuals” (p.82). It is safe to
assume that ethnic groups express their identity by choosing ethnic symbols such as
ethnic clothes, ethnic festivals, ethnic language, and most importantly through
consumption of ethnic food and media. However, it is important to note that ethnic
groups combine these with host culture elements to construct a third identity such as
Indian American.
Sreberny (2000) noted “approaches to ethnicity usually focus on the common
bonds of language, myth and habit which bind members of an ethnic community together
as a sub-cultural grouping within the territorial confines of a nation-state” (p. 179).
Language and religious customs play a crucial role in bringing together people who share
similar cultural traits and form a sub-cultural group. Hall (1997) clearly emphasized that
the cultural elements like family and peer groups play a significant role in the formation
of individual’s identity. Interacting with family and friends on a daily basis appeared to
help identify and maintain the home culture. This is an important notion because the
current study will also attempt to explore the role played by family and friends in
understanding the Indian culture and identity.
29
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Furthermore, communicating with in-group and out-group members play an
influential role in identifying with an individual’s ethnic culture (Durham, 2004). He
suggested that there is a difference between interacting with in-group members and outgroup members. While in-group members often help individual maintain the culture, outgroup members constantly remind him or her of in-group identity. Thus, cultural identity
is defined, produced and maintained through various social interactions inside and
outside ethnic communities. Examining the role of intergroup behavior, Tajfel and Turner
(1986) observed that the act of categorizing oneself as a particular group member would
lead to a display of in-group favoritism. They also argued that individuals positively
differentiate their in-group from out-group on specific identity and value dimensions.
Apart from interpersonal interactions with family and peer group the cultural
identity of ethnic groups can be constructed and maintained through their constant
interactions with media technologies like the Internet, satellite television and DVD. Hall
(1997) suggested that the mass media acts as a linkage between dispersed public and the
homeland of cultural life that helps to create a sense of identity among the media
consumers. Chances are that new media technologies create ample opportunities for
minority communities to find a new sense of connection and maintain their identities. For
example, consumption of ethnic news and entertainment through satellite channels and
DVDs could serve to maintain the culture and traditions of ethnic minorities.
Cultural identity formation is a complicated process. For the purpose of this
research, cultural identity is defined as a level of ethnic identification, which allows
ethnic group members, Indian American students in this case, to closely identify
30
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
themselves with their cultural and traditional origins. The current research highlights the
role of Bollywood movies, which facilitate the cultural contacts by erasing geographical
boundaries and thereby influencing ethnic group’s identity construction and maintenance.
As discussed in the previous chapter it is important to pay attention to Bollywood movies
not only for their dynamic reach to the diaspora communities but also for their popularity
among the group.
Cultural Identity of Asian Americans
As there is an absence of literature about second-generation Indian Americans and
their cultural identity process, the majority of the literature was drawn from either Asian
American or Asian Britain identity construction studies. Although the Asian American
group does consists of Indian Americans, none of the past studies focused particularly on
Indian Americans. Prior studies found that the cultural identity of Asian Americans to be
largely influenced by family and social relationships (see Jung and Lee, 2004; Durham,
2004). This reflects the importance of family togetherness to Asian culture in comparison
to the individualistic approach of Western cultures. In other words, it reflects the
collectivistic approach of Asian culture to the individualistic orientation of Western
culture.
In a study of ethnic identity formation process among second-generation KoreanAmericans, Jo (2000) found that Korean culture, associated with strict parenting style,
age hierarchy, and faith in religion, was a strong force behind the identity negotiation
process. She discovered that the majority of the participants from the study identified
31
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
themselves as Korean or Korean American, which suggested that the second-generation
Korean Americans were strongly connected to the Korean culture. Jung and Lee (2004),
who surveyed Korean American students, found that external forces such as the
relationship with parents, peer group interactions and religious institutions strongly
motivate the students ethnic identification process. The above studies reemphasize the
fact that family and religion play a dominant role in constructing and maintaining the
cultural identification.
In his study of South Asian immigrant girls and diaspora identity, Durham (2004)
found that the participants classified themselves as Indians and identified that family and
peer group interactions as the driving force behind their identity formation. However, a
majority of the girls admitted that their level of Indianness differs from that of their
parents. The author argued that since the participants were brought up in a mixed culture
it is understandable to see a difference in their Indianness from that of their parents. This
suggested that the level of cultural identity diminishes from generation to generation in
the Indian diaspora.
Hennick, Diamond, and Cooper (1999) posited that the cultural identity of Asian
teenage girls in Britain depended on their social activities and interactions. Many
teenagers in the study reported that mixing with Asian friends, attending language
classes, and watching Asian films helped them stay connected to the home culture.
Interestingly, many teenagers in this study opined that Asian films mirrored the true
culture and traditional aspects, attitudes, and behaviors of many Asian societies that
helped reinforce cultural values. All the participants in this study reported an affinity
32
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
towards their people of similar ethnic background. This suggested that apart from family
and religious institutions, peer group interaction and entertainment industry also play a
crucial role in defining one’s ethnic identity. Drawing the basis from the above research
works, the current study seek to understand the role of family, peer group interactions,
and religious institutions in constructing and maintaining the identity.
Because the current study examined the role of Bollywood movies, it was
important to look at the past research studies that investigated the role of media. Mass
media has been used as a useful communication tool for cultural identity construction and
maintenance among first generation immigrants and their children. In their
aforementioned ethnographic study on Korean American students, Jung and Lee (2004)
found that young Korean Americans most often rely on the distance shrinking
communication technologies such as mobile phones, Internet, and satellite television to
create new social realities and cultural identities within the Korean diaspora community
context. This supports Hall’s (1997) observation that mass media and communication
technologies play a crucial role in enhancing the process of identity formation.
Further support is provided by Lee (2004) who found that satellite television
programs played an important role reinforcing the connection with Korean culture and
society while looking at Korean immigrants and the role of satellite television. The study
also revealed that satellite television acted as a good education tool for children to learn
Korean language and culture. Thompson’s (2002) study of media use and diaspora
identity among immigrants and their children in the U.K found that joint viewing of
ethnic television and films are extremely important in the construction of cultural
33
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
identity. Findings from this study suggested that besides family and peer group
interactions, electronic media played an important role in constructing and reinforcing the
identity.
The Internet also began to play a significant role in constructing and maintaining
the cultural identity of people living in ethnic diasporas. Melkote and Liu (2000) found
that Chinese ethnic Internet sites like tudou.com helped by integrating all the Chinese
students and scholars in the United Sates. The study suggested that the Chinese ethnic
Internet sites provided a way for Chinese to stay connected with their culture and
preserve the traditional values. This is an ample indication of Internets role in shaping
and reinforcing cultural identity.
While looking specifically at Bollywood movies and identity construction,
Gillespie (1989) examined the role of the video recorder in the construction of ethnic
identity among Indians in England. Interestingly, he found that the extensive use of VCR
at home to watch Indian films represented a significant means for parents to maintain
links with their country and culture of origin, whereas second-generation children resisted
the Indian traditions and customs that were shown in films. The majority of the parents
used Indian films to cultivate certain traditional cultural values, attitudes, and belief
system in their children apart from teaching the Indian language. Gillespie observed that
the parents considered Indian films to be useful and informative agents for constructing
cultural identity of their children, whereas children felt little connection to the films.
Rao (2007) researched Bollywood movies and non-elite audiences in India and
found that the majority of the respondents did not identify themselves with the current
34
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Bollywood narratives. He reasoned that while Bollywood industry has been veering
towards a Western style catering to the needs of elite Indians and Indian Diasporia
community, the movies have ignored the preferences of non-elite audiences. Though this
study did not focus on immigrant identity, it suggested that the Bollywood industry has
been producing movies to lure diaspora communities (elite or high income groups as per
Indian standards) and increase the financial returns through its exports. Dawson’s (2005)
study of Hindi film music and the negotiation of identity among British-Asian youths
resulted in positive responses from the audience. Participants from the study also stated
that the Hindi film music gave them an opportunity to stay close to the ethnic culture.
In summary, previous studies showed that the cultural identity construction
among second-generation populations depends on various negotiation processes through
a combination of inter personal and mediated communicative interactions. The variables
that were derived out of the previous research are: family, in-group and out-group
interactions, religious institutions, and mass media such as print, radio, television,
Internet, and films. Although the past research studies looked at the role of all the abovementioned variables in identity construction, they have not explored the role of
Bollywood movies in the identity construction of second-generation Indian Americans.
Therefore, based on those findings and a significant gap in the literature the current study
developed the following research questions to examine the role of Bollywood films in
cultural identity formation and maintenance among second-generation Indian Americans:
RQ 1: What factors do second-generation Indian Americans identify as
influencing their identity construction?
35
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
RQ 2: What role do mass media play in second-generation Indian Americans
identity construction?
RQ 3: What roles does Bollywood in particular play in the process of identity
construction among second-generation Indian Americans?
36
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Chapter IV
Methodology
This research study explored the research questions grounded in cultural studies
by looking at how second-generation Indian Americans construct their identity, i.e.
“Indianness” and how Bollywood movies are used to maintain the culture and identity.
Qualitative methods including in-depth interviews and focus groups were conducted to
understand the role of social institutions and the mass media in general and focus on the
role of Bollywood movies on the Identity process.
Qualitative research
According to Denzin and Lincoln (2005), qualitative research is defined as…
“a situated activity that located the observer in the world. It consists
of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible.
These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of
representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations,
photographs, recordings, and memos to the self” (p. 3).
