Key Studies (Attachment)
 Bowlby
 Lorenz (1952) ‘Imprinting’
 Shaffer and Emerson (1964) ‘Research into Development of
Attachments’
 Ainsworth and Bell (1970) ‘The Strange Situation’
 Sagi (1990) ‘Cultural Differences in Israel’
 Miyake et al (1985) Cultural Differences in Japan’
 Harlow (1962) ‘Monekies’
 Robertson and Bowlby (1952) ‘PDD Model’
 Spitz and Wolf (1946) ‘Hospital and Depression’
 Robertson and Robertson (1971) ‘Minimising Distress’
 Bowlby (1944) ’44 Thieves’
 Genie and Czecj Twins Case-Studies
 Rutter (1998) ‘Romanian Orphans’
 Mayall and Petrie (1983) ‘Childminding’
 Andersson (1992) ‘Cognitive and Social Effects of Day Care in Sweden’
 Kagan et al (1980) ‘US Day Care’
 Burchinal et al (1989) ‘Day Care’
 Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) ‘Effects of day care on social
development’
‘Introduction to Attachment’
‘Think of parent swans and their cygnets swimming along in single file. It is as if they were joined
by an invisible piece of string.’
‘Think of a mother sitting on a park bench on a warm spring day. Her two year old son toddles
around on the grass. Every now and again he returns to his mother just to touch her knee or
smile at her. He never wanders far. Again, it is as if there is an invisible tie between them.’
Attachment is like a piece of invisible string that binds individuals in a way that allows healthy
development. The tie is reciprocal. Parents are as attached to their children as the children are to
their parents.
But, what is attachment?
In accordance with Shaffer (1993) an attachment is ‘a close emotional relationship between two
persons, characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity (closeness).’
It is an emotional relationship that is experienced throughout life. When you are attached to
someone, it makes you feel good to be in that person’s company and also makes you feel anxious
when they are not there, i.e. there is a desire for close proximity.
Psychologists suggest that it is ‘normal and healthy’ for infants to form an attachment to one or
more of their caregivers, and that this attachment is important for their later development.
One of the most influential psychologists in the field of Attachment is John Bowlby. Bowlby
posited that a single, primary attachment relationship is essential for the healthy psychological
development of the child. (N.B. you will notice that in Bowlby’s early work, he claims that babies
make a single, main attachment; where as Shaffer and Emerson suggest that babies
According to Bowlby, the first and most important attachment is ideally with the mother or ‘motherfigure’. He believed that ‘mother love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as
are vitamins and proteins for physical health.’ (Bowlby, 1951)
There are many characteristics of attachment during infancy:
1. seeking proximity to the primary care-giver. The infant tries to stay close to the caregiver
or ‘attachment figure’
2. distress on separation. The caregiver and infant are separated, and both experience
distress
3. pleasure when reunited. Attachment is demonstrated not just in the distress experienced
on separation, but also pleasure experienced when reunited
4. general orientation of behaviour towards the primary care giver. The infant is aware of his
or her caregiver at all times and may frequently make contact for reassurance
Don’t forget – attachment is reciprocal – both partners must be involved in order for the bond to
be made.
Maurer and Maurer (1989) said that attachments depend on interactions rather than two people
just being together.
Most psychologists see attachment as a gradual process, i.e. develop over a period of months.
But why do infants form attachments?
It appears that attachment forms a number of purposes; some of which are immediate (shortterm), others which are longer-term.
Immediate Benefits
At birth, young animals are relatively helpless and need caregivers to provide food and protection
in order to survive. This means that any animal who is not cared for in this way would be much
less likely to survive. Attachment could therefore be seen as an innate behaviour that ensures
closeness between the infant and its care giver, so as to promote survival of the infant.
Attachment is likely to be innate simply because it increases reproductive success (i.e. carries on
genes).
Long-term Benefits
In the long-term, attachment provides a basis for emotional relationships. The early bond
between the care giver and the infant is the basis for all later emotional involvement. In other
words, the infant is learning how to form an emotional relationship.
Bowlby (1969) suggested that early attachment relationships influence emotional development
via an ‘internal working model’ about relationships.
This schema represents the infant’s knowledge about his/her relationship with the primary care
giver.
The model generates expectations about other relationships so that whatever the child’s primary
relationship was like will lead the child to have expectations about other relationships.
The model will predict how other people will behave and react to the child, about whether to trust
other people, and so on. In short it is a template for all future relationships according to Bowlby.
