Running head: ERIKSON’S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Erikson’s Stages of Development:
A Personal Reflection
Purdue University-North Central
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Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development: A Personal Reflection
How do we, as individuals, define ourselves? That has been the foremost focus of many
since the beginning of time. [Many] theorists, such as Erik Erikson, believe that personality—an
individual’s distinguishing set of characteristics (Merriam-Webster, n.d.)—and self-concept—an
individual’s conceptualization of his or her self (Potter & Perry, 2009, p. 411)—are what,
ultimately, define us. But individuals aren’t just born with these characteristics, so how does this
development occur?
Erik Erikson, German-Danish psychoanalyst, saw that personality was formed upon
individuals’ interactions with their social environment (Cicarelli & White, 2009; Edelman &
Mandle, 2010; Potter & Perry, 2009, Thies & Travers, 2009). His Psychosocial Theory of
Development is based upon the premise that humans interact with an ever-widening circle,
beginning with the mother and ending with humankind (society) in general (Thies & Travers,
2009). Erikson believed development occurred in a series of eight stages throughout the lifetime,
with each stage being marked by some sort of developmental “crisis” (Thies & Travers, 2009).
Each crisis holds specific “tasks” that individuals need to accomplish before successfully mastering
that stage and progressing to the next (Potter & Perry, 2009). The tasks are framed with opposing
conflicts—such as trust versus mistrust or intimacy versus isolation—and remain throughout life
(Potter & Perry, 2009). Each stage builds upon the successful resolution of the previous
developmental crisis. Personality, then, is formed as a result of the resolution of these crises, leaving
people with both strengths and weaknesses (Thies & Travers, 2009).
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After examining Erikson’s eight stages, I believe I am currently working on stage five:
Identity versus Identity Diffusion. Despite the fact that I am 21–years-old, and no longer of the
“adolescent age,” I do not feel I have resolved this central crisis: accomplishing the task of gaining
a true sense of self, a true identity. Though it has not hindered me from moving forward, it has had
an effect on my overall development. Fortunately, Erikson knew development didn’t always occur
as intended. In his theory, he stated, “while the central crisis of each stage is distinctly characteristic
to that particular age, [he believed] humans could go back and re-work crises later on in life
(Wikipedia, 2012),” which is exactly what I am doing at this very moment. Now, it’s time to look at
these stages and reflect on how each has applied to my own personal development.
Stage One—Infancy (0-18 months) Crisis: Trust versus Mistrust
Erikson said the central developmental task of infants is to develop a sense of trust (Edelman
& Mandle, 2010). Establishing this basic trust determines the way in which the individual handles
all future stages [of development] and is essential for the development of a healthy personality
(Edelman & Mandle, 2010; Potter & Perry, 2009). Infants are unable to meet their own needs, so
they must rely on others—primarily their parents—to get those needs met. Children who are
properly loved and cared for feel worthy and develop a sense of trust in both the “self” and in
“others” (Thies and Travers, 2009). These children will view the world as “safe” and grow to be
trusting, confident, and secure. If children’s needs are not met, they feel unworthy, and the lack of
care will lead to fear, anger, insecurity, and a sense of mistrust in the world around them (Thies &
Travers, 2009).
Two ways in which my parents helped me to successfully complete this stage were through
breastfeeding and stay-at-home parenting. My mother, a full-time teacher, took a year off to care for
me during that first year. Her constant love and attention most definitely had a positive influence in
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me growing to be a happy, confident, and trusting human being. Also, my regular feeding schedule
not only provided me with my basic nutritional needs, but made me aware that food—along with
other necessary needs—was always there.
Several health promotion strategies I used during this stage included: breastfeeding; using a
car seat; and immunizations.
