Vatican II: 50 Years Later
Session 2: The Council Opens, Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy
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The Church confronts “modernity”
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Trent (1545-63) was the 19th ecumenical council
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1600-1800: the “Enlightenment”
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Defined dogma of Immaculate Conception of Mary in 1854
1864: his “Syllabus of Errors” condemned 80 errors of the day
Powerful wave of Ultramontanism crested at Vatican I (1870): 20th ecumenical council
 Clear definition of papal primacy and papal infallibility
 While papacy lost much temporal power, it gained spiritual power
Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903)
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French Revolution (1789)
 Ended old marriage of throne and altar: the ancien regime
 Eventually anti-clerical, anti-Christian, and especially anti-Catholic
 Rights and freedom of expression, press, assembly, religion: “Liberalism”
Papacy saw “liberalism” as everything that was wrong with the modern world
 “Ultramontanism”: whole process of papal centralization
Pope Gregory XVI (1831-46) tries to turn back the clock
 Clamped down on freedom of press, assembly, speech, religion: rejected notion of separation of church & state
Pope Pius IX (1846-78): longest pontificate in history
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Frustration with “Wars of Religion” in Europe: turn to reason (over faith)
Scientific progress: Galileo, Newton, Darwin
Political progress: constitutional monarchy, republican ideas, liberalism
Beginnings of “modernity”
“The long 19th century”: from French Revolution to Pius XII
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Catholic Reform and response to Protestant Reformation: combination of doctrinal teaching and practical reforms
 Scripture and Tradition, faith and works, 7 sacraments reaffirmed
 Mass did not have to be translated into the vernacular: stayed Latin
Catholic Church after Trent emphasized unity and changelessness
Expansion of European Christianity into the New World
Though opposed to liberalism, he softened harsh stance of Pius IX
1891: encyclical Rerum Novarum begins “Catholic Social Teaching”
 Church reaches out to the working class: Industrial Revolution
Cautious openness to liberal democracy: though Catholic state ideal
Pope Pius X (1903-14): the war against “modernism”
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19th century saw flourishing of field of “critical history”: ways in which Christianity had changed over centuries
 Also flourishing of Biblical studies: historical-critical method
Pius’ strident anti-modernist campaign had a chilling effect
 Bishops establish “Vigilance Councils”: culture of paranoia & suspicion
 Young priest Angello Roncalli (future John XXIII) was investigated
Liturgical Movement: had begun in 1840’s in France & Belgium
 Emphasis on community against rising tide of modern individualism
 Liturgy was to be the center of Christian prayer: vs. private devotion
 Study of the early liturgy led to renewed interest in “Church Fathers”
Pius X reaped the fruits of the Liturgical Movement
 Move towards full, conscious, and active participation of laity in liturgy
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Pope Benedict XV (1914-22): pope during World War I
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Pope Pius XI (1922-39)
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Dismantled Pius X’s anti-modernist campaign
1928: Mortalium Animos condemns of developing ecumenical movement
Blinded by his fear of communism, Pius negotiated with fascist regimes
 1929 Lateran Treaty with Mussolini and 1933 Vatican concordat with Nazi Germany
 Negotiated by Eugenio Pacelli (future Pius XII)
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Pope Pius XII (1939-58)
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Waves of renewal in 1940’s Catholicism
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Though influenced by Nouvelle Theologie he later turned against it
1950: Humani Generis
 Warned against dangerous tendencies of Nouvelle Theologie
 Historical contextualizing of dogma leads to relativism
 Called upon bishops to prevent spread of ecumenical movement
 Many theologians were silenced: forbidden to teach or publish
Nov. 1950: he defined Dogma of the Assumption of Mary
In his last years of life, Pius XII grew ever more withdrawn
 Atmosphere of fear & suspicion in Vatican (Cardinal Ottaviani as head of Holy Office)
He died on Oct. 10, 1958: widely revered as a saint
The Conclave (Oct. 25-28, 1958)
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Liturgical Movement continued to influence
Continuing development of Catholic social thought
 John Courtney Murray: US Jesuit at Catholic U. on religious liberty
La Nouvelle Theologie: “The New Theology”
 Scholarly movement among French & German theologians
 “Resourcement”: return to the sources (Scripture, early Church Fathers)
 As way of breaking out of narrow Scholastic & Thomistic categories
 Dialogue with Orthodox & Anglicans
 Henri de Lubac, SJ: engaged modern philosophy
 Yves Congar, OP: the laity, Church, ecumenism, reform, Holy Spirit
 Karl Rahner, Hans Urs von Balthasar, Joseph Ratzinger, and Hans Kung influenced by Nouvelle Theologie
But Pius XII was deeply conservative at heart
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Became pope just 6 months before Hitler invaded Poland: World War II
 His failure to clearly condemn Holocaust is subject of much controversy
Christmas 1944 radio address: first pope to support democracy
 After 150 years of rejecting this notion: openness to modernity?
