CHAPTER2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction
This
chapter consists of some
theoretical frameworks that support the
analysis of the novel The Catcher in the Rye by Jerome David Salinger. The theories
concern
about
characters,
depression
as
a part
of Psychology and
Socio-
psychological theory, and biographical criticism. Since the writer decides to focus
merely on the essential characters one, she will only discuss the major character and
several minor characters that contribute and relate to the depression illness which is
undergone by the main
character, Holden
Caulfield. Whereas the theoretical
background of depression is divided into the symptoms, causes, and effects of
depression that is experienced by Holden.
2.2. Characters
Characters are one of essential points in literary works such as drama, novel,
short story, movie, and many others. Every literary works clearly have characters in
order to portray figures within the story. The crucial thing for the viewers is actually
the human traits that are shown in the imaginary characters inside the tale, as it is
stated by Kennedy & Gioia (2005),
A character is an imagined person who inhabits in a story - although that
simple definition may admit to a few exceptions. In the main characters of
a story, human personalities are the main points to the audience. (p.46)
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In fact, people can discover and learn a great deal about characters in a
literary work by closely observing their act and performance. It is strengthened by
Arp & Johnson (2005, p.67), "therefore, we can know people in fiction more
thoroughly than we can know them in real life, and by knowing fictional characters
we can also understand people in real life better than we otherwise we could do."
Essentially characters are what they are like since the author illustrates them
in a particular way. Their characterizations are made through their look, the way they
converse and things or action that they do. Gill (1995, p.127) believed "that a
character is someone in a literary work who has some sort of identity, it is made up
by appearance, conversation, action name and thoughts going on the head." We have to
note that characters are imaginary person who have been specially created by the
author. The characters produced may be appealing, and we may react to them in
similar ways to the real person. An author can also presents the characters either
directly or indirectly. In direct one, the author tell the audience frankly by exposition·
or analysis of the character itself, while we could know the indirect one simply from
what the character thinks or says. Arp & Johnson stated that (2005, p.68), "The
requirement of good fiction is that each character be characterized fully enough to
justify his role in the story and make it convincing."
Moreover, it can be seen that in order to understand more about the fictional
characters we have to approach them with the same concerns as the real one, as it is
stated in the following quotation:
We approached fictional characters with the same concerns with which we
approached people. We needed to be alert for how we were to take them,
for what we were to make of them, and we needed to see how they might
8
reflect our own experience. We needed to observe their actions, to listen to
what they say and how they say it, to notice how they relate to other
characters and how other characters respond to them, especially to what
they say about each other. To make inference about characters, we look for
connections, for links and clues to their function and significance in the
story. In analyzing a character or characters' relationship (and fictional
character almost always exist in relation to one another) we related one
act, one speech, one physical detail to another until we understood the
character. (Diyanni, 200 l, p. 55)
2.2.1. Major Characters
Martin & Hill (1996, p.21-22) clarified that the characters in a novel generally
consists of a mixture of major character who tends to be dynamic, and minor
character who tends to be flat. The major one who tends to be developing or dynamic
character undergoes a permanent change in some aspect of character, personality or
outlook. Dynamic characters also exhibit some kind of change- of attitude, of
purpose, of behavior as the story progress. (DiYanni, 2000, p. 55)
Besides, the main character also tends to be the attractive one, though he or
she needs not to be perfect, he or she must ordinarily be honest, kind-hearted, and
preferably good-looking. If he or she has no really a good moral, he or she must have
strong compensatory qualities. It means that he or she must be courageous, dashing
or well-mannered. IdentifYing
the main characters as they read, they vicariously
share the characters' adventures, escapes and triumphs. Therefore, the main character
has to make him or her a good image of self. He or she must be someone such as the
reader imagines himself to be or such as he would like to be (Arp & Johnson, 2005,
p.66).
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2.2.2. Minor Characters
As the opposition to the major character, minor character is the character who
has small part in the story and the function is to make the m[\jor character stands out
and become bright in the story. Hence, minor character's role is supporting the main
character. According to Kennedy and Gioia (2005), "minor character tends to be flat
instead of round" (p.92) because if minor character is created round which means
complex then it will take the reader's attention from the major character which
supposed to be the focus in a literary work. Minor or supporting character is static.
They do not experience changes. They remain the same from the beginning to the
end of the story. Their personalities do not go through character development
throughout the whole of the story. Diyanni (2000) stated a supporting statement to
Kennedy and Gioia (2005) that minor character is usually static and major is usually
dynamic, but he also warned not to predetermine major character as dynamic and
minor character as static before reading a story because in some cases there is some
exceptions where the major character becomes static as the minor character.