Stage Two—Toddlerhood (18 months-3 years) Crisis: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
By toddlerhood, (most) children have acquired skills in basic self-care needs, such as
feeding, walking, and toilet-training (Potter & Perry, 2009). The developmental task for this stage,
then, is for children to develop a sense of autonomy, while overcoming feelings of shame and doubt
(Edelman & Mandle, 2010). It is important that toddlers develop a sense of personal control. During
this stage, children have an opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy, while learning “right”
from “wrong.” Toddlers begin to explore the world around them, wanting to do everything on their
own: It is a child’s quest for independence. Throughout this stage, children start to develop their
first interests. Toddlers who are provided with opportunities to explore these interests and make
independent decisions—with the parents’ positive encouragement—will develop a sense of
autonomy (Thies & Travers, 2009). Those toddlers whose decisions are ridiculed may feel shame
and become doubtful in their overall abilities (Thies & Travers, 2009). They will go on to suffer low
self-esteem as a result.
Since I could not remember much in terms of my development during this period, I decided
to talk to my parents. When asked to describe me as a toddler, both my mother and my father came
up with the same response: curious. In the words of my father, I was “. . . a curious little daredevil.
A little monkey.” My mother added: “Oh yes, and always wanting to explore. . . .Able to walk
easily by 9 months.” I was constantly on the move, making use of my newly-acquired
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independence! Both of my parents did well in promoting autonomy by allowing me to exert my
will. I was able to seek-out new interests and make decisions on my own, within reason, of course.
Their constant encouragement aided in the development of the independent woman I am today.
Health promotion strategies for this stage included: positive reinforcement, which helped
build my self-esteem and sense of autonomy, while at the same time, supported my “good” behavior
and choices; discipline strategies, which taught me “right” from “wrong;” car safety, where I
transitioned from a car seat to a booster seat; and an introduction to healthy eating habits.
Stage Three—Preschool Children (3-5 years) Crisis: Initiative versus Guilt
During this stage, the child is learning to master the world around them, and wants to begin
and complete his or her own actions, not just for the sake of doing so, but doing so for a purpose
(Edelman & Mandle, 2010). Preschoolers LOVE to do things on their own! Erikson viewed gaining
the sense of initiative as the most important developmental task of this stage (Edelman & Mandle,
2010). “Play” plays an important role in the child’s development during the preschool years. It
fosters initiative as it gives preschoolers the opportunity to exercise their imaginations and further
develop the independence they gained during toddlerhood (Thies & Travers, 2009). Erikson knew
preschoolers who liked to do things, can do the wrong things, so he saw this stage as being the birth
of a conscience (Thies & Travers, 2009; Wikipedia, 2012). Guilt becomes a very strong, confusing,
and even damaging emotion. If preschoolers’ actions and efforts are encouraged and supported,
these children develop a sense of initiative—a sense of purpose—which will carry on into all other
stages in life (Potter & Perry, 2009). But preschoolers who experience disapproval, or their efforts
go unrecognized, may view their actions as being “bad,” leading to a sense of guilt (Edelman &
Mandle, 2010).
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“Play” definitely proved to be a key factor in my success. Being allowed to express myself
through various play activities strengthened my self-worth: I now had a sense of purpose! Though
young and not fully understanding, I knew there were reasons behind my actions, and it was
satisfying seeing those actions being supported. Of course, my parents were always aware, and there
to help when needed. I can remember one moment during this stage that undoubtedly applied to
this condition. One day, I decided to copy my mother in getting oneself ready, just as she did when
getting ready for work. So, I proudly dressed myself, and went off to school. When my father
picked me up later that day, my teacher asked, “Did Megan dress herself this morning?” “Yes,” he
replied, “why?” She chuckled, “I noticed.” Turns out, I had put my jumper and turtleneck on
backwards! After that incident, while my parents still allowed me to choose my own outfits, they
made sure I had gotten properly dressed before leaving the house.
At the age of four, I found that “play” sometimes comes with serious consequences. Being
a typical preschool child, I was “messing around” and accidentally fell and broke my collarbone.
After being scolded for “messing-around,” my conscience eventually got to me, as I felt guilty for
my “bad” behavior. But it taught me a valuable lesson, helping me realize that my decisions weren’t
always the wisest. I had to learn from my mistakes.
Several health promotion strategies used during this stage included: using a booster seat;
wearing a bicycle helmet; and being involved in family meal planning.