Qualitative research is also defined as an inquiry in which the researcher attempts
to understand some larger phenomena by investigating it in a holistic way. It emphasizes
the importance of observing variables in the natural setting where they are found. A
qualitative researcher is an integral part of the investigation and so it enables a researcher
to examine individual motivations through which detailed information can be obtained
37
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
(Denizen and Lincoln, 2005; Weinreich, 1996). Weinreich (1996) observed that the
qualitative research helps to obtain a realistic view of the world that cannot be captured
through the statistical data analysis used in quantitative research. Some advantages of
qualitative research are:
a. It is an in-depth examination of a phenomenon,
b. It uses subjective information,
c. It is not limited to rigidly defined variables,
d. It explore new areas of research, and
e. It examines questions that can otherwise be impossible to answer with
quantitative methods. While on the flip side,
a. It is impossible to replicate,
b. Researcher bias is unavoidable,
c. Comprehensive data gathering limits scope, and
d. Subjectivity raises the issue of reliability and validity of the approach. (Key,
1997).
This study used two of the qualitative methods to examine and analyze the
identity construction process among second-generation Indian Americans. Specifically
the study examined how Indian American students at Texas Tech University in Lubbock,
Texas used Bollywood movies in constructing and maintaining their identity. The
following is a detailed description of each method that was used in this study.
38
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
In-depth interviews
Fontana and Frey (2005) observed that in-depth interviewing is a good way to
understand people and their attitudes. In-depth interviews are ideal for investigating
personal, sensitive, or confidential information, most of which are unsuitable to address
in a group format. Simply put, it is one of the qualitative research techniques that involve
conducting individual interviews with a small number of people to examine their
perspectives on an idea or a situation (Boyce and Neale, 2006). Some of the merits of indepth interview technique are
a. In-depth interviews provide detailed information on a particular program or
idea.
b. People may feel more comfortable to have a conversation and share their views
in person compared to filling out a survey
However, there are also a few disadvantages to this technique:
a. It is prone to bias. Interviewer or interview responses may be biased in order
to prove an idea or a situation is working. Every effort should be made to
conduct interviews with minimal bias
b. This technique is a very time consuming process, from conducting interviews
to transcribing and analyzing the responses
c. Because of the small sample size, generalization cannot be made (Boyce and
Neale, 2006).
Bearing the merits and drawbacks in mind, this research study adopted Kvale’s
(1996) seven stages of the interview process as a guide:
39
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
1. Thematizing – This is the primary stage of the interview. The main objective for the
interview should be clarified before the interview.
2. Designing – The interview is designed to achieve the objective of the study.
3. Interviewing – Interviews are conducted at this stage. The researcher should keep in
mind what he or she wants from the interview.
4. Transcribing – The data obtained through interviews are transcribed for analyzing the
data.
5. Analyzing – Researcher decides the proper method for analysis.
6. Verifying – Verify the generalizability, reliability, and validity of the interview
analysis.
7. Reporting – Discuss the findings from the study and explain how those results follow
scientific criteria and the ethical aspects (Kvale, 1996).
All individuals were initially contacted by sending personal emails to the
members of South Asian Students Association (SASA), a recognized student organization
at Texas Tech University, requesting participation in the study. The researcher also
attended few general body meetings held by SASA to explain the purpose of the study
and sign up interested participants. A total of eight second-generation Indian American
students were interviewed in the College of Mass Communications at Texas Tech
University, between February 15, 2008 and March 15, 2008. All interviews lasted about
an hour to hour and half, were digitally recorded and the respondent’s names were
changed to conceal the participants’ identity. The data obtained through these interviews
were then transcribed for analysis as soon as possible after each interview was conducted.
40
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
These transcriptions were typed word-for-word into Microsoft Word. These
transcriptions were read many times to draw patterns and common themes during the
analysis stage.
Focus Groups
As stated earlier, qualitative research enables researchers to examine individual
motivations, which produce detailed information that otherwise cannot be produced. The
focus group method was the second qualitative technique that was used for this study.
The rationale behind conducting focus groups in addition to in-depth interviews was to
enhance understanding the scenario in a better way and to reveal wide range of common
opinions as focus groups have a focused discussion about specific topics or issues.
The focus group technique is extremely useful for exploring attitudes and
perceptions and is particularly useful for evaluating complex phenomena such as how
audiences process and make sense of certain mediated images. Group interviews are
therefore conducted to gather individuals’ opinions, experiences, knowledge, and
attitudes towards a topic. A focus group typically consists of 7-10 people who share
certain characteristics that relate to the topic of the discussion (Krueger, 1988). A careful
and systematic analysis of the discussion provides insight as to how an idea or a situation
is perceived by the group. Marczac and Seawell, (1995) suggested the following
advantages and limitations of using focus groups are:
a. People naturally interact and are influenced by others in a group environment
b. It provides data more quickly and at lower cost than other methods
41
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
c. Focus groups are comparatively easy to conduct
d. Results are easy to understand and are accessible to everyone
As with any research technique, focus group has its own limitations:
a. Researchers’ have less control over the group in general
b. Produces relatively chaotic data making analysis more difficult
c. Because of its small sample size, results cannot be generalized
d. Moderator may intentionally or unintentionally bias results by providing cues
about desired responses
e. Results may be biased by the presence of a dominated member (Marczac and
Seawell, 1995).
Considering the merits and challenges of focus group, this study employed
Krueger’s (1988) three- phase process as a guide to conduct focus groups:
1. Conceptualization: Determine the purpose of the study and whom to study
2. Interview: Questions should be carefully planned but appear spontaneous
during the focus group discussion. The interview should always include less
than ten questions.
3. Analysis: The process of analyzing and reporting must be systematic and
descriptive (Krueger, 1998).
As in the case with in-depth interviews, individuals for the focus group session
were contacted initially by sending personal emails to the members of South Asian
Students Association (SASA), requesting to participate in the study. A total of eight
second-generation Indian American students agreed to participate in a focus group
42
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
session at the College of Mass Communications at Texas Tech University in the second
week of April 2008. The focus group session lasted for an hour and was video recorded.
All the respondents’ names were changed to conceal the participants’ identity and the
data thus obtained was transcribed immediately after the focus group session. Focus
group discussions were transcribed word-for-word into Microsoft Word. As in the case
with in-depth interviews, the transcriptions from focus group were read many times to
draw patterns and common themes during the analysis stage.
Coding
Once the transcriptions from both the in-depth interviews and focus groups were
typed completed, they were read and re-read searching for common themes and patterns.
Previous research works that were based on qualitative methods suggests that the
descriptions a researcher provides and the categories and themes they develop becomes
the core of the analysis. As I read and read re-read the transcriptions from my interviews
and focus group session, I coded the data by organizing and categorizing the emerging
themes using highlighters. For each new theme that emerged, I used a new color to
highlight it within the transcriptions.
43
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Chapter V
Findings and Discussion
The purpose of the study is to throw some light on the role of Bollywood movies
in identity formation and maintenance among Indian American young adults. As
suggested earlier, the analysis of this study adopted du Gay et al. (1997) framework, the
circuit of culture and specifically looked at the moments of representation, identity, and
consumption, to examine the identity construction process of second-generation Indian
Americans and the role played by Bollywood movies in creating the notion of
“Indianness.” The three main areas that were addressed in this research study are:
1. Factors influencing second-generation Indian Americans’ identity
construction,
2. The role of media, excluding Bollywood, in this identity construction,
3. And finally, the roles of Bollywood movies in constructing and maintaining
this identity.
These areas were investigated using in-depth interviews and a focus group session
with second-generation Indian American students. As discussed in the previous chapter,
each interview and focus group session were transcribed and read multiple times
searching for common themes and patterns across the data. The themes that emerged
during the reading are discussed below through the analysis of the interviews and focus
group data.
44
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
While exploring general media habits and Bollywood viewing habits in particular,
most of the respondents claimed that they watch at least one Bollywood movie a week.
Only one respondent said that he would typically watch once in two weeks.
The information included in Table 2 outlined the basic demographics of the participants
and their reported Bollywood movie viewing frequency. All the names were changed to
conceal the participant’s identity and they were assigned with a pseudonym:
Table 2. Demographics and movie watching frequency
Name
Age
Gender
Bollywood Movie Watching Frequency
Puja
22
Female
Twice a week
Rahul
23
Male
Once a week
Rupa
25
Female
Once a week
Sandeep
22
Male
Once a week
Deepa
23
Female
Twice a week
Gowri
22
Female
Twice a week
Hari
21
Male
Twice a week
Sree
24
Male
Thrice a week
Sharukh
21
Male
Once a week
Aishwarya
22
Female
Once a week
Vijay
22
Male
Once in two weeks
Bipasha
22
Female
Once a week
Hritik
21
Male
Once a week
Amir
22
Male
Twice a week
Salman
22
Male
Once a week
Kajol
21
Female
Once a week
Deepika
22
Female
Twice a week
45
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
According to the basic demographics included in Table 2, the average age of the
participants was 21 and on an average they watched at least one Bollywood movie a
week. The following section examined what being an “Indian” meant to secondgeneration Indian American Students in Texas Tech University.
Constructing Identity
All research participants were self-identified as either Indian American or Indian,
but not American. This suggested that although all participants were born and brought up
in the U.S. they still identify with their ethnic roots and keep the “Indianness” alive. All
of them visited India at least once and learned about Indian traditions and culture. Asked
what it means to be an Indian, Rahul (male, 23) responded as follows:
I see myself as Indian/Indian American because though I was born here I was still
brought up as if I was from there. I have all the cultural similarities, same
religious views and attitudes. My parents pressed the culture upon me and I try to
keep the traditions alive and pass it on to the next generation.
