Latin American Revolutions
* The Latin American independence movements were inspired by the Enlightenment and the American and French
Revolutions.
* The ideas of liberty and equality inspired independence from colonial domination in this society driven by social
structure.
* Similar to the French Revolution, social class struggles and discontent played a large role in Latin American
independence movements.
Latin American Social Order under the Spanish
* Society in Spanish America was divided amongst peninsulares, creoles, and mestizos.
* The peninsulares, despite constituting the smallest percentage of the population, occupied the highest political
positions in society as the wealthy Spanish-born citizens.
* The creoles were Spaniards born in Latin America who could not hold political office but could be army officers.
* Together, these two classes possessed the wealth, power, and land in Latin America.
* Beneath them in the social hierarchy were the mestizos (a mixture of European and Indian ancestry), mulattos (a
mixture of European and African ancestry), and the slave class.
* As the creole population grew in numbers and wealthy, they wanted a say in government. However, a council in
Spain made all the laws for the colonies. The council sent officials (peninsulares) to see that the laws were carried
out.
Haitian Revolution
* In Haiti, the western third of the island of Hispaniola, the revolution was inspired by the American Revolution in
particular. It was also influenced by the French Revolution.
* This French colony, which was known as Saint-Dominigue (Fr) or Santo Domingo (Sp) prior to its independence,
had a large slave population (about 500,000 enslaved people of color), most of whom were treated brutally and lived
in poor conditions. The slaves were forced to work on sugar plantations.
* In contrast there were only 32,000 French colonists and another 24,000 free people of color.
* After learning of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the free people of color demanded citizenship. When the
wealthy French colonists resisted, the people of color revolted.
* In 1791, a group of 100,000 slaves revolted and free blacks, and Toussaint L’Ouverture (too SAINT loo ver
TOOR) soon became their leader. They forced the French to leave the island.
* In 1794, the National Convention ended slavery in France’s colonies. At this time the French were fighting Spain
and Great Britain to keep control of Saint-Dominigue. The rebels were allied with Spain. However, they switched
sides and fought France’s enemies. As a reward, the French government made Toussaint governor general for the
life of the colony.
* Napoleon sized control of France in 1799. One of his goals was to create an American empire. He planned to
restore slavery and put French officials in charge of Saint-Dominigue.
* By 1801, L’Overture had gained control of the island and freed all the enslaved Africans.
* In 1802, France (under Napoleon) sent troops to deal with the situation and remove L’Overture from power. The
invasion failed, but Toussaint was captured.
* L’Overture was sent to France, where he died in a French prison in 1803, but the French were unsuccessful in
quelling the rebellion.
* On January 1, 1804, Haiti declared its independence, thus making this the only successful slave revolt in history.
* The new nation took the name “Haiti” (means higher place)
The Rest of Latin America
* Throughout the rest of Latin America, creoles led the majority of the independence movements, having been
educated in Europe and exposed to Enlightenment and revolutionary ideals.
* Simon Bolivar (baw LEE vahr) and Jose de San Martin (day sahn mahr TEEN) were major figures in the fight for
independence in Spanish South America. Both men were creoles and were sent by their families to study in Europe.
While there, they read the works of the Enlightenment. They became convinced that the colonies must free
themselves from Spanish rule.
* Napoleon conquered Spain in 1808. To keep control of Spain, Napoleon made his brother the king. That meant
that a Frenchman ruled Spain and the Spanish colonies. Some people did not want a French ruler.
* Two groups of people dominated the Spanish colonies in South America. The most important was the peninsulares
(born in Spain but held most important offices in the colonial government). The second was the creoles (wealth
landowners who had been born in South America but their ancestors were Spanish). When Napoleon’s French
brother became king of Spain,, many peninsulares became loyal to him, but many creoles did not.
* Upset by Napoleon Bonaparte’s decision to make his brother, Joseph, the king of Spain, the creoles of Latin
America used Locke’s ideas of consent of the governed to justify rebellion against Spain.