Aug. 6, 1945: Truman OK’s atomic bomb on Hiroshima
Pius XII’s encyclicals (over 40 in all)
 1943: Mystici Corporis (Church as the Mystical Body of Christ)
 Move away from juridical/political understanding of the Church
 1943: Divino Afflante Spiritu (On Biblical interpretation)
 Encouraged use of modern techniques: freedom of scholarship
 1947: Mediator Dei (first papal encyclical on the liturgy)
 Praised developing liturgical movement, but with caution
51 Cardinals divided between “old guard” and those advocating change
Angelo Roncalli, 76-year-old patriarch of Venice, chosen as seat-warming pope
He chose the name “John”: his father’s name and his boyhood parish
 Name John not chosen since John XXIII was deposed by Council of Constance (1415): end of Great Western Schism
He blessed the crowds from the balcony: first televised papal blessing
Pope John XXIII (1958-63)
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Born in 1881 in Bergamo near Milan
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Ordained in 1904: secretary to bishop of Bergamo
Taught church history at seminary: suspected during Modernist crisis
Served as a hospital orderly and chaplain during WWI
Nuncio to Bulgaria (1925-34), then Turkey & Greece (1934-44)
 Sensitized him to Orthodox Church, Islam, communism: dialogue
Pius XII made him nuncio to France (1944-53)
1953-58: cardinal & patriarch of Venice, moderate & pastoral bishop
Elected as pope on the 12th ballot on Oct. 28, 1958
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3rd of 13 children of poor farmers
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Early actions as pope
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He liked to roam the streets of Rome greeting people: security nightmare
Expanded the college of cardinals to 87: more international
Archbishop Montini of Milan had fallen out of favor with Pius XII
 John named him as a cardinal: future Pope Paul VI
1950’s Catholicism projected an image of strength and vigor
 Little talk of the need for reform or dialogue
John had been elected as a safe and elderly “caretaker pope”
 No one expected any changes from him
John XXIII’s idea for an ecumenical council
 Jan. 25, 1959: feast of the conversion of St. Paul
 He announces his idea to call a council: the 17 cardinals present shocked
 He chose end of the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity to emphasize desire to reach beyond walls of Catholic Church
 Clear departure from policies of Pius XI and Pius XII
 He said the idea came to him as a sudden inspiration of the Holy Spirit
 10 days earlier he had privately tested the idea with his secretary of state
 John may not have been totally clear about his goals at this point
 In his journal he said he intended the council as an invitation to spiritual renewal for the church and the whole world
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Preparations for the council
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Ante-Preparatory Commission gathers opinions from the 2500 bishops and church leaders about issues to address
 Also the Roman Curia, and important Catholic universities worldwide
Letters sent out on June 18, 1959
 Responses filled 12 volumes: widest consultation ever
In general the responses called for a tightening of the status quo
 Condemnations of modern evils inside & outside Church: communism
 Further definitions of doctrines, especially relating to Mary
 Some called for greater role for laity, use of the vernacular at mass
June 1960: John set up 10 preparatory commissions
 Voting bishops & non-voting theological consultants: all were male clerics
 To compose documents on subjects that emerged from the consultation
 These commissions were controlled by the “old guard” of the Curia
 They prepared 70 draft “schemata” on various issues: conservative
John also set up a Secretariat for Christian Unity
July 15, 1962: the Vatican sent out 2850 official invitations
 Cardinals, patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, abbots and superiors of religious orders
 36% from Europe, 34% from Americas, 20% from Asia, 10% from Africa
Period 1: Oct. 11 – Dec. 8, 1962
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October 11, 1962: Vatican II officially opens
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At end of the opening mass John officially addressed “the Fathers”
 Gaudet Mater Ecclesia (“Mother Church rejoices”)
 He wanted the council to be pastoral rather than doctrinal
 His favorite term was aggiornamento = “bringing up to date”
Oct. 18: Cuban Missile Crisis begins (Pope mediates with Krushchev & Kennedy)