All the interviewees associated the Indian culture with family togetherness,
religion, festivities and weddings. They expressed that maintaining the culture and
traditions is very important and it is something that they definitely want to pass it on to
their children. Asked why it is important to maintain the culture, Puja (female, 22) said
the following:
46
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
I think maintaining culture is extremely important to me because that’s who you
are and always will be even if you live the rest of your life here in America. I
know that I want my children to be Indian and want them to know values and
beliefs that I have been raised with.
All focus group respondents also shared similar views on the importance of
maintaining the culture, and these comments clearly reveal that most of the secondgeneration Indian American participants try to stay connected with their home culture and
traditional values. Apart from religion and family togetherness, a majority of the focus
group respondents expressed their desire to marry an Indian guy or a girl, which
suggested that these participants not only maintain the cultural identity but also want to
pass it on to future generations. Talking about the marriage system, Gowri (female, 22), a
focus group respondent said the following:
I obviously want to marry a Indian because I feel it’s important to marry an Indian
because there are so many things that you do not understand if you are married to
someone who is not an Indian.
The research shows that ethnic distinction plays a critical role in constructing
Indian identity among Indian American students. For example, another interview
participant Rupa (female, 25) remembered discovering her identity as Indian through her
interactions with other ethnic group members. She observed “interacting with out-group
members constantly reminds me of being an Indian, since nobody really recognizes me as
an American.” This response suggested that though Rupa was born and brought up in
47
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
America and speaks English like any other American she will never be accepted as an
American because of her ethnic background. While there is a possibility that the race of
these respondents may also be a factor for not being accepted as Americans, there is no
evidence to support this assumption, as the researcher did not explore in this area.
Most of the interview participants identified student associations as playing a
dominant role in maintaining one’s cultural identity because they facilitate a constant
interaction with peer group members. Sandeep (male, 22), a member of South Asian
Students Association (SASA) at Tech said the following: “Me and some of my SASA
friends always hang out together and have fun like celebrating holi (festival of colors) or
eat Indian food, which constantly reminds me of my ethnic background.” Having born
and brought up in America, Sandeep actively participates in SASA and try to create
awareness about the Indian culture on campus.
Interactions with both “in-group” and “out-group” members play a significant role
in inter-cultural identity negotiation process and most importantly remind secondgeneration Indian Americans of their ethnic roots and cultural background. Accordingly,
most of the Indian American students, despite their being born in America and fluent in
English, do not veer away from Indian culture due to their interactions with peer group
members and taking part in Indian cultural events.
On the other hand, an interesting discussion emerged from the focus group
session that focused on the fact that few Indian American students, who are frequently
and pejoratively identified as ABCD’s (American Born Confused Desi) by Indian media
48
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
and peer groups, assimilate toward American culture and do not like to identify
themselves with Indian roots. When asked for the reason, Deepa (female, 23) a focus
group participant, responded as follows:
Some just ignore the whole fact that they are Indian; they will talk about how they
are American more than an Indian because they do not learn anything about
cultural background or traditions. It’s because their parents do not talk about the
importance of culture, so as soon as they leave from home they don’t get involved
in any Indian events, or interact with us and they lose everything and start acting
as Americans.
While none of the respondents of both interviews and focus groups identified
themselves as ABCDs, they observed that even the so called “ABCDs” come around and
interact with them whenever they feel like talking about their families and parents
because of the cultural differences they experience when talking with their American
peers. This suggested that the social and cultural interactions play a key role in defining
and maintaining the cultural identity amongst second-generation Indian American
students. A focus group respondent Hritik (male, 21) observed the following:
So they often hangout with Americans and do stuff together but they always come
back to us when they want to share things about their families because they do not
identify this aspect of sharing with their American friends.
49
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Now that we have looked at participant’s observations on the notion of
“Indianness,” it is important to learn how it is constructed and maintained by secondgeneration Indian Americans. The in-depth interviews and focus group suggests that
identity construction process among second-generation Indian Americans is based on
four major factors. The four major factors are family, institutions, friends, and media.
Each of these factors is discussed at length in the following sub sections.
During the examination of the first research question, three themes including
family, institutions, and friends emerged out of the interviews and focus group sessions.
Following is the synthesis of these three themes.
Family
Interviews from this study indicated that the family plays a significant role in the
cultural identity formation among second-generation Indian Americans. Parents teaching
Indian culture at home and/or asking their children to speak in their native language are
the most commonly identified activities that influence the identity formation of Indian
American students. As Kelly (1996) and Jung and Lee (2004) pointed out, families play a
pivotal role in constructing and maintaining the ethnic roots and identities because they
keep the traditions and rituals alive by continuing to follow them and also having their
children to take part in these rituals and other celebrations. A majority of the interviewees
pointed out that their parents speak to them in their native language and observed that it
was necessary for their own children to be able to understand and converse in their native
tongue. Gowri (female, 22) said the following:
50
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
I thank my family for teaching me how to speak in Hindi when I was young.
Whenever I ask my mom something, she’s always like why don’t you tell me in
Hindi/Gujarathi, you know she does not want me to lose the language. I now take
pride in saying that I can speak Hindi very fluently and some of the Indian
Americans who cannot do so look up to me.
Likewise Rahul (male, 23) speaks to his mom and dad in Gujarathi at home.
Whenever they watch Indian programs like television soap operas or movies, he would
ask his parents about the meaning of phrases he could not understand. So, it can be
assumed that staying away from ethnic language makes second-generation Indian
Americans fallout from learning about the culture and there by loose their identity.
The majority of the focus group participants also maintained that just being
around family members reminds them of Indian culture and traditions. It suggested that
family members do things in certain way that goes along with culture and tradition. Also
cultural aspects like respect for elders, praying once a day and eating Indian food are few
things that second-generation Indian Americans learned from their families. Deepa
(female, 23) said the following:
Being around my family makes me think of the Indian culture and traditions. We
usually eat Indian food and do aarti (light a candle) and pray for a while. And
whenever I go home me and my family goes to an Indian restaurant and then may
be watch Indian movies.
51
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
All participants from both the interviews and focus groups maintained that family
was the most influential factor in constructing and maintaining identity. It is observed
that participants give priority to their parents and seek their acceptance before taking any
important decisions. Parents play a dominant role in the identity construction of secondgeneration Indian Americans because they are the ones who teach and instill the idea of
culture and value system through various activities. Vijay (male, 22), an interview
participant said the following:
My parents took me to temple, they rented Bollywood movies to watch with us,
played Indian music all the time in cars when we were driving somewhere and
they took us to festivals. I mean I was always around the culture because my
parents took me to all the events and made me involve in all those things.
To sum up, most of the participants from this study stated that family has the
biggest influence on their identity construction and keep them motivated to participate in
the culture and traditions. Thus family clearly plays a predominant role in constructing
the identity in second-generation Indian American students. As seen earlier in this
chapter, institutions also played a major role in constructing and maintaining the identity
among these students. The following are the ideas and views on the role of institution in
maintaining the cultural identity.
52
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Institutions
The interview participants from this study indicated that in addition to the family
and language, religious institutions like temples and religious classes play an important
role in identity formation of the second-generation Indian Americans. Jung and Lee
(2004) emphasized that the ethnic church played a crucial role in constructing a social
network among Korean Americans. Similarly, going to religious events and participating
in traditional functions give Indian Americans a chance to socialize with people from the
same cultural background and stay connected with their ethnic roots. Sree (male, 24),
who was the vice president of South Asian Students Association, said the following:
When I was growing up, we did this thing called puja once every week and it
would have Bhagavadgeetha and Ramayana (religious scriptures) classes and we
all kids sit together and learn about those stories, which teach you about moral
values and traditions. We also play holi and diwali every year and have a lot of
social events to create awareness about Indian culture and traditions in the
University. I think these activities contribute a lot in preserving our culture and
identity.
Most of the respondents from interviews and the focus group claimed that they
participate in all the traditional celebrations and attend Hindu temple on a regular basis.
The majority of the interview participants also observed that they pray every day and
wear ethnic clothes to traditional events. This is a very interesting scenario because many
people living in India do not seem to give importance to ethnic wear while second53
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
generation Indian Americans emphasize it as a symbol for their identity. Kajol (female,
21) said the following:
We are strong in maintaining the religious traditions. We celebrate all Indian
festivals and go to temple regularly. And if I go to traditional events like garbha
or something I feel awkward if I don’t wear Indian clothes. But my Indian cousins
say they do not wear traditional clothes often. I think it is because we are so far
away from India we try to preserve and keep the culture alive by doing certain
things.
Most participants from interviews stated that their parents always wanted them to
focus on religion and know everything about it by visiting temple and religious classes.
This suggested that a participant’s religious faith is deeply rooted by going to a temple
and learning it from a religious guru as well as involving in religious events. All
participants expressed pride in learning and maintaining the religious faith and keeping in
touch with their inner self. This factor enables them to keep in tune with their religion
and stay connected with their culture and identity.
Likewise, participants from the focus group observed that religious classes played
an important role in learning about values and customs. They maintained that though
they never took it seriously and understood the importance behind knowing about one’s
religion and traditions initially, it was only in the later stage that they realized the value
of religion and importance of maintaining it. Sree (male, 24) said the following:
54
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
I did Sunday school for couple of years but I never took it seriously at all because
I have never realized the importance of it. But after I grew up and started going to
geetha classes, I realized the importance of maintaining the religious values
because it is your identity. They taught a lot about Indian values and traditions.
They talked about Hinduism and what you are supposed to do and it helped some
to know about culture.
Organizations such as South Asian Students Association (SASA), Indian Students
Association (ISA) also played an important role in preserving and maintaining the culture
and identity. Most participants from both interviews and the focus group observed that
members of these associations arrange cultural events that help second-generation Indian
Americans stay connected to the home culture. It can be assumed that these associations
act as an additional push to identify and maintain the culture and traditions in secondgeneration Indian Americans. This again suggested that institutions like religious classes
and student organizations contribute a lot in identity formation and maintenance among
second-generation Indian American students.
