The Gracchi
Sources
- Main frame work provided by Ciceros writings, Plutarchs “ The lives of
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus” and Appians “The Civil Wars” Bk 1 - all
three wrote some time after the actual events.
- Sempronus Asellio and C. Fannius – Anti Gracchan writers, only
fragments of writings and speeches remain, however lived at the time.
-
Background to 133 crisis
-
social, economic, and military problems mainly result of wars of expansion
-
disgruntles veterans
huge loss of life
many desertions
undisciplined troops
lack of military tribunes
untrained armies sent to spain (145 – 40)
riots in 144 over recruiting
grain shortage
wealth from provinces went to upper classes
peasants returning from wars kicked off land because unable to compete with
rich farmers
lands confiscated from disloyal allies
shortage of military eligibility ( based on land ownership)
People flocked to rome ( exsoldiers, oeasant farmers)
Over populated, wide spread unemployment, poor housing
Slave labour used on large estates, slaves treated badley
Economic depression + slave revolts
-
Political conditions
-
Senate taking advantage of power and privilege
- aristocratic ideal to serve state whilst gaining Gloria for individual and
family
enjoying all privileges of government without dealing with the serious
problems that now began to confront the state.
Sallust:
“ One small group of oligarchs had everything in its control alike in
peace and war – the treasury, the provinces, public offices, all
distinctions and triumphs …while the spoils of war were snatched by
the generals and shared with a handful of friends.”
-
more concerned with material interests + Gloria than welfare of republic
Two main factions
Aemilii Faction
-Predominant faction in the 140’s
-Lead by P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus,
-Held top positions in state in 140’s
- Scipio Aemilianus censor in 142, Scipio Nasica pontificate 141, C. Servilius Caepio
and Q pompeius consuls in 141, and Q. Servilius caepio and C. Laelius were consuls
for 140
Claudian Faction
- Dominant in the 130’s ( Scipio Aemilianus sent on inspection tour of east)
- 6 consuls from 139 – 137 five were claudian faction
much struggle between factions
- any reform faced with strong opposition because of its potential to increase
the clients of the paction proposing it.
- Main methods of undermining opposition faction prosecution, public
humiliation, military failure, private pressure to remove a tribunes veto, or use
of religion for political advantage.
- - Appealing to the people was a technique more commonly being used to get
around the senate
- This was the early sign of the senates power being challenged.
- Early examples of challenge of senates authority prior Gracchi
- A. Claudius Pulcher celebrated triumph on own authorit when refused by senate
during consulship of 143
- 2 secret ballot laws passed in 139 + 137 when opposed by majority of senate
- Tribal assembly had law suspended so that Scipio Aemilianus could have 2nd
consulship in 134
Tiberius Gracchus
- Distinguished background
- father Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus twice consul, censor, provincial govonor
hither spain, Sardinia, and Corsica
- Father member of Claudian faction
- mother was a Scipio
- Education influenced by traditional Roman values and greek philosophers
- had connections with the intellectual circles
- Plutarch – Influenced by two Greek thinkers: Blossius of Cumae, and Diophanes of
Mitylene.