* Simón Bolívar, a creole general, led the independence movements throughout South America beginning in his home
country of Venezuela in 1811.
* Bolivar was born to a wealthy family in Venezula. He was sent to Europe to study but left Europe to return to
Venezula and spent 11 years trying to free it. He finally succeeded in 1821. He was hailed as the “Liberator” and
made president of the new republic of Gran Colombia (Great Colombia). He dreamed of uniting all the colonies of
South America into one great nation, but his dream did not come true. Gran Colombia became the nations of
Colomiba, Ecuador, and Venezula.
* In 1812, San Martin returned from Europe to what is today Argentina. Part of the area had already declared its
independence from Spain. But Spanish forces remained in what are today Chile and Peru. San Martin believed that
freedom was not safe as long as Spanish forces remained anywhere in South America.
* In 1817, Martin put together an army of volunteers and marced them over the Andes. His strategy worked. He
caught the Spanish by surprise and defeated a large Spanish force. He freed Chile.
* In 1821, San Martin set out to capture Lima (capital of viceroyalty of Peru) and end Spanish control of South
America. His forces took Lima, but the Spanish army retreated into the mountains.
* Martin needed a larger army to force the Spanish out of the mountains, so Bolivar and his army joined San
Martin. The two men could not agree on tactics and San Martin withdrew. The two men met in the mountains (no
one knows what was said), but Bolivar took control of San Martin’s army. San Martin left South America and sailed
to Europe. San Martin never returned to South America. Bolivar’s forces went on and liberated the rest of Peru.
* Together, the two men combined forces under Bolívar’s command to liberate Peru.
* Bolívar’s dream to unite the Spanish colonies of South America into a single country, known as Gran Colombia, was
a reality for a short time as Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador were temporarily united. But political issues
soon separated the countries once again into their own independent states.
* By 1825, all that was left of the Spanish empire in the Americas were the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Mexican Revolution
* The Enlightenment and French Revolution influenced Mexico’s fight for independence from Spain.
* In Mexico, the independence movement was led by the mestizos. Padre Miguel y Costilla Hidalgo (Father Miguel
Hidalgo) (ee DAHL goh) who was a creole, inspired by Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality, called for
rebellion, and a crowd marched toward Mexico City.
* On September 16, 1810, he rang the bell of his church and called on his people to rebel against the Spanish.
Known as “El Grito de Dolores!” (the cry of Dolores), his call to rebellion marks the beginning of the Mexican
Revolution.
* Hidalgo’s army numbered some 60,000 mestizos and Native Americans. Armed with clubs and knives, they
marched on Mexico City. The rebel army captured several provinces and set up a government. Land was returned
to Native Americans and slavery was ended.
* Hidalgo was not much of a general. The peninsulares and creoles were frightened of Hidalgo’s policies. They
didn’t want to give up their wealth and power to the mestizos and Native Americans.
* The creoles and peninsulares wanted to end the revolution and supported the Spanish government.
* Hidalgo’s army was no match for the well-trained, well-armed Spanish army.
* However, they were defeated in 1811 by the upper classes, who feared losing their power to the lower classes.
* Hidalgo was captured, tried, and executed.
* Another attempt at revolt four years later also failed. Another priest Jose Maria Morelos (maw RAY laws) (a
mestizo) took over the fight. But he also failed.
* BY 1821, the peninsulares and creoles decided to act for themselves. With their support and the backing of the
rebels and the wealthy, Agustin de Iturbide (day EE tur BEE day) (a creole) came to power. His forces defeated
the Spanish and Mexico declared its independence. The following year, Iturbide proclaimed himself emperor.
* Mexican independence finally was attained in 1821 when Mexican creoles, fearing the loss of their power,
declared independence from Spain with Agustín de Iturbide as their emperor.
* In 1823, the nations of Central America (Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica) declared
their independence from Mexico.