Friends
All the participants from interviews and the focus group observed that they began
to take more interest towards Indian culture and traditions after they entered the
university. University student organizations like SASA and ISA provided them with an
opportunity to mix with fellow Indian Americans and Indian students who share similar
views and ideas. Most of the interviewees point out that they socialize with other Indian
55
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
American students and Indian students alike. “When you meet someone from similar
cultural background, you have already broken the ice and it makes easy to talk to because
you already know that you have so much in common traditionally and culturally” said
Kajol (female, 21).
Going to temple, eating Indian food, attending Indian weddings, watching Indian
television channels, listening to Bollywood music, and watching Bollywood movies were
some of the activities Indian American students keenly involved. Indian American
students also participate in all the traditional events like diwali (festival of lights), garbha
(religious event) and movie night. Participants from the focus group session also
expressed that they were able to maintain the culture as Indian friends surround them all
the time. Hritik (male, 21) said the following:
We all try to maintain the Indian spirit by watching Indian movies, listening to
Indian songs etc and I am able to do all that because I am constantly with my
Indian friends and I do not think I would have done that if I were not around
them. They also let me keep the traditions alive and help me keep me in check
just by being around them.
Hritik’s statement suggested that friends play an influential role in maintaining
ethnic roots among Indian American students when they are away from home. Asked
how important friends are in maintaining the culture, Gowri (female, 22) responded the
following
56
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
They are extremely important; I mean they come only next to family. I mean I
did not have too many Indian friends when I was younger and I think I did not
understand a lot about the culture and traditions but now I have a lot of Indian
friends and that influences me in knowing and understanding about some things
like customs and values.
The interviewees and focus group participants stated that family friends also play
a significant role in learning and maintaining Indian traditions and values. They noted
that family friends try to teach them about values and traditions by inviting them to
different functions like house warming or a religious puja (prayer). Deepa (female, 23)
observed the following:
One of my mom’s friends, she is very culturally sound and very religious and she
always tries to keep us that way. She always tells us about what’s going on and
how we need to be sure and not forget our roots. She also tells us to remember
who we are and where we come from.
This showed that friends and family friends were equally important in
maintaining Indian culture among second-generation Indian American students. The
majority of the focus group participants observed that unlike peer groups, family friends
give them an extra push to learn about religious stories and moral values by making them
read religious books. “Through my family friends I have learned some stuff about
culture. They taught me a lot about our traditions and what’s right and what’s wrong by
57
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
reading books like Bhagavadgeetha and Ramayana to me when I was little,” stated Rahul
(male, 23). He continued saying:
I used to go to family friends’ house and hang out with them all the time. We
usually play, eat Indian food, watch Indian movies and have fun. I actually
learned cooking Indian food from these family friends. They always told me not
to forget my religious background and today they are one of the reasons my faith
is really strong.
The findings discussed above suggest that family friends and peer groups play a
crucial role in constructing and maintaining an individual’s identity. The mere presence
of them helps second-generation Indian Americans remain cognizant of their culture and
traditions, although this seems to depend on the right set of friends who share similar
attitudes and a common believe system. Apart from family, religion, and friends, media
influence cannot be taken lightly in identity construction process among secondgeneration Indian Americans. Therefore, it is better to focus on mediated sources of
influence differentiated from the interpersonal ones just discussed.
Following is the analysis that examined the research question 2: What role do
mass media play in second-generation Indian Americans identity construction?
Media
Although the interviewees did not read ethnic newspapers regularly due to
language barriers, some found them to be valuable sources of information especially
58
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
about sports and movies. However, very few interviewees claimed to have read Indian
English newspapers and magazines to check out information on films and sports. “I
hardly read Indian newspapers because I do not understand the language fully, but I read
English newspapers like “The Hindu” or “Times of India” to check out the cricket scores
and read Bollywood news because everything else is about politics, which I am not
interested in,” said Rupa (female, 25).
Focus group participants observed that even though newspapers and magazines
focus on politics, Indian American students can occasionally learn about society and
culture through newspapers as they focus on traditional events like holi and diwali and
write articles about them. Interestingly, many participants from interviews as well as the
focus group noted that they read books written by Indian authors like “The Namesake”
and “Shantaram” and admitted that they can identify with the plots and characters of
these novels. Kajol (female, 21) stated:
I love reading Indian books all the time because they have so much information
about the Indian society and traditions. I read the book “The Namesake” and can
actually identify with it because my parents moved to United States and I was
born here and I can identify with the family morals and values.
All the participants listened to Indian radio stations when they are available and
liked listening to Bollywood music and Indi pop albums. They acknowledged that the
Indian music played through these stations reminds them of India and the culture in a
59
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
subtle way. Asked how different the Indian music is, Rupa (female, 25), another
interview participant responded in the following:
I love listening to Indian radio channels because they play Hindi music all the
time. It is just kind of calm and peaceful and reminds me of India. I think you can
learn about traditions like arranged marriages because half the time most of the
songs talk about arranged marriages and religion.
Very few focus group participants mentioned that they listen to religious talk
shows and programs about traditional celebrations on radio to learn about customs and
values. Puja (female, 22) said the following: “One of the time slots is about religion and
they will do like mythology stories. We always turn that program on and listen to the
stories and it’s really about values and traditions.”
On the other hand, one interviewee had a different take on these radio channels
and especially about RJ’s (radio jockey). “All these radio channels play Hindi music but
again the radio jockeys have American accents which is weird. Though they spoke Hindi
and Gujarathi they still have fake accents when it comes to English,” reported Deepa
(female, 23).
Although a lack of research work on Indian American radio makes it impossible
to corroborate, the above responses suggested that though radio channels play Hindi
music for a majority of time, they still open a few spots to focus on religion and
60
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
traditions. Most of the participants stated that they learn few things about culture and
traditions through radio, but that it keeps their Indian identity alive and active.
Television played a pivotal role in bringing the Indian culture and traditions into
the lives of Indians in the U.S. and other areas of the diaspora through various programs
and movies. All interviewees and focus group participants have subscriptions to satellite
channels like Zee, Sahara, Gemini, Teja, Star plus and Sony, however, they only have
access to these channels at home, but not in Lubbock. All the participants maintained that
their parents were the primary consumers of Indian television channels but they made the
respondents watch Indian programs and movies that are culturally rich. Aishwarya
(female, 22) said the following:
My parents watch all the Indian channels and I watch with them whenever I am at
home. They are some cool programs like Mahabharata, Who wants to be
lakhpathi etc, which reminds me of Indian culture.
Most of the interviewees, however, did not like the soap operas and melodramatic
plots of many daily serial programs but they all expressed a positive attitude towards the
message these programs are trying to send across. Hritik (male, 21) said the following
about these programs:
All these television programs are bunch of melodramas and they are bad
compared to the American Television programs, but I guess they are trying to
send this message that no one is going to have a perfect life, there are going to be
61
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
lot of problems and adversaries and you will have to stick together to get through
the situation.
All the participants from the interviews and the focus group expressed that the
television channels try to teach Indian American students a lot about family values, the
importance of religion and traditions. The focus group participants had particularly strong
memories of their parents telling them about the culture and traditional values through
television programs when they were little. Most of the participants agreed that television
helps in maintaining the cultural identity and stay in tune with the traditions and societal
standards. Sharukh (male, 21) characterized cultural maintenance as follows:
I guess, you can actually learn about family values and to respect your in-laws
and older people. I guess television is our way to stay in tune with the Indian
culture while we are here. Half the stuff gets broadcast from India and you get to
see parts of India, which helps a lot in keeping that part of us alive.
Gowri (female, 22), a focus group participant observed the following when asked
about her impression of Indian television channels “[they] throw a lot of culture and
traditions at you and they try to teach us all kids about values and traditions through some
of their programs. I think we can definitely learn about family values, religion and also
language”. Accordingly, entertainment programs are rather popular compared to news
programs among participants because a majority of the participants said that they don’t
learn about Indian culture through news, as they don’t watch news programs very often.
62
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Interestingly, most of the participants from interviews and the focus groups noted
that they do not go online to check information regarding the Indian culture. Hritik (male,
21) observed that “Basically the only Indian website I have ever gone on to is movie
websites and music sites.” However, he expressed that going to those sites reminds him
of India just because of the Indian media. The majority of the focus group participants
stated that they don’t learn about Indian culture through the internet because they would
rather ask their parents or friends if they did not understand something than going online
and reading about it.
Given the importance of electronic media among young adults it was surprising
how second-generation Indian Americans did not find the Internet a significant vehicle to
maintain and stay connected with their culture. Most of the existing research literature on
Asian Americans identifies the Internet as a major contributor in cultural identity because
of its link to vast information like online news papers, email and chat facilities etc. that
created new opportunities to stay connected to the homeland. Interestingly, the secondgeneration Indian Americans at Texas Tech University who participated in this study did
not see the Internet as a potential medium to keep connected to the home culture.
However, all the participants from interviews and focus groups noted that they
use social networking sites such as Facebook and Myspace to stay in touch with other
Indian Americans and Indian friends. But at the same time they also observed that the
Internet does not specifically contribute towards strengthening their Indian identity as
63
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
they regularly meet up with most of their Facebook/Myspace friends through various ISA
and SASA events and meetings.
Following is the analysis that looked at research question 3: What role does
Bollywood in particular play in the process of identity construction among secondgeneration Indian Americans?
The influence of Bollywood movies on cultural identity
Among the many different entertainment media, movies play an active role that
transmit ideas, traditions and culture through its variety of plots and characters.