So, Bowlby’s concept would lead us to expect a correlation between early attachment experiences
and later relationships. There is evidence to support Bowlby’s expectation.
For example, Hazan and Shaver (1987) found that romantic types were related to early styles of
attachment.
Secure Attachments
 if a child has developed a secure attachment with a caregiver then they are more likely to
develop a feeling of being safe and secure
 this caregiver is then used by the child as a sort of secure base
 children with a secure attachment often become very independent
 children with a secure attachment are often seen being cuddled by the caregiver
 the more people the child has an attachment with, the more benefits that child has
 e.g. by having multiple caregivers the child has multiple people to learn from
 secure attachments are not only a benefit for the child, but also the caregiver. The
caregiver can leave the child with the other secure attachment figures without worrying
about the child being in distress when left
Insecure Attachments
 Bowlby studied 44 juvenile thieves who were attending his clinic which specialised in
disturbed children (UK, London based) during the 1930s
 39% had been sparated from their mothers for 6 months before 5 years of age
 according to Bowlby, this separation disrupted the attachment bonds of the children
 Bowlby also found that out of 44 teenagers (who were NOT thieves) with emotional
problems, only 2 of them had been separated from their mothers
 According to Bowlby, MATERNAL DEPRIVATION resulted in juveinile delinquency
 Bowlby’s studies further found that these delinquents appeared to show no care about
their crimes, and this, Bowlby suggested, was because they ‘lost their mother’s love’
Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that children who were securely attached to their
mothers as infants, enjoyed close friendships later in childhood, where as those who were
avoidant or anxious reported either having no friends or few friends.
A relationship has also been found between early attachment and parenting styles. Quinton et al
(1988) studied women who had spent much of their early lives in institutions where they had little
opportunity to form attachments.
Results were that women interacted poorly with their own children and it was concluded that
institutionalised women were less sensitive, less supportive and less warm than a group of
women who had not been institutionalised.
Evaluation of early attachments
As I have just mentioned, research evidence indicates that early attachments form a basis for later
relationships??
However, you must note also, that there are many other factors which may influence how a
person copes with later relationships. For example, an experience of a divorce during childhood.
Individual differences are also important. Lewis et al (1984) looked at behaviour problems in
older children and found that there was a greater incidence of maladjustment in BOYS who had
been classed as insecure at an early age, but such was NOT true for girls. So, be careful about
making generalisations!!
Harris (1998) suggested that the concept of an internal working model (as proposed by Bowlby),
is just WRONG! She claimed that the infant is well aware that the model is only of use with a
particular person and will not function with lots of different people (e.g. babysitter or playful peer).
In other words, Harris does not accept Bowlby’s view that attachments are the basis for later
development.
When does an infant begin forming attachments?
Most researchers believe that attachment develops through a series of stages. There are two
main theories of the stages of attachment.
The fist was put forward by Shaffer and Emerson in 1964. Shaffer and Emerson suggest that
infants go through three stages in the early development of attachment.
Stage 1
Birth – 6 weeks
Shaffer and Emerson called this the asocial stage. That is non-social. According to Shaffer and
Emerson, babies during this period do not act in a social way. They respond to people in much
the same way as they do to anything else which comes their way (i.e. objects). Shaffer and
Emerson further suggest that they do not recognise individual people during this Stage 1 of
attachment. Basically during this stage of attachment, everyone is much the same as everyone
else and everything is much the same as everything else!
But, Bowlby did not agree with ALL of Shaffer and Emerson’s ideas about Stage 1 of Attachment
development. Even though Bowlby DID agree that infants at this stage make little or no distinction
between people, he DID believe that they are equipped with a range of behaviours (crying,
babbling etc) that form the basis for sociability. In other words Bowlby believed babies are not
completely asocial! Bowlby said these behaviours i.e. crying and babbling etc, are designed to
maintain close proximity wit the primary care giver. E.g. crying brings mother to infant.
Later research suggests that infants are not as asocial as Shaffer and Emerson suggested…
Infants appear more settled when held by their caregiver, and smile more on hearing their voice.
There is evidence that 1 week old babies can recognise their mother’s face (Bushnell 1989).
Stern (1977) claims that infants are innately prepared. In other words they have an inborn