Florus – Roman historian late 1st century AD
Described Tiberius as “ an man who easily stood ahead of all
others in birth, appearance and eloquence
- Made Augur in early teens
- 147 acompanied brother in law Scipio Aemilianus to Carthage
- Became member of Claudian faction
- married Claudius Pulchers daughter, Appius
- 137 Quaestor, assigned to Hither Spain
- Served under Consul C. Mancinus
- Observed poor state of military at the time
- Ended up surrounded by Numantines
- would only negotiate with Tiberius remembering fathers good treatment
- freed 20,000 roman soldiers inreturn for all equipment and property
- Numantine Treaty
- Senate disapproved of agreement, Tiberius humiliated
- 133 elected as Tribunate
- Presented highly controversial land bill (Lex agraria) without reference to the
senate
- Esscence of plan was that a commission of three people should allocate holdings of
land owned by state (Ager Publicus) to landless citizens
- Bill developed and backed by influential associates + carefully planned as it was
obvious it would face strong opposition
- only way to secure passage of bill was to bypass the senate and appeal straight to the
people
- also consul involved in drawing up the bill, and first speaker in senate was
sympathetic
Oposition to bill
- Plutarch – wealthy land owners motivated by greed
- Cicero – rich being shifted from their long standing rights of occupation
- would be deprived of buildings and vineyards that had been on ager publicus for
generations
- graves of ancestors disturbed
- wives doweries spent on improving land
- pars of ager publicas made up part of daughters doweries
- many inherited land with estate, did not know which part of it was legally held
- some believed it was not a suitable way to solve economic problems
- motivated by anger, fear, ambitions, jelousy, and calculations of political advantage
Tiberiuses possible motivations
- To gain revenge on senate ( for previous humiliation)
- To restore good name (cicero)
- To gain political pre-eminence by introducing a challenging political program
(Plutarch)
- To build up a large clientele for future support (D.C Earl)
- To fulfil a moral obligation (Plutarch)
- To undermine the constitution (Jerome Carcopino, + Cicero)
- To break the power of the opposing Faction (Plutarch)
- Plutarch and Appian believe he was a genuine reformer
- Conclusivley motives were generally genuine, sought to relieve crisis on land, acute
urban problems, and easing crisis of recruitment in the legions, possibly wished for
return to situation before Hannibalic war, army + economy based on class of peasant
land owners, essentially very conservative reform, resorted to radical measures only
to ensure its passing
Death of Tiberius
- Managed to counteract tribunate (controlled by senate) veto by having the tribunate
deposed by convincing assembly
- This challenge to their control made the senate afraid
- When wealth of Kingdom of Pergamum left to Rome Tiberius threatened to have a
law passed which would ensure the wealth went to resetteling the citizens –
interference with forgin affairs
- Attempted re- election to tribunate
- Violent clash occurred on election day between supporters of both sides, Tiberius
and many supporters Killed
- Adopted methods which threatened long established constitutional practices of
Rome
- Use of Tribunate shown a way for ambitious men to use it for their own benefit
Cicero:
“Tiberius Gracchus Shattered the stability of the state”
- 132 – Consuls P. Rupilius and Popillius Laenas set up a court to try the surviving
Gracchans, who were condemned and executed
- Agrarian commission allowed to continue
- 131 – 130 Papirius Carbo attempted to legalise re-election to tribunate ( supported
by Gaius Gracchus
- 129 Agrarian commission threatened allies interests,
- 127 Gaius Gracchus elected quaestor
- 126 Allies went to rome to express greivences, but law passes to prevent them living
in rome
- 125 Consul for 125 Fulvius Flaccus attempted to grant citizen ship to allies who
desired it, droped due to pressure from senate
- 124 Gaius Gracchus elected as Tribune of plebs for 123
Gaius Gracchus
- Well known for contribution to Land Comission
- gained high profile for support of Carbos proposal to legalise re-election into
tribunate
Plutarch:
“The force of his eloquence aroused the people to an ecstatic almost
frenzied enthusiasm, so that the long dormant fears of the aristocratic
party revived once more”
- 127 elected quaestor
- 123 elected as tribune
- formulated clear program of reform
- initially gained wide spread support of the people
- 122 re-elected
- his genuine proposals were undermined by senate by using another tribune to
counteract his proposals with clear attempts to gain peoples support
- wished to have citizenship granted to allies, support of allies very unpopular
- 122 away in colony of Junonia enemies spread rumors, discredited him, attacket
associates
- 121 bitter apponent Opimius gained consulship
- Violent clash between body guard and senates supporters, opimius servants killed
- Emergancy decree of senate used for the first time (Senatus consultum ultimum)
- Gracchans attempted to resist and were defeated, gaius orderd a slave to cut his
throat, 3000 suporters put to death without trial
Reform program possible aims