Ghahghaei (2007) stated that Hollywood movies play a major role in identity formation
among Americans. He observed that importance has been given to religious activities,
such as attending church and celebrating Christmas, and national values and culture in
film narratives.
Accordingly, this research study focused on the role played by Bollywood
movies, the world’s second largest film industry, in the identity formation of Indian
American students. All the participants from interviews and the focus group observed
that Bollywood movies play a crucial role in cultural identity maintenance. Participants
stated that on average they watch Bollywood movies once or twice a week and mostly
with friends and family. It was found that among the Indian American students included
in this study Texas Tech, they rented Bollywood film DVD’s from local Indian stores,
most of which are produced and circulated in India at the same time.
64
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
All participants preferred watching movies on DVDs to a theatre because movies
on DVD have subtitles and are easy to read. Few participants mentioned that it was
irritating to watch movies in theatres with subtitles on because half the time they cannot
read the subtitles. They further added that most of the times, Indian movies played in
mediocre theatres, where it was harder to read the subtitles. However, participants
associated Indian movies with strong family values, song and dance sequences, religion
and moral values, and traditional Indian weddings.
According to one interview participant, Bipasha (female, 22), Indian movies
focused on family values and they try to show that parents are important and they are
always right. This is the common view shared among all the participants of interviews
and focus groups. They believed that movies with strong traditions and cultural values
help the ABCD’s (American Born Confused Desi), who veered away from the Indian
culture, to come around, understand and embrace the culture.
Most of the participants mentioned Kabhi Kushi Kabhi Ghum, Kuch Kuch Hota
Hai, Dilwale Dulhaniya Lejayenge, Swades, and Rang De Basanti (See Appendix A for
plot summaries) as their favorite movies and stated that they learned a lot by watching
these movies. Gowri (female, 22) said the following:
I actually identify with Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Ghum, because it focuses on what’s
really important to Indian people, like acceptance of family, moral values and
traditions. I think it is important because I have been raised with same values and
65
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
morals and I agree with the things they show in movies. I look up to these movies
and it is heartwarming to know that this is true and this is right.
Most of the focus group participants stated that they identify a lot with Indian
movies and their narrations. Sandeep (male, 22) said:
I identify a lot with these movies. I mean I have couple of friends who married to
an outsider and not being accepted by the family and you see this all the time in
Hindi movies where parents are not accepting of it. This teaches you that family is
very important and you are not supposed to go against their wish.
Interestingly all the other participants also shared similar views as Sandeep (male,
22). The majority of the interview participants expressed that Indian movie’s doing a
decent job in portraying a true Indian society and culture. Deepa (female, 23) said the
following:
I think they are really good and a doing a great job in portraying Indian culture
and traditions. Most of them show values, culture and religious things like visiting
temples, praying etc. I think they in a way help me keep my culture and traditions
alive because all these movies usually has something to do with festivals or
religion and they do things that help me remember and maintain it.
In addition to Bollywood movies, all participants maintained that U.S. produced
Indian American movies do a good job in teaching Indian culture and value system.
Most of the participants stated that they could identify with these movies since they
66
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
represent Indian Americans and their life styles. Few participants described that these
Indian American movies like “ABCD” and “Where is the party yaar” are stereotyped and
funny, but they all show a common theme of how the male protagonist in the movie hates
everything about Indians but finally comes around and starts respecting the culture. Kajol
(female, 21) shared her experience in the following:
I have watched American Desi and that’s exactly how my brother was when he
was a kid. He always hung out with Americans and did not really make any
friends with Indians but then he moved to Austin and was surrounded by Indians
and finally transformed into a Desi. Now he likes everything about India and gets
involved in all the Indian events and cultural programs.
Participants from interviews and the focus group alike noted that there is not
much of a difference in watching movies with parents and friends because they watch for
entertainment and fun. However, all participants from interviews and the focus group
stated that they feel very uncomfortable if there was a kissing scene or a sex scene in a
movie whenever they watch with parents. Asked why they felt uncomfortable, Amir
(male, 22), a interview participant responded:
I was watching this movie “Salaam Namaste” with my parents and then there was
this scene in which Saif and Perity are having sex and I was like O’ my gosh they
are having sex, I felt weird, I flipped out and fast forwarded the movie. I mean
that’s something you don’t talk about with your parents and it’s really weird to
watch when your parents are around because they don’t believe in pre marital sex
67
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
and also do not approve of it. I mean if I was watching with my kids I would fast
forward it because it is weird. But you don’t have to feel awkward when you are
watching it with your friends.
Participants noted that they all learned a lot about festivities and weddings as
most of the movies have plots and themes that revolve around these cultural elements.
Religion and togetherness are the other things they learn through Bollywood movies,
observed most of the participants from interviews and focus groups. Rupa (female, 25)
reported:
Culturally, the biggest thing I probably learned through movies is festivities and
weddings, because my parents are not really big about participating in these
events. So I learned a lot about festivities like holi, diwali, and rakshabandhan
watching it in movies. It gave me an incentive to involve more in it. And then
there is religion; it seems big in almost every movie. I got enough religious
aspects out of watching it in movies.
Sree (male, 24) a focus group participant also observed that “Most of the Hindi
movies have to show some form of wedding and I guess that is kind of cool because we
miss out on these big family gatherings and weddings and it’s great to watch it in movies.
It helps me stay connected to the culture and ethnic roots.”
All participants expressed that Bollywood helps them keep their traditions and
values alive by representing the culture in movies and reinforcing the importance of
maintaining and passing it on to the future generations. Puja (female, 22) stated:
68
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
One thing that I have noticed is that Indians have close knit families and all the
neighbors always know each other and that’s the kind of values brought in
through movies and that is really important for all these Indian Americans,
because they get to learn something and will be able to pass it on to their kids.
Most of the participants from interviews said that whenever they watch movies
with their parents, one parent would try to explain the reasons behind a particular theme.
They also maintained that their parents talk about traditions and values whenever they
watch Indian movies, which help Indian American’s become aware of Indian culture and
traditions.
Finally, the majority of the participants observed that the culture and traditions
portrayed by Bollywood movies were precise and true to what’s being practiced among
the Indian families. However, a few participants from interviews argued that the
Bollywood movies are becoming more and more Westernized in respect to public
affection, sexually-suggestive clothing, and general life style. Deepika (female, 22)
observed:
Bollywood is really pushing towards the American way. They are kind of
showing more affection’s in the movies like kissing scenes and love making
scenes. They also show these characters talk in English, drug use, violence and all
kinds of crazy stuff that they never showed before.
69
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
This interesting comment may imply that the globalization may have led to the
Westernization of Bollywood movies that cause the loss of unique culture and traditions.
Still, the majority of the participants expressed that Bollywood is one of the better ways
to learn about Indian culture and how they are being practiced in the society. This
suggested that among different mediums, Bollywood movies in fact had the strongest
influence on second-generation Indian Americans in learning and maintaining the Indian
culture and traditions.
70
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Chapter VI
Conclusion and Limitations
This research study found that family, institutions like temples, religion classes,
and student organizations, and friends play a predominant role in the identity construction
of second-generation Indian Americans. While examining the media’s role in identity
construction, influence of print media and radio seemed very limited due to language
barriers and lack of visuals respectively. On the other hand television proved to be very
influential as they telecast cultural programs and play Indian movies frequently.
Interestingly, among the different mediums, Bollywood movies and entertainment
programs that are related to Bollywood took a significant role in informing secondgeneration Indian Americans about Indian traditions and value system. The following
table outlines the summary of major findings from the current research study.
71
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Table 3. Summary of research findings
Research Questions
Findings
1. Factors influencing identity
•
Family
construction of second-generation
•
Institutions
Indian Americans
•
Peer Groups and
•
Media
•
Print – influence seems limited
2. The role of media, excluding
movies, in identity construction
due to reported language barrier
of second-generation Indian
•
Americans
Radio – influence seems limited
due to lack of visuals
•
Television – seems very
influential through ethnic
programs and Indian movies
•
Internet – a very limited
influence
3. Role of Bollywood movies in
Influential due to
identity construction
•
No language barrier (subtitles)
•
Showcasing of family values and
religion
•
Portrayal of Indian society and
traditions
•
Transmission of Indian culture in
an engaging fashion
The results of this study show that the cultural identity of Indian American
students is constructed and maintained through various interpersonal and mediated
72
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
communicative activities such as family environment, institutions, in-group and outgroup interactions and the media, which largely supports the previous research findings
of Jung and Lee (2004), Lee (2000), and Durham (2004) who studied other AsianAmerican populations. The results suggested that identity construction and maintenance
in second-generation Indian Americans is an ongoing process, which reflects various
social and cultural factors.
First, second-generation Indian American students’ strong commitment to Indian
culture was reflected in their daily activities with family and peer groups. They seem to
talk to family members almost every day and most often use ethnic language blended
with English while communicating with parents. This factor played a crucial role in
constructing the identity and also helped to build a strong commitment towards Indian
culture. Apart from family, student associations like South Asian Students Association
(SASA) and Indian Students Association (ISA) provide opportunities for them to meet
and interact with peers having the same ethnic background.
Student organizations also played a crucial role in maintaining the identity and
staying connected to the home culture by giving second-generation Indian Americans a
chance to socialize with other Indian Americans and Indians. Students get together often
to watch Indian movies, listen to Indian music, visit temples or eat ethnic food. One
interesting factor to observe here is that Indian Americans get along well with other
Asian American students from China, Korea and Nepal. They enjoy hanging out with
73
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Chinese Americans or Korean Americans as there is a cultural proximity within the Asian
culture (Ksiazek and Webster, 2008).