predisposition to look into their caregiver’s eyes, look away and look back again – in a sort of
social dance!
Wolff (1969) also sees crying as a form of communication; different cries meaning different things.
This evidence suggests that infants are able to recognise specific individuals; particularly their
primary caregiver. But it is generally agreed that attachment has not yet formed at stage 1.
Stage 2
6 weeks – 7 months
Shaffer and Emerson said this is the indiscriminate stage. That is, making no distinctions.
Infants can now, according to Shaffer and Emerson, distinguish between people and things, and
show general sociability towards people. This is supported by Ahrens (1954) who suggested that
infants begin to smile socially around 6 weeks. Infants can now distinguish between familiar and
unfamiliar people, but pay little attention to differences BETWEEN individuals. At this stage it is
said infants show no fear of strangers and will cry for attention from anyone
Once again Bowlby did not agree with every point Shaffer and Emerson have made in stage 2.
While he accepted infants at this stage are not yet fully attracted to a specific person, he goes on
to argue that they are beginning to distinguish between people, and are already showing a
preference for one particular person (usually the mother-figure). During this second stage,
sociability is more clearly expressed. Some researchers see sociability as an inborn
predisposition – the basis for the development of attachment.
Shaffer later divided this second stage into 2 parts:
1. 6 weeks – 3 months-infant shows preference for human company and develops general
sociability
2. 3 months – 7 months-infant begins to distinguish between people and recognises familiar
and unfamiliar people (Shaffer, 1977).
Stage 3
7 months +
Shaffer and Emerson say at around 7 months, infants enter the specific attachment stage.
Infants form a strong emotional bond with a particular person. This is indicated by the infant
showing distress when separated from the attachment figure. This is called separation protest,
and is evidence of separation anxiety.
Shaffer and Emerson use separation protest as evidence that attachment has occurred. At
around the same time as infants show separation anxiety, they also show stranger anxiety. This
is a fear of strangers. Infants are likely to turn away from strangers and turn to the caregiver for
support.
Bowlbly, like Shaffer and Emerson, also sees this 3rd stage as the time when infants form strong
emotional bonds with an attachment figure. He also sees separation anxiety and stranger anxiety
appearing at this stage.
So who is the primary caregiver?
Bowlby says the primary caregiver is nearly always the mother, because she is nearly always the
caregiver (proving emotional and physical care).
But, evidence from Shaffer and Emerson (1964) contradicts this. They found that infants did not
necessarily form attachments with the person who provided physical care (i.e fed and changed
them). Instead, infants were likely to form a primary attachment with the most responsive and
stimulating person around them.
Bowlby’s Stage theory of attachment
Five years later Bowlby devised his own stage theory of attachment. Bowlby was a child
psychoanalyst whose main interest was in the relationship between caregiver and child. The
fundamental principle of Bowlby’s theory is that attachment is an innate and adaptive process, for
both infant and parent. Attachment has evolved because it promotes survival (as proposed by
Darwin’s theory of evolution). N.B. You will have noticed the emphasis on mothers rather than
parents when Bowlby talks about the development of attachment. According to Bowlby, basically
nature had given the role of bonding primarily to mothers. He did come to accept that people
rather than other children’s natural mothers could provide satisfactory bonding, but in his early
writing the emphasis was very much on mothers. Bowlby proposed four phases.
Bowlby said an infant is born with a set of behavioural systems that are ready to be activated, e.g.
crying, and an ability to respond to the ‘stimuli’ that commonly emanate from a human being, e.g.
sounds, faces and touch. Shortly thereafter, says Bowlby, other behaviours appear which are
equally innate though not present at birth (smiling and crawling).
PHASE 1
BIRTH-8 WEEKS
 orientation and signals towards people without discrimination of one special person
 infants behave in characteristic and friendly ways towards other people but their ability to
discriminate between them is very limited
 e.g. they may just recognise familiar voices
PHASE 2
8/10 WEEKS-6 MONTHS
 orientation and signals directed towards one or more special people
 infants continue to be generally friendly but there is beginning to be a marked difference of
behaviour towards mother-figure
PHASE 3
6 MONTHS-1-2 YEARS
 maintenance of proximity to a special person by means of locomotion as well as signals to
that person
 the infant starts to follow his/her mother-figure and greet when he/she returns
 infant selects subsidiary attachment figures (other people)
 infant’s friendly response to other people decreases
 infant treats strangers with caution
PHASE 4




