Walt Whitman
Walt Whitman walked about in his America, noticing and noting down. When Walt Whitman
published his first edition of Leaves of Grass on or around the fourth day of July in 1855, he
believed he was embarking on a personal literary journey of national significance. Setting out to
define the American experience, Whitman consciously hoped to answer Ralph Waldo Emerson's
1843 essay, "The Poet," which called for a truly original national poet, one who would sing of the
new country in a new voice. The undertaking required unlimited optimism, especially considering
the fact that Whitman had published only a small handful of poems prior to 1855; however,
Whitman felt confident that the time was ripe and that the people would embrace him. This
optimism and confidence resulted largely from his awareness of the tremendous changes in the
American literary world that had taken place during his lifetime.
At the time of Whitman's birth in 1819, the Constitution and the democratic ideas upon which this
country was founded were only a generation old; America was a land of seemingly unlimited
space, resources, and possibilities, yet a land with no cultural roots to call its own. In 1820, a year
after Whitman's birth, Sydney Smith of Britain's Edinburgh Review was prompted to ask, "In the
four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book?" But the period between Smith's remark
and the publication of Whitman's first edition of Leaves of Grass in 1855 was one of remarkable
and unprecedented change in America, particularly in the world of books.
By 1855, America could boast one of the world's largest and most advanced publishing
industries, producing distinctly "American" books by authors such as Poe, Hawthorne, Melville,
Stowe, Fuller, Thoreau, and Emerson. The amazing growth of American literature and of the
supporting publishing industry was the result of a self-conscious effort by authors and publishers
to establish for America a literary culture of its own. The resulting increase in, or rather the
sudden appearance of, authorship in this country was made possible only through American
ingenuity, innovation, and technology in publishing. In short, the advent of modern publishing
practices during this period brought books to the people in heretofore unimaginable numbers,
spawning as a result one of the greatest periods in the history of American literature.
Working as a printer, editor, journalist, and publisher during the years of the publishing industry's
phenomenal growth, Whitman became keenly aware that the tools necessary for his emergence as
the new, democratic poet were at his disposal. He believed he could bring poetry to the common
people, and with the publication of his 1855 Leaves of Grass, he assumed for himself the role of
the American Poet, referring to himself as "one of the roughs," a common man. Whitman
carefully continued to cultivate his literary personality throughout his career, especially through
the relatively new field of photography. As he revised and enlarged Leaves of Grass (8 editions
and numerous printings would appear between 1855 and 1891), Whitman's goal as the self-styled
national poet became more clearly defined. Leaves of Grass is essentially a poem in process, with
each succeeding edition representing a unique period in the poet's life as well as the nation's. This
is perhaps best illustrated by Whitman's Civil War poetry. Originally published in 1865 as a
separate volume entitled Drum Taps, these poems were later integrated into Leaves of Grass,
growing in importance in the book as the war's historical significance became clearer in
Whitman's mind. He would eventually claim that Leaves of Grass "revolves around that four
year's war, which, as I was in the midst of it, becomes, in "Drum-Taps," pivotal to the rest entire."
Today, more than a century after the publication of the final edition of Leaves of Grass,
Whitman's place in American literary history often seems as nebulous and enigmatic as the ideas
upon which America was founded. Numerous poets since Whitman have consciously either
placed themselves in the wake of his tradition or reacted violently against him, and the aesthetic
value of Whitman's poetry continues to be a controversial subject. While the subject matter and
themes present in Whitman's poetry reflect the historical attitudes and concerns of his day, the
books themselves are also artifacts of a fascination and extremely dynamic period of American
publishing history.
I Hear America Singing
I HEAR AMERICA SINGING, the varied carols I hear;
Those of mechanics -- each one singing his, as it should be,
blithe and strong;
The carpenter singing his, as he measures his plank and beam;
The mason singing his, as he makes ready for work,
or leaves off work;
The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat -the deckhand singing on the steamboat deck;
The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench -the hatter singing as he stands;
The wood-cutter's song -- the ploughboy's, on his way
in the morning, or at the noon intermission, or at sundown;
The delicious singing of the mother -- or of the young wife
at work -- or of the girl sewing or washing -- Each singing
what belongs to her, and to none else;
The day what belongs to the day -- At night, the party of
young fellows, robust, friendly,
Singing, with open mouths, their strong melodious songs.