All Indian American students stated that they feel comfortable with Indian music
and television shows. In fact most of the Indian American students admitted that they
sometimes follow Indian soap operas and love Indian music. They also showed a great
interest in learning Indian classical dance forms like Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi. It was
learned through this research study that Indian American parents try to create an interest
among their children towards classical dance and singing forms by taking them to such
cultural events or discussing them when they appear on television. Most of the Indian
American students readily associated these dance forms with Indian culture and stated
that they watched these cultural artifacts at least once. This suggested that there was a
very little cultural loss when Indian American students are able to consume Indian media
products. This again supported the notion of cultural proximity by Straubhaar (2003),
who claimed that people would gravitate toward media from their own culture.
With regard to media influence on cultural identities, Lee (2004) argued that
media played a significant role in constructing and maintaining cultural identities
because, information regarding various ethnic groups is being documented and
commented upon by the media today. This appeared to be true in this case of secondgeneration Indian Americans as well. Print (newspapers and magazines) did not seem to
have a major impact on how Indian American students learned about Indian culture.
Indian Americans do not read ethnic news papers due to the language barrier, however,
74
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
very few Indian Americans read books written in English by Indian authors, which keep
them connected to the Indian society and culture through its characters and scenarios.
Most of these Indian Americans listen to Hindi music on radio and through the
Internet. As said earlier, Indian music has a distinct style and it succeeds in reminding
second-generation Indian American students about Indian culture. Though there are no
Indian radio stations in this West Texas region, Indian American students are able to
listen to Indian music through the Internet, which has appeared to bridge the gap. The
Internet extends communication capacity by facilitating interactive communicative
channel, which helps to create an ethnic community. Interestingly, Indian Americans did
not see the Internet as a potential opportunity to improve ethnic community relations and
to maintain Indian identity. The Internet was used less frequently than the researcher
anticipated for news and other news related information from India. Thus, of all the
variables that were explored and examined in this study, the Internet was the only
variable that did not agree with the research literature because most of the Indian
American students preferred direct interaction with peer groups compared to technology
enhanced communication process.
Another finding from the interviews and focus groups was that television played a
crucial role in bridging the connections between Indian Americans and home culture
through various entertainment programs and movies. Indian Americans watched cultural
shows dealing with ethnic dance forms, Bollywood movies and other ethnic programs
that created an ample opportunity to stay connected with the Indian culture and traditions.
75
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Parents made their children watch ethnic programs and mythological serials like
Ramayana and Mahabharata that taught morals and value system. As suggested in the
literature, television appeared to play an important role in identity construction and
maintenance process.
Of all the media, however, Bollywood movies appeared to serve as the most
influential communication medium in constructing and maintaining the cultural identity
of the second-generation Indian American students. Participants watched Indian movies
regularly and majority of them kept up with latest Bollywood movies and cinema news.
Second-generation Indian Americans seemed to consider Bollywood movies as a vehicle
for showcasing Indian culture and traditions. By consuming Bollywood movies, Indian
American students learned about Indian traditions and customs, which help them in
maintaining the Indian identity. Through the movies, second-generation Indian
Americans identified Indian culture with family togetherness, a strong sense of religion,
festivities, and distinctly Indian attitudes and behaviors. Interestingly, second-generation
Indian Americans were also able to identify with Bollywood movie characters and
scenarios that remind them of their identity and give them information to use in their own
lives.
The new communication technologies like satellite televison, the Internet and
DVDs played a tremendous role in constructing and maintaining the cultural identity as
they provided an easy access to Bollywood movies. The findings suggested that secondgeneration Indian Americans grew up consuming Bollywood movies and constructed and
76
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
maintained the cultural identity by learning values and traditions that were reflected in
these movies. It is safe to assume that Bollywood movies act as an additional push in
identity construction process amongst second-generation Indian American students.
Thus, Bollywood movies along with other social communicative contexts like family,
religion and peer groups enabled second-generation Indian Americans to construct and
maintain their “Indianness.”
Another finding from this research study was that the Bollywood movies
appeared to have a major influence on second-generation Indian American students in
maintaining the identity, especially when they are living away from home. This factor
explains the popularity of Bollywood even amongst the Indian diaspora communities. To
sum up, Bollywood movies not only act as a bridge between home and diaspora but also
transmit cultural and traditions that play a crucial role in constructing and maintaining the
identity in second-generation Indian American students.
However, all is not well with the current Bollywood trend. Indian American
students did not like the idea of Bollywood movies deviating from Indian culture and
becoming more Westernized. They preferred Bollywood movies that depict family
togetherness and other cultural aspects, which are otherwise considered to be clichéd by
many Indians. This suggested that movies with strong family values and traditions might
have a greater affinity with diaspora communities compared to the movies that are
influenced by Western scripts.
77
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Despite many important findings, the research study has its own limitations. First,
it was very difficult to generalize the results because the research is based on qualitative
studies and was conducted only in one university with a relatively few number of
participants and for a short length of time. The study should have administered more than
one focus group session to get diverse views and ideas on Bollywood movies and cultural
representation. Although statements about the influence of media and Bollywood on
identity construction were made in this study, it is important to understand that nothing
can be said about the magnitude and statistical significance of this influence.
Another drawback of this study is that participants were frequent consumers of
Bollywood movies and results may have been different if the study has looked at Indian
Americans who watch Bollywood movies less frequently. Though utmost care was taken
to not let researcher’s bias influence the study in any kind, his Indian identity may in fact
have influenced some participants to give socially desirable responses. The final
drawback of this study was that the volunteers may have participated with predetermined
mindsets and shared biased opinions.
In future research, some form of quantification techniques needs to be
administered to support the findings and generalize the results. To produce more
consistent results, extensive research, both in-depth interviews and surveys, needs to be
conducted at more universities, with a large number of participants. Ethnography of
second-generation Indian Americans might shed more light on their daily activities that
maintain cultural identity. However, This study was a good starting point to focus more
78
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
on second-generation Indian American students in areas like gender difference in
understanding culture, Bollywood narratives and their influence in maintaining the
identity. Importantly, future research works in this area need to examine how different
female audience associate Bollywood texts to the Indian culture and traditions from their
male counterparts.
Finally, the research study successfully tried to answer all the important questions
and provided insight into second-generation Indian American student’s attitudes and their
take on Indian culture. The study also found that second-generation Indian Americans are
surprisingly similar to Indians with respect to the knowledge about Indian culture and
traditions. It is an interesting finding, as the Indian media tend to portray Indian
Americans in negative contexts and describe some of them as American Born Confused
Desi (ABCD), one who tries to avoid their home country identity and assimilate into the
host culture. However, this study found that most of the second-generation Indian
American students who participated take pride in their identity and follow Indian
traditions and customs with utmost respect and sincerity.
The findings of this study are in line with cultural studies perspective in terms of
defining cultural identity as a product of both interpersonal and mediated interactions. In
conclusion, the cultural identity of the second-generation Indian Americans living in
diasporic intercultural contexts is an ongoing process, which is defined and re-defined by
social interactions and media, especially through Bollywood movies.
79
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
References
Ablett, J., Baijal, A., Beinhocker, E., Bose, A., Farrell, A., Gersch, U., Greenberg, E., et
al. (2007). The bird of gold: The rise of India’s consumer market. Retrieved Jan
20, 2008, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/47945/McKinsey-MGI-indiaconsumer-full-report.
Adorno, T. W. (1975). Cultural industry reconsidered. New German Critique, Vol. 6, 1219.
Appadurai, A. (1990). Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy. Theory,
Culture, and Society, Vol. 7(2), 295-310.
Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Athique, A. (2005). Watching Indian movies in Australia: Media, community and
consumption. South Asian Popular Culture, Vol. 3(2), 117-133.
Bandyopadhyay, R. (2008). Nostalgia, identity and tourism: Bollywood in the Indian
diaspora. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, Vol 6(2), 79-100.
Basu, P. (2004). My own island home: The Orkney homecoming. Journal of Material
Culture, Vol. 9(1), 27-42.
Baym, N., & Punathambekar, A. (2007). Gender and Fan culture. Retrieved Feb 20,
2008, from
http://community.livejournal.com/fandebate/4607.html.
Beard, V. (1994). Popular culture and professional identity: Accountants in the movies.
Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 19(3), 303-318.
Bhat, C. (2006). Continuity and Change in the Perception of ‘Indianness’: Issues of
Identity among the Indians and the Indian diaspora. In Martina-Ghosh
Schellhorn (Eds.) Peripheral Centres, Central Peripheries: Anglophone India
and its Diaspora (pp.243-250). Berlin: LIT Verlag.
Bhuyan, A. (2006). Indian Diaspora The Bridge That Links India to the World.
Retrieved Jan 10, 2008, from http://www.boloji.com/society/096.htm.
Booth, G. D. (1995). Traditional content and narrative structure in the hindi commercial
cinema. Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 54, 169-190.
80
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Bose, D. (2006). Brand Bollywood: A new global entertainment order. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Boyce, C., & Neale, P. (2006). Conducting in-depth interviews: A guide for designing
and conducting in-depth interviews for evaluation input. Pathfinder International
Tool Series. Retrieved Jan 10, 2008, from
http://www.pathfind.org/site/DocServer/m_e_tool_series_indepth_interviews.pdf?
docID=6301.
Chopra, A. (2007). King of Bollywood: Sharukhkhan and the seductive world of Indian
Cinema. New York, NY: Warner Books.
Cohn, B. (1972). India: The Social Anthropology of a Civilization. New Jersy: Prentice
Hall.
Curtin, P. A., & Gaither, T.K. (2005). Privileging identity, Difference, and Power: The
circuit of culture as a basis for public relations theory. Journal of Public Relations
Research, 17(2), 91-115.