Most people expected the council to last one or two periods: instead, Vatican II required four periods (Oct. – Dec. 1962-65)
Each day about 3000 people attended the sessions in St. Peter’s
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85 cardinals, 541 patriarchs & archbishops, 2131 bishops, 94 abbots & religious superiors: 100’s of periti (theological advisor)
 Council of presidents led the meetings: panel of 10 cardinals
 Only bishops could address the council: “interventions”
 Also observers from other churches: Orthodox, Protestant
Mornings began with mass: then sessions conducted in Latin until noon
 Afternoons and evenings were spent in outside meetings
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Oct. 13: the first working session
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Bishops were to choose 16 colleagues for each of 10 preparatory commissions
The curia tried to force a quick vote: hoped bishops would simply choose those who had already prepared the schemata
 Bishops resisted: Cardinal Lienart of Lille, France (from council of presidents) asked that vote be postponed a few days
 Loud applause erupted from the bishops: they would not simply put rubber stamp on a council run by the curia
 They asserted their collegial authority as bishops
Oct. 22: discussion begins on the schema on the Liturgy
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Of all the schemata, the Liturgy had least negative response: first on agenda
 General principles, the mass, sacraments & sacramentals, music, etc.
 Presenter made no mention of burning issue: vernacular (instead of Latin)
Purpose of council was to foster more vigorous Christian life, promote union with separated brethren, call all into Church
 Better adapt the liturgy to the conditions of modern life
 Concern that the faithful had become “mere spectators” at mass, instead of active participants in the liturgy
 These would be key principles for the rest of the council: ecclesiology
Emphasis on the mass as celebration of the whole Paschal Mystery
 Life, death, & resurrection of Jesus Christ: redemption not just by his death
 The universal call to holiness: key theme
Fundamental principle: full, conscious, and active participation of all
 Balance long historical development that bit by bit focused on the priest
Christ present in the proclaimed Word as well as the consecrated bread & wine
 Centrality of Scripture as key theme of council
Essential structure of the Roman rite was to be maintained
 Yet local adaptation was legitimate and encouraged
 Greater autonomy given to the local bishops: decentralization
Latin retained as the official language of the Roman rite
 But the vernacular is to be given a wider role: national bishops conferences
Reception of the eucharist under the form of both bread and wine on certain occasions: extended and became the norm
Priests are to concelebrate at common mass: rather than each saying their own
The schema on the Liturgy would eventually be titled Sacrosanctum Concilium
 Discussion dragged on from Oct. 22 to Nov. 14
 Most debate focused on use of vernacular and authority of local bishops
 Congregation for Rites (in the Curia) wanted to retain its power
On Nov. 14 an official vote was taken about the schema on the Liturgy
 Overwhelming support: 2162 in favor, 46 opposed
 The bishops had asserted their collegial authority
Sacrosanctum Concilium was officially promulgated the following December, 1963
 “The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy”: little changed from original schema
Jan. 3, 1964: Pope Paul VI set up a commission to implement
 Priest to face the congregation: gathered community and offering to God
 Latin was retained for the eucharistic prayer, but all else was in vernacular
 Soon vernacular was used for eucharistic prayer: not just priest’s prayer
Sacrosanctum Concilium set forth principles that would shape the whole council
 Full, conscious, active participation by all: not just in liturgy, but in the Church
 Aggiornamento: updating the ancient deposit of faith to contemporary world
 Ressourcement: true reform through retrieving the “sources” of the faith
 Scripture, early Tradition, the “Fathers”: more pastoral language
 Unity (not uniformity) within diversity: balance center and periphery
 “Catholic”: Church as truly worldwide communion of local churches
 Episcopal collegiality: college of bishops succeeds the college of the Twelve
 Balance the central authority of the pope and the Vatican
 Collegiality should extend down to the local parish level
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