- Avenge brothers death
- further the agrarian settlements initiated by Tiberius
- relieve suffering of urban unemployed and poor
- reduce power of ruling nobility
- resolve discontent of latin and Itallian allies by offering them roman citizenship
- P.A Brunt – measures justified with solving specific problem but would contribute
to success ( build power base)
The death of Gaius
- day Opimius planned to repeal Gaius’ laws. Clash between supporters, on of
Opimius’ servants killed
- following day formally passed the Senatus Consultum for first time
- force of senators lead against Gracchans
- Gaius ordered slave to cut his throat
- 3000 Gracchans captured and put to death without trial
Effects of the Gracchi
- brought equites into politics- third political force- wedge between senate and
equites, exposed both to pressure of the mob
- people realised could gain benefits of empire- previously monopolised by oligarchy
- showed way for futuredemagogues to use promises of cheap corn and the founding
of colonies to gain political advantage for themselves
- weakened senates power, loss of presteige due to response
- further revealed how the tribunate could be used as a weapon against senate
- senates decree to save the state was used for the first time, new weapon for crushing
aponents
- problem of itallian citizen ship became acute
- unintentionally worsened conditions for people in provinces
Sallust
“When Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus sought to establish the liberty of the common
people and expose the crimes of the oligarchs, the guilty nobles took fright and
opposed their proceedings by every means at their disposal”
Cicero
…“But his sons were not approved by reputable people in their life time and in
death they counted amongst those who were rightly killed. A person who there for
wishes to gain true glory should perform the obligations of justice”
- Genuine attempts to deal with actute problems of the day ( Bradley)
- reforms were not revolutionare but methodsupset balance between senate
magistrates, and the people, and there for regarded as revolutionary. Senate had no
other way to deal with situation other than violence
- showed tribunate could be used as instrument for change
- revealed potential for ambitious men to promote political careers
R.E Smith – The Failure of the Roman Republic
“The Gracchi undid the evolution of centuries. It was impossible to guarantee
orderly government if one tribune after another, with all the personal
differences of policy, could initiate legislation and deal with the highest affairs
of the state by bringing the business before a chance gathering of the Roman
mob”
- People discovered that their assemblies ( the Concelium plebis and the Comitia
tributa) they could wield great power when combined with a tribune
- opened way for Roman mob to use authority selfishly
- assemblies became pawns in struggles for political supremacy ( development of
policies means of generation of popularity and there for maintaining position)
- Senetorial class divided into optimates and populares
- Use of senatus consultum ultimum (SCU) sanctioned use of violence to crush
apponents
- brought to a head issues which resulted in increasing violence and civil war
- From here on Roman republican system only changed by violent or illegal means
119 – 109
- Optimates maintained control with few challenges
- government predominantly concerned with forgin affairs
- rome threatened by developments in north, in Mediteranian, and in Africa
- Popular agitation against general nobility
War against Jugurtha
- revealed incompetence of senatorial comanders
- brought to military and political prominence Gaius Marius, and L. Cornelius Sulla
- serious break between senate and equates
- Numidia under King Masinissa ally of rome, when son Micipsa died 118 kingom
left to two sons and nephew Jugurtha
- Jugurtha killed one cousin and defeated the other
- cousin (Adherbal) sought help from rome
- 10 roman commissioners sent out to devide kingdom in two, but many were bribed
and unsuccessful and the settlement did not work, Jugurtha attacket capital of Citra
- peace treaty signed after L. Calpurnius Bestia sent out in 111
- Grandson of Masinissa lived in rome , possible rival to throne, jugurtha had him
assaisnated, as a result rome declared war.
- Roman troops humiliated and forced to surrender
- special court set up to investigate corruption
- Opimius Bestia, and Albinius were exiled
- Command given to Q. Caecilius Metellus, war became fulscale effort lasted 5 more
years
Gaius Marius
- most common contemporary view – unusual but not unique politician, sought glory
+reputation within traditional framework
- wished to gain Novus homo – the acceptance of the nobility and the presteige
conferred on a noble
- born Arpinum southeast rome
- Plutarch – “ His upbringing was rough and unrefined”
- once reached military aged set of to learn art of warfare
- Sallust description
“ a hard worker a man of integrity and an experienced soldier”
Plutarch agrees but adds
“..arrogance, a fierce manner and expression, an inability to control his
passions when in power, and a dislike for all who outshone him”
Later career
“a bloodthirsty and savage old age, shipwrecked by his passions, his illtimed ambition and his insatiable greed.”