2 YEARS+
formation of goal-corrected partnership
child develops insight into the mother-figure behaviour
opens up whole new relationship where infant can consciously influence what he/she does
this is the beginning of a new partnership
Evaluation of the stage theory
1. most researchers believe most children in all societies go through these stages in much
the same way – if this is then the idea of stages is a useful model for the first part of the
child’s development
2. but, there are a number of problems with this view
a. the idea of stages suggests that early development is ‘fixed’ – that children
automatically go through particular stages at particular ages. Even though most
children appear to follow this general path of development; the age at which they do
so varies more than the model proposed by Shaffer and Emerson suggest (note:
Bowlby’s stage theory offers APPROXIMATE ages)
b. there are important differences between infants in terms of their attachment
behaviour. Some may become more securely attached than others.
c. Before reaching any firm conclusions about the stages of development, the idea
needs to be examined in different societies with different patterns of childrearing.
The stage model was first developed from observations of children raised in
Western societies. It may not apply to other societies and cultures?
Types of Attachment
Now we need to look at different types of attachment – secure and insecure attachments.
Mary Ainsworth (1978) designed an experiment to describe and assess the attachment
relationship between the infant and the caregiver. It is known as the ‘Strange Situation’ because it
takes place in a strange environment - a room with toys scattered around. The experiment
contains a number of episodes which provide various measures of the attachment relationship.
The experiment is designed to become increasingly stressful to the infant. For example, in later
episodes the infant is left alone and in the company of a stranger. There are 3 main sources of
possible distress in this experiment:
1. strange environment
2. separation from caregiver
3. presence of a stranger
4.
The experiment provides various measures of the attachment relationship and include the
following:
 infant’s reaction to separation from caregiver
 infant’s reaction to reunion with caregiver
 infant’s reaction to stranger
 infant’s willingness to explore a strange environment with their caregiver, with a
stranger or alone
The experiment lasts approximately 21 minutes and is normally used with infants from 12 -18
months. Ainsworth identified from this experiment, three types of attachment:
1. (A) securely attached:
when the caregiver is present, the infant
explores the strange environment and plays happily. The infant shows moderate distress
when separated from the caregiver and goes to comfort caregiver when he/she returns.
The infant clearly prefers caregiver to stranger.
2. (B) insecurely attached-avoidant:
the infant plays little attention to caregiver and
shows little concern when he/she leaves. The infant shows little stranger anxiety and if
distressed, is as likely to be calmed by the stranger. On reunion with caregiver, infant
makes little effort to renew contact and sometime actively avoids contact by turning away.
3. (C)insecurely attached-resistant: the infant is very distressed when separated from the
caregiver and is difficult to comfort on reunion. The infant rushes to her but may show
anger and struggle to be put down. The caregivers behaviour is similarly inconsistent –
sometimes rejecting and angry toward the infant and sometimes overly sensitive. The
infant tends to ignore the stranger and resists the stranger’s attempts to interact.
Exploration of the environment is limited as the infant has difficulty moving away from
caregiver.
Later on, a fourth attachment type (insecure attachment-disorganised) was suggested by Main
and Solomon 1986):
4. (D) insecure attachment-disorganised: The infant shows no set pattern of behaviour at
separation or reunion. Hence the term disorganized. They may appear wary of the caregiver
rather than the stranger. May move towards the caregiver but not look at her. This kind of
behaviour is associated with abused infants or those whose mothers are very depressed.
Evaluation of the Strange Situation Experiment
 has been described as ‘the most powerful and useful procedure’ for the study of infant
development (Lamb, 1985)
 it is widely used and has generated masses of research
 it is easily replicated because it is systematic, allowing the experiment to be repeated
under the same conditions. As a result in differences in results can not be due to
differences in the experiment
 it provides a variety of measures for assessing attachment which is important as a
single measure could give a false impression
 evidence suggests that different types of attachment, as measured by the Strange
Situation, may have different effects on the child’s development. If this is so then it
gives a real point to studying and classifying attachment patters from 12-18 months
 BUT…
 Unrealistic – that is the setting of the experiment is not true to life and doesn’t reflect
everyday situations
 It was created in the USA and so was based on American infants. Can the same
procedures be applied to other societies and cultures? – that is, does the Strange
Situation experiment have ecological validity?
 The ethics of the Strange Situation have been questioned – using infants and putting
them through distress. Some argue, however, that the distress experienced by infants
in this experiment are only short-term and that the benefits of the experiment outweigh
the negatives
Key Terms