2.3. The Relationship between Psychology and Literary Criticism
Psychotherapy is one of several kinds of treatments practically implied in
psychology. While psychoanalytic therapy, which is proposed
health
experts,
is
one
of
therapies
that
is
accomplished
by many mental
with
psychoanalysis. It is stated by Wortman, Loftus, and Weaver (1999),
For many people, psychotherapy is synonymous with psychology...In
recent years the field of psychotherapy has expanded and diversified.
Freudian
10
Freudian psychoanalysis, which once dominated the field, now coexist
with newer therapeutic approaches. (p. 536-537)
Essentially, psychoanalysis is a theory which is developed and applied as a
treatment to cure a patient who suffers mental disturbance in their mind. Yet it could
be used as a method in analyzing and interpreting the literary works, such as poem,
drama, short story, novel, and others literary arts as Barry (1995) stated,
Psychoanalytic criticism is a form of literary criticism which uses some of
the techniques of psychoanalysis in the interpretation of literature.
Psychoanalysis itself is a form of therapy which aims to cure mental
disorder by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious
elements in the mind.{p.96)
The relationship between psychoanalysis theory and literary criticism is by
using the theory; the writer tries to interpret the author's aim and purpose through
the character's personality and behavior in those literary works, including text or
language. The unconscious mind of the speaker and the way to treat it are analyzed
by using the text as well. Wolfreys (2005) acknowledged that
Both literary criticism and psychoanalysis engage in the interpretation of
the text-the former explicates or comments on texts which have crafted
and (usually) published. The latter uses artlessly spoken texts, which are
treated by the analyst as a source of information about the unconscious
mind of the speaker, and used therapeutically. (p.98)
McMahon (1986) said that "Many terms have been used to describe
abnormal
behavior-mental
illness,
psychopathology,
deviant
behavior,
maladjustment, or the one currently in favor, mental disorder." (p.550). Related with
the analysis of Holden Caulfield, as a depressed main character in The Catcher in the
Rye, the writer will use the theory of depression as a part of psychoanalysis theory.
This study tries to explore who Holden is, how he suffers a mental disturbance, and
the causes and effects of being a depressed person.
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2.4. Depression and the Symptoms of Depression
Depression refers to a disabling illness that affects people's feeling, thinking,
and behavior. The symptoms may vary depends on personal characteristics and the
viciousness and type of depression. People will extremely feel sad and likely to
consider everything is hopeless and worthless. Other characteristics of depressed
people are that they easily get bored and tired, feels that they have no good qualities
or useful skills, not able to do things well, also tendency to have a feeling that bad
things will happen and that something will not be successful.
Depressed people generally describe their mood as sad, depressed,
anxious, or flat. Victims of depression often report additional feelings of
emptiness,
hopelessness,
pesstmtsm,
uselessness,
worthlessness,
helplessness, unreasonable guilt, and profound apathy. Their self esteem
usually low and they may feel overwhelmed, restless, or irritable. Lost of
interest in activities previously enjoyed is common and is usually
accompanied by a diminished ability to feel pleasure, even in sexual
activity. (Ainsworth, 2000, p.7)
As depression worsens, the sufferer will experience major abnormalities
since they may become psychotic. They possibly will see and hear imaginary people
or objects and believe something that is untrue. Ainsworth (2000) believed that
psychosis in depression is very common. She stated that, "Symptoms of psychosis
may include delusions (irrational beliefs that
cannot
be resolved with
rational
explanations) and hallucinations (seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, or smelling things
or people that are not present)." (p.8)
American Psychiatric Association (APA) acknowledged that the research
criteria of depressed people will have several symptoms such as:
(a) Depressed mood of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either subjective
report (e.g., feels sad or empty) or observation made by others (e.g., appears
tearful). Note: In children and adolescents, can be irritable mood.
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(b) Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of
the day, nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective account or
observation made by others)
(c) Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g. a change of more
5% of body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every
day. Note: In children, consider failure to make expected weight gains.
(d) Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day.
(e) Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable by others, not
merely subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed down)
(f) Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day
(g) Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt (which may be
delusional) nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about being sick)
(h) Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day
(either by subjective account or as observed by others)
(i) Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation
without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing
suicide
All those indications above should have been
presented during the same 2-week
period and represent a change from previous functioning as it is stated by APA
(2000, p.777).
Actually the symptoms and the effects of depression could be similar. We
should bear in mind that the symptoms that appear in depressed people might be
possible are the effects and consequences that appear since they suffer from the
mental illness or so-called depression.