Stage Four—School-Age Children (6-11 years) Crisis: Industry versus Inferiority
Erikson viewed the school-age years as critical for the development of self-esteem
(Wikipedia, 2012). Self-esteem, as defined by Thies and Travers, (2009), is “an evaluation of one’s
self-concept and inherent worth” (p. 208). The major developmental task of this stage is full
mastery of whatever the individual is doing—a sense of industry (Potter & Perry, 2009). School–
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age children are now becoming more aware of themselves as individuals and are eager to apply
themselves in many areas of life (Wikipedia, 2012). School provides children the opportunity to
become involved, develop new skills, and exert their abilities. Children this age thrive on
accomplishment and praise; to them, it is a sign of success. During this stage, children start
recognizing their talents and interests and may go on to pursue those interests. It is also as a very
social stage of development, where friendships have a great influence [on development] and being
accepted is of great importance. Children who achieve success in their abilities and “fit-in” with
their peers develop a sense of competence (Thies & Travers, 2009). Children who do not believe to
be competent see themselves as inadequate and develop a sense of inferiority (Thies & Travers,
2009).
From the moment I entered kindergarten, school, and everything it entailed, was my main
focus. While my mother and father were always there to guide and support me, it was I who really
took initiative and pushed myself to do my very best. In accordance with Erikson’s beliefs, I, too,
was driven by competition; recognition; and achievement, and, from a very young age, knew what it
took to succeed. Using my newly acquired—and ever-growing—set of skills and knowledge, I
learned how to work—really work—and do things on my own. I participated in a wide-variety of
activities, including academics, clubs, social events, friendships, and sports. It was through these
activities that I began to recognize my talents and interests, and in turn, I developed a sense of
competence. Challenge was not a part of my vocabulary. If something was thrown at me, I would
take it head-on. If someone told me I “couldn’t do it,” I was determined to prove them wrong. My
father always pushed me to pursue my goals and dreams, and for that, I am ever grateful. Some of
my interests included: art; academics; and athletics, especially long-distance running. These were
things I not only enjoyed, but excelled in!
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One issue I did encounter during this stage was in my search for acceptance amongst my
peers. As previously noted, Erikson stated school-age children are very concerned with “fitting-in,”
and I was no exception. Though this event didn’t occur during this exact stage, it does focus on this
issue: I have never been the “girly” type, but all throughout school, most of my female friends were.
I wanted so badly to “fit-in” [with them], but was told that I had to “change” in order to do so.
Why? I didn’t want to give up running, nor did I want to change my looks, but this was what was
required. After hours of crying to my mother, she simply stated, “You are your own, unique
individual, and if they wouldn’t accept me for me, than they weren’t my real friends.” Looking
back, I now realize that “fitting-in” isn’t all that important—it’s just part of that stage of
development.
Different health promotion strategies used were: early health-education, which promoted
healthy beliefs and behaviors, such as nutrition and physical activity; riding in the backseat of a car;
sports safety; and annual physical examinations.
Stage Five—Adolescence (12-18 years) Conflict: Identity versus Identity Diffusion
Adolescence is marked as a period of change, as the individual transitions from childhood to
adulthood. Up until this stage, development was dependent upon what was done to the individual.
Now, development depends on what the individual does (Wikipedia, 2012). Life is getting more
complex. Adolescents need to develop a sense of self and a personal identity. In other words, they
work to find who they really are. They begin to ask themselves: “Who am I?” and “What can I be?”
(Cicarelli & White, 2009). Thies and Travers (2009) define a sense of self as being a “multifaceted
composite of one’s characteristics and abilities” (p. 211). The individual’s emerging sense of self
will be established by forgoing past experiences with anticipations of the future (Wikipedia, 2012).
This is one point from Erikson’s theory that individuals, I, especially, need to remember. But not
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only do adolescents need to develop a sense of self; they also need to establish a philosophy of life.