Attachment
a strong long lasting emotional tie to a
particular person

Proximity seeking
seeking to remain physically close to an
attachment figure

Asocial
non-social. Responding in similar ways to
objects and people

Sociability
a preference for and pleasure from the
company of other human beings

indiscriminate
attachments
having equal preference for various people

specific
attachments
forming an attachment to a particular person

multiple
attachments
forming attachments with two or more people

primary attachment
the first and most important attachment

separation protest
protest at separation from an attachment figure

separation anxiety
the anxiety felt when separated from an attachment
figure

stranger anxiety
the anxiety felt in the presence of a stranger

schema
an organised framework of information which
represents things in the world

secure base
the base provided by an attachment figure from
which the infant can explore and return to for security

strange situation
an experimental procedure designed to measure and
classify attachment relationships between infants and
caregivers
Across
1. the anxiety felt in the presence of a stranger
3. the anxiety felt when separated from an attachment figure
5. seeking to remain physically close to an attachment figure
6. forming attachments with two or more people
10. a strong long lasting emotional tie to a particular person
11. the base provided by an attachment figure from which the infant can explore and
return to for security
12. protest at separation from an attachment figure
13. an organised framework of information which represents things in the world
14. forming an attachment to a particular person
Down
2. having equal preference for various people
4. a preference for and pleasure from the company of other human beings
7. an experimental procedure designed to measure and classify attachment
relationships between infants and caregivers
8. nonscoial. Responding in similar ways to objects and people
9. the first and most important attachment
Psychology: ‘The Development of Attachment’
Worksheet 1
Define the following key terms:
strange situation
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------secure base
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------schema
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------social development
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------separation anxiety
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------stranger anxiety
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------separation protest
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
primary attachment
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------multiple attachments
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------specific attachment
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------indiscriminate attachments
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------sociability
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------asocial
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------proximity seeking
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------attachment
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Psychology: ‘The Development of Attachment’
Worksheet 2
In the table below, summarise the stages of attachment proposed by Shaffer and
Emerson (1969).
STAGE NAME
1
2
3
AGE OF
INFANT
CHARACTERISTICS
Psychology: ‘The Development of Attachment’
Worksheet 3
Remember that Ainsworth proposed three attachment types and then Main and Soloman
proposed a fourth category later on? You have to summarise the four attachment types
in the table below.
ATTACHMENT TYPE
SUMMARY CHARACTERISTICS
Worksheet 4:
The Development of Attachments
1. What are the main characteristics of attachment?
2. Who is John Bowlby?
3. What is meant by the term ‘proximity seeking’ in relation to the
development of attachments?
4. Which ‘three’ theorists proposed that attachment develops through a
series of ‘stages’?
5. Describe in detail, the characteristics of each of these stages of
attachment
6. Evaluate the idea that the development of attachment goes through
stages (i.e. good and bad points to the stage theories)
7. Who is Mary Ainsworth?
10. Describe in detail, Mary Ainsworth’s key experiment which
studied attachment types.
12. Evaluate the ‘Strange Situation’ experiment (i.e. good and bad points).
Worksheet 5:
The Development of Attachment
Across
1. the anxiety felt in the presence of a stranger
3. the anxiety felt when separated from an attachment figure
5. seeking to remain physically close to an attachment figure
6. forming attachments with two or more people
10. a strong long lasting emotional tie to a particular person
11. the base provided by an attachment figure from which the infant can explore and
return to for security
12. protest at separation from an attachment figure
13. an organised framework of information which represents things in the world
14. forming an attachment to a particular person
Down
2. having equal preference for various people
4. a preference for and pleasure from the company of other human beings
7. an experimental procedure designed to measure and classify attachment
relationships between infants and caregivers
8. onsocial. Responding in similar ways to objects and people
9. the first and most important attachment
Worksheet 6: The Development of Attachments
Imagine that you have been consulted by a Director of Social Services who wants you to
write a brief summary of the effects of having secure and insecure attachments. What
recommendations would you make?