Walt Whitman - "Leaves of Grass"
Langston Hughes, Man of the People
Langston Hughes is one of America's greatest poets. Like so many writers, he wrote about what
he knew -- the people, places and events around him. Although Hughes was friendly with people
from all walks of life, the rich, the middle class and the poor, it was the people he called the "lowdown folks" who had the greatest influence on his poetry. Hughes used this expression as a form
of praise. He admired these people because "they accept what beauty is their own without
question."
Langston Hughes achieved fame as a poet during the burgeoning of the arts known as the Harlem
Renaissance, but those who label him "a Harlem Renaissance poet" have restricted his fame to
only one genre and decade. In addition to his work as a poet, Hughes was a novelist, columnist,
playwright, and essayist, and though he is most closely associated with Harlem, his world travels
influenced his writing in a profound way. Langston Hughes followed the example of Paul
Laurence Dunbar, one of his early poetic influences, to become the second African American to
earn a living as a writer. His long and distinguished career produced volumes of diverse genres
and inspired the work of countless other African American writers.
Although his youth was marked with transition, Hughes extracted meaning from the places and
people whence he came. The search for employment led his mother and step-father, Homer Clark,
to move several times. Hughes moved often between the households of his grandmother, his
mother, and other surrogate parents. One of his essays claims that he has slept in "Ten Thousand
Beds." Growing up in the Midwest (Lawrence, Kansas; Topeka, Kansas; Lincoln, Illinois;
Cleveland, Ohio), young Hughes learned the blues and spirituals. He would subsequently weave
these musical elements into his own poetry and fiction.
In a Cleveland, Ohio, high school, Hughes was designated "class poet" and there he published his
first short stories. He became friends with some white classmates, yet he also suffered racial
insult at the hands of other whites. He learned first-hand to distinguish "decent" from
"reactionary" white folks, distinctions he would reiterate in his book Not Without Laughter and in
his "Here to Yonder" columns in The Chicago Defender. Seeking some consolation and
continuity in the midst of the myriad relocations of his youth, he grew to love books. His love of
reading developed into a desire to write as he sought to replicate the powerful impact other
writers from many cultures had made upon him. In his writing, Hughes accomplished an
important feat. While others wallowed in self-revelation as a balm for their loneliness, Hughes
often transformed his own agonies into the sufferings endured by the collective race and
sometimes all of humankind.
After graduating from Central High School in Cleveland in 1920, he moved to Mexico City to
live with his father for one year. His mother fumed about his departure, and his father offered him
little warmth. Yet, with his unique gift for writing, Hughes turned the pain engendered by his
parents' conflict into the noted poem, "The Negro Speaks of Rivers," published by Crisis in 1921.
Hughes gathered new impressions and new insights about race, class, and ethnicity in Mexico,
where his ability to speak Spanish and his appearance often allowed him to blend in. Even
Americans who would not have spoken to him in Cleveland or Kansas City would converse with
him as a "Mexican" on the train. Although brown skin no longer remained an obstacle in Mexico,
Hughes saw that poverty still reached many Mexicans. Numerous works, including a children's
play, capture fragments of Hughes's days in Mexico.
When he left his ambitious father in Mexico, Hughes was expected to earn an engineering degree
at Columbia University. Breaking abruptly with his insulted father, in the first of many brave and
daring moves, Hughes withdrew from Columbia in 1922, and one year later he began his world
travels. He visited several ports in Africa and he worked as a dishwasher in a Paris cabaret.
Poems and short stories capture some of his impressions abroad. He sent a few of the pieces back
home, where they were published, enhancing his growing reputation as a writer.
When financial strain ended his travels, Hughes returned to the United States. He once again
attempted various forms of work, this time in Washington, D.C., where his mother had moved.
Besides blue-collar work, he also served briefly in the office of publisher and historian Carter G.
Woodson. Although he respected Dr. Woodson's significance to the African American
community, Hughes did not like the eye-strain or the detail of his assignments. Nevertheless, he
continued to write. In 1925 he won first prize in poetry in Opportunity magazine.
Langston Hughes was one of the most important writers and thinkers of the Harlem Renaissance,
which was the African American artistic movement in the 1920s that celebrated black life and
culture. Hughes's creative genius was influenced by his life in New York City's Harlem, a
primarily African American neighborhood. His literary works helped shape American literature
and politics. Hughes, like others active in the Harlem Renaissance, had a strong sense of racial
pride. Through his poetry, novels, plays, essays, and children's books, he promoted equality,
condemned racism and injustice, and celebrated African American culture, humor, and
spirituality.
I, Too, Sing America
I, too, sing America.