Dave, R. (2007). Bollywood in the US: The movie business’s most prolific producer
meets its biggest market. Unpublished honors thesis, New York University, New
York, United States.
Dawson, A. (2005). Bollywood flashback: Hindi film music and the negotiation of
identity among British-Asian youths. South Asian Popular Culture, Vol. 3(2),
161-176.
Deming, M. (n.d.). Swades summary. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.starpulse.com/Movies/Swades/Summary/.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Handbook of qualitative research. (3rd Ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Deoshi, N. K. (2008). ‘Rang de basanti’ splendid. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.apunkachoice.com/movies/mov355/rang_de_basanti-review.html.
Dissanayake, W. (2006). Globalization and the experience of culture: The resilience of
nationhood. In N. Gentz and S. Kramer (Eds) Globalization, Cultural Identities,
and Media Representations (pp. 25-44). Albany : University of New York.
Dudrah, R. K. (2006). Bollywood: Sociology Goes to the Movies. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
81
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
du Gay, P., Hall, S., Janes, L., Mackaym H., & Negus, K. (1997). Doing Cultural
Studies: The Story of Sony Walkman. London: Sage Publications.
Durham, M. (2004). Constructing the new ethnicicties: Media, sexuality, and Diaspora
identity, in the lives of South Asian immigrant girls. Critical studies in media
communication, Vol. 21(2), 140-161.
Dwyer, R. (2006). Bollywood’s new dream: Indian cinema has a global future in its
sights. Coverstory. NewStateman.
FICCI – PricewaterhouseCoopers Report on Indian Entertainment and Media Industry
(n.a, 2008). Retrieved July 6, 2009, from
http://www.pwc.com/extweb/ncpressrelease.nsf/docid/B43C59852DFA15A8CA2
5741000345155.
Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (2005). The interview. In N. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.),
The sage handbook of qualitative research (pp. 695-727). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Ghahghaei, A. (2007). Hollywood movies and American identity information. Retrieved
May 15, 2008, from http://movies.articleberry.com/hollywood-movies-andamerican-identity-formation.
Ganti, T. (2002). And yet my heart is Indian: The Bombay film industry and the
Hindianization of Bollywood. Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrains.
Berkeley, CA: University of California press.
Gillespie, M. (1989). Technology and tradition: Audio-visual culture among South Asian
families in west London. Cultural Studies, Vol. 3, 226-239.
Gyalzen, P. (2007). Bollywood. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.greencine.com/central/guide/Bollywood?page=0%2C0.
Hall, A. (2005). “Yes, I will accept this rose”:Representation, identity, and consumption
in ABC’s The Bachelor. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universit y of Georgia,
Athens.
Hall, S. (1997). The work of representation. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representation: Cultural
representations and signifying practices (pp. 1-11). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Hall, S. (1996). Race, culture, and communications: Looking backward and forward at
Cultural studies. In J. Storey (Ed.), What is cultural studies? (pp. 336-343).
London: Arnold.
82
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Hall, S. (1982). The rediscovery of “ideology”: Return of the repressed in media studies.
In. M. Gurevitch, et al. (Eds.), Culture, society and the media (pp. 56-90).
London: Arnold.
Hennik, M., Diamond, I., & Cooper, P. (1999). Young Asian Women and relationships:
Traditional or transnational? Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 22, 867-891.
Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. W. (1976). Dialectic of Enlightenment. Continuum
International Publication Group.
How a burgeoning Indian diaspora tunes into the American dream. (2006). Retrieved Jan
10, 2008, from The Hindu Web site :
http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/10/24/stories/2006102401782200.htm.
Indian American population now over 2.3 million. (n.d.) Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
Overseas Indian: Connecting India with its diaspora Web site:
http://www.overseasindian.in/2006/aug/news/23n1.shtml.
Indian diaspora. (n.d.). Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.nriol.com/indiandiaspora/index.asp.
Iordanova, D. (2006). Indian cinema’s global reach: Historiography through testimonies.
South Asian Popular Culture, Vol. 4(2), 113-140.
Jaikumar, P. (2003). Bollywood Spectaculars. World Literature today. Retrieved Jan 10,
2008, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5270/is_34_77/ai_n29059774/.
Johnson, M. A. (2000). How ethnic are U.S. ethnic media: The case of Latina magazines.
Mass Communication & Society, Vol. 3, 229-248
Johnson, R. (1987). What is cultural studies anyway? Social Text, 6(1), 38-80.
Jo, H. Y. (2000). Locating ethnic identity and language among second-generation
Korean-Americans. Review of Korean Studies, Vol. 3, 105-137.
Joseph, G. (2006). India Population Explodes in the U.S. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.usindiafriendship.net/indian_population_explodes.htm.
Juluri, V. (1999). Global weds local: The reception of Hum Aapke Hain Koun. European
Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol. 2(2), 231-248.
83
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Jung, E. & Lee.C (2004). Social construction of cultural identity: An ethnographic study
of Korean American students. Atlantic Journal of Communication, Vol. 12(3),
146-162.
Kalkar, S. (1980). The ties that bind: Family relationships in the mythology of hindi
cinema. India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 8(1), 11-21.
Kaur, R. (2002). Viewing the West through Bollywood: A celluloid occident in the
making. Contemporary South Asia, Vol. 11(2), 199-209.
Kaur, R., & Sinha, A. J. (2005). Bollyworld: Popular Indian Cinema through a
Transnational Lens. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kelly, M. E. (1996). Ethnic conversions: Family, community, women, and kinwork.
Ethnic Studies Review, Vol. 19, 81-100.
Key, J.P. (1997). Research design in occupational education. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008,
from
http://www.okstate.edu/ag/agedcm4h/academic/aged5980a/5980/newpage21.htm.
Krueger, R. A. (1988). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications
Ksiazek, B.T., & Webster, G.J. (2008). Cultural proximity and audience behavior : The
role of language in patterns of polarization and multicultural influency. Journal of
Broadcasting and Electronic Media, Vol. 52(3),
Kvale, S. (1996). Interview: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Larkin, B. (1997). Bollywood comes to Nigeria. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.samarmagazine.org/archive/article.php?id=21.
Lee, C. (2004). Korean immigrants’ viewing patterns of Korean satellite television and its
role in their lives. Asian Journal of Communication, Vol. 14(1), 68-80.
Lee, J.S. (2006). Exploring the relationship between electronic literacy and heritage
language maintenance. Language Learning and Technology, Vol.10(2), 93-113.
Lovgren, S. (2004). Bollywood: Indian films splice Bombay, Hollywood. Retrieved Jan
20, 2008, from
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0121_040121_Bollywoodfilms
.html.
84
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Marczak, M., & Sewell, M. (1995). Using focus groups for evaluation. Retrieved April
10, 2008, from http://ag.arizona.edu/fcs/cyfernet/cyfar/focus.htm.
Melkote, S. R., & Liu, D. J. (2000). The role of the Internet in forging a pluralistic
integration: A study of Chinese intellectuals in the United States. Gazette, Vol.
62(6), 495-504.
Mishra, S. (n.d.). Bollywood. Retrieved June 15, 2009, from
http://hubpages.com/hub/latest-bollywood.
Moorti, S. (2003). Desperately seeking an identity: Diasporic cinema and the articulation
of transnational kinship. International Journal of Cultural Studies.Vol. 6(3), 355376.
Nayar, S. J. (1996). The values of fantasy: Indian popular cinema through Western
scripts. Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 1, 73-89.
Nehru, J. (1946). Discovery of India. Calcutta: Signet Press.
Overdorf, J. (2007). Hooray for Bollywood. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.newsweek.com/id/72719/page/1.
Palmer, C. (1999). Tourism and the symbols of identity. Tourism Management, Vol.
20(3), 313-321.
Punathambekar, A. (2005). Bollywood in the Indian-American Diaspora: Mediating a
transitive logic of cultural citizenship. International Journal of Cultural Studies,
Vol. 8(2), 151-173.
Rajadhyaksha, A. (2003). The Bollywoodization of the Indian cinema: Cultural
nationalism in a global arena. Inter-Asian Cultural Studies, Vol. 4(1), 25-39.
Rao, S(2008). I need an Indian touch: Glocalization and Bollywood films. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association,
TBA, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Retrieved Sep 20, 2008, from
http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p228862_index.html.
Rao, S. (2007). The globalization of Bollywood: An ethnography of non-elite audiences
in India. The Communication Review, Vol. 10, 57-76.
Sikka, M. (2005). Bollywood gets ready to take on Hollywood. Retrieved Jan18, 2008,
from http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/Story?id=410630&page=1.
85
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Singh, K. (2003). The End of India. India: Penguin Books.
Skipper, L. (2007). Boom time for Bollywood. Retrieved Jan 18, 2008, from
http://corporate.visitlondon.com/press_centre/press_releases/070403_Bollywood.
html.
Shah, J. (2005). Bollywood enters Australia. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.psfk.com/2005/09/Bollywood_enter.html.
Sheth, S. (2006). Bollywood woos Europe. Retrieved Jan 20, 2008, from
http://www.egothemag.com/gupshup/archives/2006/10/Bollywood_woos.html.
Srebemy, A. (2000). Media and diasporic consciousness: An exploration among Iranians
in London. In S. Cottle (Ed.), Ethnic minorities and the media (pp. 179-196).
Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Srinivas, L. (2002). The active audience: Spectatorship, social relations and the
experience of cinema in India. Media, Culture & Society, Vol. 24, 155-173.
Srinivas, L. (1998). Active viewing: An ethnography of the Indian film audience. Visual
Anthropology, Vol. 11(4), 323-353.
Stadtler, F. (2005). Cultural connections: Laagan and its audience responses. Third World
Quarterly, Vol. 26(3), 517-524.