2.4.1. Cause of Depression
Psychosocial is one of the predominant current theories on the origin of
depression. Ainsworth (2000) differs the cause of depression based on that theory,
which
including
psychoanalytic,
behavioral,
environmental,
cognitive
and
interpersonal theories are generally based on observations of human behavior and on
13
philosophical explanations as to how the human mind and human mood and
behavior relate. Those theories are dynamic and related one to another.
2.4.1.1. Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic theories involve childhood trauma and loss and personal traits
that lead to depression. In simpler terms, Ainsworth (2000) explains:
Depression as a result of individual's inability to effectively deal with
significant loss and with largely unexpressed and frequently unrecognized
anger. Modem therapist who subscribe to this theory believe that the loss
and unexpressed rage may be related to significant events other than loss
of relationships, such as, for example,...failing academically (p.51)
Loss, adversity and stress that happen in someone, especially during their
childhood become the great aspect that can lead someone into trauma and then
depression since they do not be able to deal and cope with those problems. Children,
truly, need affection and caress from their parents and if they lack of affection, it will
influence in their future life. They will feel sad, stressed, and then lead them into
depression for their
psyche is disturbed. Bowlby empliasized that ''there was a
relationship between the child's need for a secure attachment to parental figures as to
be resistant to depression." (Butcher et al, 2004, p. 231)
2.4.1.2. Behavioral Theories
Behaviorists believe that the lack of social support is one of the strongest
factors in production of depression. Feeling of isolation, discomfort, and fear are the
result when the social environment no longer support individuals and no longer
reinforces their behavior. Beside that, behaviorists also consider that people who are
14
prone to depression have impaired social skills, which makes it difficult for them to
obtain
the level
of support and reinforcement they require from their social
environment. According to this theory, people prone to depression tend to experience
more negative responses from other people and have less ability to cope with the
negativity than do individuals who are not prone to depression.
(Ainsworth, 2000, p.Sl-52)
2.4.1.3. Environmental Theories
Environment is one of the factors that give essential contribution to depression since
it affects individuals condition psychologically or mentally. Early stressful life
events such as relatives or parental loss, emotional or physical deprivation, physical,
emotional, and sexual abuse may possibly sensitize people so they are more likely to
experience depression in future life for their response to significant stresses.
Ainsworth conclude that the cumulative of stresses over time produce the mood and
behavioral alterations we know as depression. (p.52)
Other expert, Beck (in Carson et a!, 2000, p.217) also believed that stressful
life events most often act as the precipitating factor for mood disorders. She presents
a broad classification of those factors that most frequently precede the onset of
depression:
• Situations that tend to lower self-esteem;
• The thwarting of an important goal or the posing of an insoluble dilemma;
• A physical disease or abnormality that activates idea of deterioration or death;
• Single stressors of overwhelming magnitude;
• Several stressors occurring in a series;
• Insidious stressors unrecognized as such by an affected person.
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2.4.1.4. Cognitive Theories
Ainsworth (2000) stated "Cognitive theorists believe that once people assume
the typical pessimistic stance presaging depression, then they tend to view all life
circumstances in the same manner. As a result, individuals rehearse their beliefs and
behaviors and see each circumstance that blends easily with their belief system as yet
another proof of truth of those beliefs. Depressed people learned and maintain their
depressive stance through rehearsal and reinforcement. The natural outcome of such
a belief system is low self esteem, self-doubt, a tendency to ruminate about past
unhappy experiences, decreased pleasure capacity, and pessimism about the futureall common symptoms of depression." (p.53-54)
Basically, this theory emphasizes in the importance of the ways people think
about life and themselves. Mind and thought are related to individual's believe
system. Thus, we are what we believe. When people always think negative toward
their life and feel worthless toward themselves, the result is a depressive attitude.
They may feel everything is hopeless and tend to blame themselves and think
everything is never going to change and eventually they become depressed. In other
words, personality traits also give a contribution to depression. It is confirmed by
one of the most prominent theories of depression, which is Beck's cognitive theory
of depression (Butcher et a!, 2004, p.232). The theory says that how one thinks
largely determines how one feels and behaves.