- no family consular connections
- obsessed with getting consulship
sallust
“at that time although citizens of low birth had access to other
magistracies, the consulship was still preserved by custom for noblemen,
who contrived to pass it on from one to another of their number…”
- served as junior officer under Scipio Aemilianus at Numantia in 133 – impressed
Scipio
- 119 stood for tribunate – made possible by patronage of influential metelli family
- showed courage by proposing a bill which displeased patron – then threatened to
have metellus +consul Aurelius arrested if cancelled his proposal
- won support of people
- opposed law relationg to corn distribution
- Acording to Ernst Badian – revealed how little any one could rely on his loyalty
- 117 unsucessful in gaining aedileship
-115 gained praetorship and accused of bribery
- followed by promagistrate in Further Spain
-111 – political marriage to Julia, came from patrician family of the Caesars.
- 109 Metellus given command against Jugurtha – took Marius with him as a legate
- 108 asked Metellus if he could return to rome to participate in consular elections
- sallust says that Metellus expressed that a consular position was well above Marius’
station
- prompted him to undermine patrons reputation in Numidia
- attempted to gain support from various groups
- showed soldiers he would endure the same conditions as them
- equites who were angy at Metellus prolonging the war were promised peace if
Marius was in command
- the people began to demand command was given to Marius
- large body of supporters secured who urged his claims to consulship
- 107 gained consulship
- a bill was introduced to asure the province of Numidia was allocated to Marius even
though Metellus’ command had been extended
- began his series of unconstitutional consulships
- before leaving for Africa in 107 recruited Army in traditional way, but also accepted
any volunteers
- This method of volunteer enlistment gave the army a place unprecedented power in
the political life of rome.
- Sulla was Marius’ quastor in Jugurthine War even though he had no previous
military experience.
- Sulla still displayed natural ability and made a name for himself
- Marius found it impossible to end the war quickly as he had promised as the
geography of the area was more suited to the guerrilla warfare style of the opponents.
- Jugurtha was forced to take refugewith father in law Bocchus King of Mauretania,
Bocchus then began disscusions with rome
- Sulla then used his diplomatic skill to induce Bocchus to betray Jugurtha, who was
handed over by Sulla to Marius and the war ended.
- Marius was credited with the end of the war, but it is believed he was envious of
jugurthas surrender to Sulla
- believed to be the first step in their eventual hatred
- 104 whilst fighting in Africa Germanic ( Cimbri and Teutones) tribes threatened
Italy from the North
- commanders sent to deal with them showed incompetence
- people demanded command given to Marius
- Voted in for 2nd consulship ( even though not legal) also whilst absent from Rome in
Africa
- Took Sulla on as Legate, in preparation reorganised army
- continued with voluntary recruitment
- introduced new training methods and innovations in organisation and weaponry
Marius’ Military reforms
- volunteers taken on for 16 year periods, military thus became a semi professional
career, the troops also depended on generals during campaign, and for pensions ( in
the form of land) as the state would not develop a pension scheme, there for armies
became loyal to their general rather than to the state
- all legionaries now carried same equipment, legion was also devided into ten
cohorts, which was each divided into 6 centuries each led by a centurian who was an
experienced veteran, meaning more efficient, with firm leadership, and a development
of loyalty to your legion.
- new wooden spear developed with detachable head, so could not be thrown back, all
soldiers carried all own equipment, abolishing need for baggage train, making the
army more mobile and independent.
- new drill system developed, included long runs and marches in full equipment,
based on training in gladetorial schools, toughened up men, discipline and skills
developed made the Roman army one of the best.