Straubhaar, J. D. (2003). Choosing national TV: Cultural capital, language, and cultural
proximity in Brazil. In M. G. Elasmar (Ed.), The impact of international television:
A paradigm shift (pp. 77–110). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. In
S. Worchel and L. W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations.
Chigago: Nelson-Hall.
Taylor, B.E. (1874). Primitive culture, researches into the development of mythology,
philosophy, religion, language, art and customs. New York: Holt and Co.
Thompson, K. (2002). Border crossings and diasporic identities: Media use and leisure
practices of an ethnic minority. Qualitative Sociology, Vol. 25(3), 409􏰴418.
Thussu, D (2008). The Globalization of Bollywood: The Hype and the Hope by Daya
Kishan Thussu. Paper presented at the ICA. Retrieved Jul 10, 2009, from
http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p228852_index.html.
86
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Uberoi, P. (1998). The diaspora comes home: Disciplining desire in DDLJ. Contributions
to Indian Sociology, Vol. 32(2), 305-336.
Wadhwani, N. A. (2006). “Bollywood Mani” rising in United States. Retrieved Jan 20,
2008, from
http://www.america.gov/st/washfileenglish/2006/August/20060809124617nainaw
hdaw0 8614466.html.
Weinreich, N. K. (1996). A more perfect union: Integrating quantitative and qualitative
methods in social marketing research. Social Marketing Quaterly, 53-58.
Williams, R. (1961). The long revolution. London: Penguin Books.
87
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Appendix A
Plot Summaries
Following are the plot summaries of few films that are mentioned in the study:
Khabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham (2001)
This film revolves around Rahul (Shahrukh Khan) who is the adopted son of
Yashvardhan Raichand (Amitabh Bachchan) and his wife Nandini (Jaya Bachchan).
Yashovardhan (Yash) is a popular businessman in India, who believes in maintaining
traditions. Rahul chances upon Anjali (Kajol) and falls in love with her. Yash plans to
get Rahul married off to his friend's daughter, Naina (Rani Mukherji). However, Rahul
tells his father that he is in love with Anjali and wishes to marry her; this angers Yash and
berates Rahul for not taking family traditions into consideration.
Rahul goes to inform Anjali that he wont be able to marry her, but only to find
that her father has passed away. After realizing that Anjali and Pooja (Kareena Kapoor),
Anjali's sister have no place to go, he decided to marry Anjali. This results in Yash
asking Rahul to leave his home. Rohan, however, has never learned why Rahul left
home. However, he finds out from his grandmothers the reasons behind the split. Rohan
also learns that Rahul and Anjali are living in London. As soon as Rohan arrives in
London, he finds out Rahul's address.
He enrolls at a university where Pooja is a student. He tells her who he is and asks
her help to bring the family back together. Pooja tells Rahul that Rohan is from India and
88
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
he is looking for some place to live. Rahul and Angali let Rohan stay at their place.
Eventually, he reveals his identity and convinces Rahul to go back to India. Rahul goes
back to India to participate in his paternal grandmother's funeral but never speaks to his
father. Rohan finally convinces Rahul to speak to Yash. Yash apologizes to Rahul and
berates him for not coming home sooner. Things end on a happy note.
Rang De Basanti (2006)
Sue (Alice Patten) comes to India to make a documentary on some freedom
fighters about whom she gets to know from the diary of her late grandfather who
was a British officer in India before 1947.After having auditioned many in vain
for her movie, Sue, aided by Sonia (Soha Ali Khan), meets a group of friends in
whom she sees the characters of her documentary. The group consists of DJ
(Aamir Khan), Aslam (Kunal Kapoor), Karan (Siddharth) and Sukhi (Sharman
Joshi).
DJ is originally Daljeet Singh from a Punjabi family consisting of a loving mother
(excellently portrayed by Kiron Kher). A beer guzzler who is never serious about
anything in life, DJ starts hitting on Sue the minute he sees her.Aslam comes from
a Muslim family and refuses to endorse the opinion that Muslims ought not
mingle with Hindus. Karan is the silent one. He is rich but has a dry, loveless life.
He smokes heavily and seeks happiness among his friends. Sukhi is full of fun
and frolic. He has no girlfriend and rues (quite portentously) that he would die a
89
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
kunwara.
Also part of the group is Fl. Lft. Ajay Rathod (Madhavan), the love of Sonia
(Soha). He is the only one in the group who has dedication to serve the country.
None of the friends is serious enough to be a part of Sue’s documentary. To them
values like patriotism, sacrificing oneself for the sake of country are just beautiful
words they cannot relate to. But Sue can see the characters of her movie in them.
In DJ she sees Chandrashekhar Azad. In Karan she sees Bhagat Singh and in
Aslam she sees Ashfak.Even as the five friends agree to be a part of her movie,
they still cannot accept the virtues of the characters (of the freedom fighters) they
play. But then, Ajay dies in a MiG crash and is labeled as a rookie pilot by the
Defence Minister who is unwilling to accept shortcomings in the MiG aircrafts.
DJ, Aslam, Karan, Sukhi, Sonia, Ajay’s mother (Waheeda Rahman) and Pandey
(Atul Kulkarni) lead the protest against the Defence Minister to get Ajay the
honour he deserved. But they are beaten mercilessly by the cops. Ajay’s mother
goes into coma. DJ and friends decide to bring the truth to light. But they choose a
very extreme way to do it (Deoshi, 2008).
Swades: We, the people (2004)
Mohan Bhargava (Sharukh Khan) left the small village in India where he was
born and raised to go to the United States, where he worked as an engineer in
NASA. But, after a few years Mohan becomes nostalgic for his home and takes a
90
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
leave of absence in order to visit Kaveri (Kishori Ballal), a woman who helped to
raise him as a boy. While searching for Kaveri, Mohan becomes reacquainted
with Gita (Gayatri Joshi), one of his childhood friends who had stayed behind to
serve the community as a teacher. Gita thinks little of Mohan's desire to bring
Kaveri back to the United States with him, but she also finds herself struck by the
charm and intelligence of the adult Mohan, and the two build a relationship. But
many in the community have little regard for Mohan's accomplishments in the
United States until he steps forward to help his old neighbors by revamping the
village's antiquated electrical system and increase the rate of literacy (Deming,
n.d.)
91
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Appendix B
Discussion Guide
Discussion guide for in-depth interviews and focus groups:
1. What factors do second-generaton Indian Americans identify as influencing their
identity construction?
a. How do you culturally identify yourself?
b. What does being Indian/Indian-American/American mean to you?
c. What are your general impressions on Indian Culture?
d. Do you see any difference in Indian Culture from Indian American culture? (If
yes,
what are they?)
e. Name some activities that influence you in learning about Indian culture?
f. What role does family and friends play in your life with respect to your cultural
identity?
2. What role do mass media play in second-generation Indian Americans identity
construction?
a. What media do you use in general?
b. What are some of the differences you find in Indian magazines/news papers
produced in India from that of United States?
92
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
c. How often do you listen to Indian radio stations and what kind of influence do
you think they have on you in learning about culture and traditions?
d. What Indian television channels you watch regularly? What cultural aspects
have you picked up from those various programs?
e. How often do you use the Internet to know about India and culture?
3. What roles does Bollywood in particular play in the process of identity construction
among second-generation Indian Americans?
a. How often do you watch Indian movies? Who do you watch these movies with?
b. What is your general impression of Bollywood movies?
c. How does your use of Bollywood movies differ from your parents use?
d. Do you find yourself identifying with the movie characters and plots?
e. Would you say that Bollywood movies represent Indian traditions and values?
f. What cultural aspects do you learn from Bollywood movies? Any specifics that
you can think of?
g. What is your opinion on the culture portrayed in Bollywood movies? Do you
think they represent the reality?
93
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Appendix C
Interview Consent Form
Hi,
I am here to invite you to participate in a research study that I designed to
understand the role of Bollywood movies in cultural identity construction. More
precisely, we are interested in your opinions regarding Bollywood movies and its
influence in maintaining the Indian culture and traditions. In order to do this, you will be
asked to participate in in-depth interview session that would last no more than an hour.
This study is being conducted for academic purposes and has been approved by
the Institutional Review Board of the Office of Research Services at Texas Tech
University. All responses will be kept confidential and no identifying personal factors
will be used in reporting the results of this study. You will be compensated $20.00 for
your time in participating in the study.
Thanks for your cooperation.
Lakshmi N. Tirumala
College of Mass Communications
Texas Tech University.
94
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Appendix D
Focus group Consent Form
Hi,
I am here to invite you to participate in a research study that I designed to
understand the role of Bollywood movies in cultural identity construction. More
precisely, we are interested in your opinions regarding Bollywood movies and its
influence in maintaining the Indian culture and traditions. In order to do this, you will be
asked to participate in a focus group session that would last no more than an hour.
This study is being conducted for academic purposes and has been approved by
the Institutional Review Board of the Office of Research Services at Texas Tech
University. All responses will be kept confidential and no identifying personal factors
will be used in reporting the results of this study. You will be compensated $10.00 for
your time in participating in the study.
Thanks for your cooperation.
Lakshmi N. Tirumala
College of Mass Communications
Texas Tech University.
95
Texas Tech University, Lakshmi N. Tirumala, Aug. 2009
Permission to Copy
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master’s
degree at Texas Tech University or Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, I
agree that the Library and my major department shall make it freely available for research
purposes. Permission to copy this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the
Director of the Library or my major professor. It is understood that any copying or
publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my further
written permission and that any user may be liable for copyright infringement.
Agree (Permission is granted.)
Student Signature
07-26-09
Date
Disagree (Permission is not granted.)
_____ Lakshmi N. Tirumala
Student Signature
07-26-09
Date