I am the darker brother.
They send me to eat in the kitchen
When company comes,
But I laugh,
And eat well,
And grow strong.
Tomorrow,
I'll be at the table
When company comes.
Nobody'll dare
Say to me,
"Eat in the kitchen,"
Then.
From The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes.
DIRECTIONS:
After reading both the biographical information and the poems by
the selected authors, answer the multiple-choice questions that follow. Then write a
unified essay as described in Your Task.
YOUR TASK:
After you have read the selections and answered the multiple-choice questions, write a
unified essay about how a person’s life experiences shapes who they become and how
they feel about the world around them. In your essay, use ideas from both selections to
establish a controlling idea about how an individual’s day-to-day life experiences and
interactions with those around them helps that individual gain perspective about the
world (or, in this instance, the country) in which they live and their place in it. Using
evidence from each selection, develop your controlling idea and show how the author
uses specific literary elements or techniques to convey that idea.
GUIDELINES:
Be sure to:
 Use ideas from both selections to establish a controlling idea about an individual’s
life experiences and how those experiences help the individual gain perspective
about the world in which they live and their place in it.
 Use specific and relevant evidence from each selection to develop your
controlling idea.
 Show how each author uses specific literary elements (for example: theme,
characterization, structure, point of view) or techniques (for example: symbolism,
irony, figurative language) to convey that controlling idea.
 Organize your ideas in a logical and coherent manner.
 Use language that communicates ideas effectively.
 Follow the conventions of standard written English.
Multiple-Choice Questions
Directions (1-10): Select the best-suggested answer to each question by circling your
response. The questions may help you think about the ideas and information you may
want to use in your unified essay. You may return to these questions anytime you wish
while formulating your unified response
Selection I (Walt Whitman) -- Questions 1-5 refer to Selection I
1. The biographical text tells us that Whitman “set out define the American
experience.” How did he approach this daunting task?
1- with confidence that the people would embrace him
2- with unlimited optimism so as to represent each person rather than
categorize people according to race or class
3- with an eagerness to earn a name for himself as a truly original national
poet
4- with the assumption that his work would result in him being a person of
historical significance
2. What major events were taking place in the world around Whitman that
influenced his writing the most?
1- discrimination against African Americans and the birth of the Harlem
Renaissance
2- prohibition of alcohol and the establishment of speakeasies
3- the birth of America as a nation and the acceptance of American writers
on the literary scene
4- the plight of the common man and the regulation of publishing practices in
America
3. In his poem, Whitman describes both the mechanics and their songs as “blithe.”
In this sense, blithe means
1- happy or joyful
2- nostalgic or reminiscent
3- sad or somber
4- angry or raging
4. Which statement best expresses the main idea of the poem?
1- America is a melting pot full of many different people and occupations
2- What makes America great is its population of common or working –class
people
3- Everyone in America has their own “song” to sing
4- America is a place that promises so much, but has little to offer
5. The tone of “I Hear America Singing” can be best described as
1- somber
2- hopeful
3- lively
4- inspirational
Selection II- (Langston Hughes) Questions 6-10 refer to selection II
6. The biographical text in selection II tells that it was the people that Langston
Hughes called the “low down folks” who had the greatest influence in his poetry.
This phrase refers to people who were
1- African American
2- Mexican
3- average and not easily noticed
4- middle and working class
7. What major events ere taking place in the world around Hughes that influenced
his writing the most?
1- discrimination against African Americans and the birth of the Harlem
Renaissance
2- prohibition of alcohol and the establishment of speakeasies
3- the birth of America as a nation and the acceptance of American writers
on the literary scene
4- the plight of the common man and the regulation of publishing practices
in America
8. In his poem, Hughes characterizes the speaker as
1- a young man unsure of his place in the world
2- a black servant who longs to be treated with equality and respect
3- an innocent child harmed by the discrimination he has experienced
4- an average, working-class man who hates his job
9. Based on the titles of each poem, what statement is Hughes trying to make in
response to Whitman’s poem?
1- the authors have shared many similar life experiences
2- both authors have great love for their country and mankind
3- music and song have both played major roles in the lives of the authors
4- the song America sings to Hughes is much different than the song it sings
to Whitman because Hughes’ America did not readily accept him
10. The tone of this poem can best be described as
1- defiant and longing
2- happy and grateful
3- sad and somber
4- lively and inspirational
After you have finished these questions, turn back to review Your Task and the
Guidelines. Then plan your essay by developing your controlling idea to include
your unified response.