During this stage, adolescents try on different identities, values, and roles (Edelman & Mandle,
2010). It can be very confusing, often leading to, what Erikson termed, an “identity crisis” (Thies &
Travers, 2009, p. 211). This is truly a period of self-discovery. According to Erikson, individuals
who have resolved their personal crises have achieved a sense of identity: They know who they are
(Thies & Travers, 2009). Those who remain locked in doubt and insecurity, and have yet to resolve
their crises, experience identity confusion (Thies & Travers, 2009).
Honestly, I do not believe I have mastered this stage, yet. Up until high-school, I thought I
knew who I was, and confident in whom I had become. I had always been true to myself and it
made me—me. My philosophy was simple: Stay true, be you. Give it all you’ve got. But for me, it
wasn’t good enough. Just before I turned 16-years-old, I developed a serious eating disorder—
anorexia nervosa—and all that I knew was suddenly gone. My true identity was masked by my
eating disorder, for my eating disorder had now become my identity. I could not, and would not, let
it go. The strong, competitive, outgoing woman I had become ceased to exist. I no longer referred
to myself as ‘Megan,’ but instead, ‘Megan: the Anorexic.’ I was existing as something, (not
someone, but something) that was just not me. It took nearly two years to recover and rediscover
who I was—apart from my eating disorder—but even then, I still had not found my true sense of
self, my identity.
Various health promotion strategies used during this stage were: steady recovery; in-depth
health education, which focused on nutrition, physical activity, peer pressure, sex, and substance
abuse; and annual sports physicals.
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Stage Six—Young Adulthood (18-35) Conflict: Intimacy versus Isolation
In this stage, young adults deepen their capacity to love, allowing themselves to form
intimate relationships with one another (Potter & Perry, 2009). It is during this time that individuals
begin seeking companionship (Cicarelli & White, 2009). Erikson described intimacy as: “finding
the self, then losing the self in another” (Potter & Perry, 2009, p. 140, qtd. in Santrock, 2007).
Resolving this crisis depends on both internal—the individual’s firm grasp on their sense of self,
along with their capacity to love—and external—their significant other—influences. Once an
individual has established and feels secure in their identity, they are ready for intimacy (Thies &
Travers, 2009). These individuals are warm and loving, capable of forming close, intimate
relationships and willingly make the sacrifices that relationships often require (Wikipedia, 2012).
Fear of losing one’s identity, however, can lead to avoidance of intimate relationships, causing
isolation (Thies & Travers, 2009).
With this being said, since I have yet to establish—let alone feel secure in—my identity,
progressing forward with my development may be a bit of a challenge. (Also, having just entered
this stage doesn’t make it any easier.) While I have not closed myself off to the thought of intimacy,
it has never been a major concern. I have been in several relationships, but most have been “on the
surface,” mainly because I’m not the relationship type. However, my most recent relationship,
which I have been in (off and on) for the past five years, is showing signs of what it means to be in
a real, intimate relationship. He is my best friend and I love him dearly. I have made sacrifices for
his sake and he has done the same. Nevertheless, without having established a true sense of self, I
don’t see how I will be able to fully “lose myself,” as Erikson stated, in another.
Personal health issues, yet again, had a negative influence on furthering my development. It
had been four years since my last struggle and seemed to be doing well. After one AMAZING
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semester my freshman year of college, things went south and I found myself face-to-face with my
other “identity.” When I turned 20, I relapsed; only this time, it was much, much worse. Whatever I
had re-gained—in terms of my sense of self—was once again lost. I was consumed by my anorexia
and nothing else seemed to matter. It took its toll on my relationships, especially on those whom I
was closest to, including, at that time, the relationship with my boyfriend. Eventually, as I had four
years before, I slowly moved toward recovery. I still struggle every day with trying to separate
myself from this other “identity,” in hopes of one day being able truly find myself. Hopefully, when
that day comes, I will be ready to move forward.
Health promotion strategies used, thus far, have been: ongoing recovery; healthy coping
strategies for the stressors of everyday life; maintaining healthy habits; practicing safe-sex; and
focusing on and reassessing my life goals.
Though each stage has had its ups and downs, every experience taught me something new,
and had a significant impact on my overall development. As I continue my search for selfdiscovery, I am ready to tackle life’s “crises” and look forward to the future.
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