- 103 re-elected consul for 3rd time in absence
- became associated with L. Appuleius Saturnius (obsessed with gaining revenge on
the senate
- Saturninus made several attempts to gain support from the people, and the equites
through his proposals
- secured support for a bill to supply land for Marius’ veterans
- 101 fifth consulship (absentia)
- Cimbri entered Cisalpine Gaul, joined forces with Catulus to face them
- Sulla is said to have moved to the staff of Catulus cause he thought Marius was
blocking his advancement
- returned triumphantly 101, he gained a sixth consulship, with the support of
powerful politicians, the people, and his veterans (who were still in the city) it is also
thought that bribery may have been involved)
- Rival for position murdered (thought to be by marius’ veterans
- Bills introduced to grant allotments of land for veterans in Gaul and establish
colonies in Sicily Achaea and Macedonia
- Part of army made up of allied contingents there for populations of colonies include
Italian communities, this led to resentment of allied veterans from urban plebs
- Marius used presence of veterans in order to get bill passed realising there would be
major opposition
- Marius beginning to regret association with Saturninus and Glaucia, suspecting
political aims, attempts to be reelected in 99 marked with illegalities and murder.
- Political violence getting to much senate passed SCU instructing Marius to return
ordey
- Saturninus + Glaucia locked in senate house , but mob got in and killed them
- Maruis reputation tarnished due to his “changeable convictions” headed east under
pretence of religious mission however Plutarch claims he intended to stir trouble
among kings of Asia in order to be granted another command
- plans blocked all through nineties, stayed out of public life
- 97 Sulla elected praetorship
- Sulla carried out some very succesfull activites in the east there after, which
interfered with Marius’ schemes, and Marius’ jealousy increased
Significance of Marius’ Career
- plebeian risen to top position through military excellence, weakened hold of
senatorial aristocracy on Roman politics even more
- Metallus replaced by marius by people, usurped senates right to appoint military
leaders
- Republican institutions undermined, lex Villia Annalis violated as elected to 5
consecutive consulships – paved way for extraordinary commands later granted to
Pompey and Caesar – made possible future “military monarchy”
- legions open to plebs on voluntary basis – professional force of soldiers – careers for
unemployed, prepared way for victories of successors, loyalty of recruits lay with
commanding officer rather than the state
- army used as political tool by individuals
- raised question of pay and pensions for the army – senate failed to retain hold of
army when not providing this – lead to armys being private forces of great
commanders
- Illustrated power tribunate and commander could wield in state
- proposals for fair treatment of allied soldiers on retirement lead to further resentment
of allies
The Career of Sulla
- events of 88 brought tension between Marius and Sulla to violent collision
- Sulla favored by senate
- made consul 88 + granted province of Asia + command against Mirthridates for
following year
- Marius wanted position, was bitter at being over looked
- continuing problems with new citizens
- Marius allied himself with Sulpicius
- in return for supporting distribute new franchised citizens to all35 tribes prepared to
replace Sulla for Marius as commander against Mithridates
- Sulpicius’ proposals very unpopular needed large amount of protection, also his
replacing of sulla with marius, and his illegal measures to get his bills passed
- Sulla, and consular partner attempted to prevent bill, led to violence, fled back to his
army appeald to them for help as consul, and with six legions marched on Rome
- Marius+ Sulpicius had no army forced to flle, Sulpicius captured + killed marius
fled to Africa where old jugurthine war veterans were settled – declared outlawed
along with 12 others
- Sulla provided the senate with great power before leaving for campaigns
- Cinna undermined Sullas arrangements whilst away, trying to have new Itallian
citizens registered with tribes.- chased out of rome by octavious and made public
enemy
- Cinna had won over the army in Campania, and also had large following of “new”
citizens
- Marius, and Cinna joined forcesand marched on Rome
- Cinna reinstated as consul, Marus’ outlaw annulled
- Maruis took revenge on all who had insulted him
- 86 Cinna + Marius declared consuls, Sullas laws repealed, declared outlaw, property
confiscated
- Marius died soon after entering office, Cinna re-elected in 85, settled question of
registration of new citizens
- Sullas rushed settlements in the east left many problems usolved as he was anxious
to return to rome,upon return in 83 he intended to punish the small populares group (
the Marians)
- The Marians began building an army intending to meet him in Greece
- Troops refused to go, Cinna murdered
- Sulla returned to Italy, gained reenfourcments ( pompey and crassus among them)
Civil war occurred
- many Marians fled to sicily ans Africa, sent Pompey at 24 with special imperium to
deal with them, he returned successful and demanded a triumph
Plutarch (on Sullas return to power)
“ The immediately, and without consulting any magistrate, Sulla published a list of
eighty men to be condemned. Public opinion was horrified, but after a single day’s
interval, he had published another list containing 220 more names, and the next day
a third list with the same number of names on it. And in a public speech he made on
the subject he said that he was publishing the names of all those he happened to
remember: those who escped his memory for the moment would have their names
put up later. He also condemned any one who sheltered or attempted to save a
person who was on the list.Death was the penalty for such acts of humanity…The
reward for murder was two talents and this sum was paid to any one who killed a
condemned man… Also he took away all civil rights of the sons and grandsons of
those on the lists and confiscated the property of all of them. Many people were
killed because of purely personal ill feeling; they had no connection with Sulla in
any way, but Sulla, in order to gratify members of his own party, permitted them to
be done away with.”