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2.4.1.5. Interpersonal Theories
The connection between depression and interpersonal relationship problems
is circular. The theorists point to deficits in relationship and communication skills as
possible
precursors
of depression. At the same time, depressed
people
are
particularly vulnerable to relationship conflicts and losses as a secondary effect of
their mood disorder, which can cause lack of energy, irritability, deceased sex drive,
increased
physical complaints, sleep and appetite disturbances, withdrawal
from
people and activities, and loss of pleasure capacity. (Ainsworth, 2000, p.54)
Other expert strengthened it by stating, "One factor refers to people who lack
social support and this is associated with vulnerability to depression. Interestingly,
depressed individuals have smaller and less supportive social networks than nondepressed individuals (Hammen, in Butcher et al, 2004, p.235)
2.4.2. Depression and Its Effects
Depression
has serious effects toward its sufferer. As the preceding
discussion above, the effects of depression could be similar and comparable with the
symptoms itself. Therefore we also could see most of the consequences in the
symptoms part before. However in this part, the writer wants to focus on the
significant effects that are shown in this novel. It appears that depressed people
usually blame themselves and have an extreme feeling of sadness, anxieties,
hopelessness, loneliness, self-blame, worthlessness, and helplessness. All those
feelings could lead them in committing suicide as the only way to overcome the
problem and in order to end their misery since they think that there are no other
17
solutions. There are several kinds of suicide, however the writer will only converse
about escapist suicide since it is related with the analysis of this novel. According to
Davidoff (1987),
Escapist suicide, motivated by the desire to flee from an 'intolerable'
situation, seems to be most common in western countries. Escapists are
likely to have experienced a substantial loss and to feel depressed,
ashamed, guilty, anxious, or worthless and to see the future as hopeless.
(p.492)
In his book, Marris (1992, p.72) quoted a French social philosopher Jean
Baechler's theory of suicide:
In all escapist suicides, the central intention is to take leave. There are
three subtypes:
• Flight (to avoid an intolerable situation)
• Grief(to deal with a loss)
• and Punishment (to atone for a fault)
Marris also strengthened that theory by conducting a research which showed about
75% of completed suicides are essentially the escapist variety. "Usually, suicides are
trying to escape pain, loss, shame, physical illness, aging, failure, fatigue or the like.
As such, suicide is problem-solving behavior." (1992, p. 71-72)
The other effects of depression are consuming alcohol and using drugs.
People who suffer mental illness release their problems through consuming alcohol
(Kolb, 1934, p.125).
2.4.3. Types of Depression
The Mood Disorders are divided into the Depressive Disorders, the Bipolar
Disorders, and two disorders based on etiology. Due to the related topic, the writer
will only discuss about the Depressive Disorders. The Depressive Disorders are
18
separated into four parts, which are Major Depressive Disorder, Dysthymic Disorder,
Depressive Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, and Minor Depressive Disorder.
According to American Psychiatric Association, if five or more of the
symptoms that have been discussed before have been present during the same 2week period and represent a change from previous functioning; at least one of the
symptoms is either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure, then it is
categorized as Major Depressive Disorder.
Whereas Dysthymic Disorder is characterized by at least two years of
depressed mood for more days than not, accompanied by additional depressive
symptoms that do not meet criteria for a Major Depressive Disorder.
Depressive Disorder Not
Otherwise
Specified is included for coding
disorders with depressive features that do not meet criteria for Major Depressive
Disorder, Dysthymic Disorder, Adjustment Disorder With Depressed Mood, or
Adjustment Disorder With Mixed Anxiety and Depressed Mood (or depressive
symptoms about which there is inadequate or contradictory information).
However, if the symptoms that have been discussed before are presented at
least two but less than five additional symptoms, then it is categorized as minor
depressive disorder.
"The essential feature is one or more periods of depressive symptoms that
are identical to Major Depressive Episodes in duration, but which involve
fewer symptoms and less impairment. An episode involves either a sad or
"depressed" mood or loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities."
(APA, 2000, p.775)
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2.5. Biographical Perspectives
In order to understand more how the literary work reflects the author's life it
needs to be seen from the biographical criticism approach. Some critics believed
that anyone will comprehend the work more thoroughly once they read the
biography of a writer, for they can see how much an author's knowledge forms what
he or she creates both directly and indirectly.
Kennedy and Gioia (2005) states that there are actually three kinds of
benefits readers acquire from using biographical evidence for literary interpretation:
(a) Readers understand
literary
works better
since
the
facts
about
authors
experiences can help readers decide how to interpret those works
(b) Readers can appreciate a literary work for knowing the writer's struggles or
difficulties in creating it
(c) Readers can better assess writers' preoccupations by studying the ways they
modify and adjust their actual experience in their literary works. (p. 1358)
Diyanni (2000, p. 2207) also said that, "Sometimes even knowing a single
important fact illuminates our reading of a poem or story." Based on that statement, it
can be concluded that the biographical approach to literature obviously creates a
practical advantage in enlightening literary texts.