Appian
“ … he forth with proscribed about 40 senators and 1600 knights (equites). He
seemes to have been the first to make a formal list of those whom he punished, to
offer prizes to assassins and rewards to informers, and to threaten with punishment
those who should conceal the proscribed…Some of these taken unawares were killed
where they were caught, in their houses, in the streets, or in the temples…
Banishment was inflicted on some and confiscation on others
The was musch massacre, banishment and confiscation also among those
Itallians who had obeyed Carbo and Marius… These acusations abound mostly
against the rich. When charges against individuals failed, Sulla took vengeance on
whole communities … Amongst most of them he placed colonies of his troops in
order to hold Italy under Garrisons, sequestrating their lands and houses and
dividing them amongst his soldiers… during the time of proscriptions and of the
selling up of confiscated property Crassus again got himself a bad name by
demanding gifts and buying up large estates for low prices. It is said that in
Bruttium he actually added a mans name to the proscription lists purely in order to
get hold of his property and with no authority from Sulla.”
- Sulla assumed a dictatorship after taking Rome by force
- did this by suggesting to the senate they appoint an interrex (temporary ruler) since
the consuls were dead, this person would then introduce a bill appointing Sulla
dictator with for as long as he saw fit with unlimited power.
Significance of Sullas reforms
- enlargement of senate by 300 members provided adequate number of jurors for the
law courts – new senators owed position to him, he could count on their support
- automatic recruitment of ex-quaestors
- stripped tribunate of its power, prevented it from undermining senate
- failed to prevent the rise of ambitious young men to quickly, allowed Pompey a
triumph at the age of 24
- limited proconsuls in provinces term in office to one year, enough ex consuls and ex
praetors becoming governors
- failed to take precautions against extraordinary commands abusing imperium
- use of violence, and armys as a political tool continued, still not paying attention to
pensions for veterans
- organisation of quaestiones
- 79 Sulla unexpectedly resigned dictatorship and retired to Campania, and died a year
later
- unlikely aimed for permanent dictatorship, always aimed to retire, Appian suggests
it is because “ he was weary of war weary of power, weary of Rome”
- modern Historian Carcopino believes he intended to make himself a monarch but
lost the support of the nobility, and was forced into retirement as he refused to take up
arms again when opposed.
- all Sullas reforms failed in promoting any political stability
P.A. Brunt
“ Sulla achieved little besides adding to the sum of human misery. His system
aggrieved the equites, the urban populace, the dissposessed peasants and the new
citizens and made no provisions for veterans in the future. Social discontents
continued, as the senate remained indifferent to the distress of the poor.
It was the memory of Sullas example and methods that proved most enduring.”
The Late Republic – The rise of Pompey and his eastern commands, 78 – 61
- throughout career granted extrodinary powers by senate+ people in order to save
state from internal and external threat.
- 83 at age 23 raised private army to aid Sulla, granted Propraetorian imperium in
order to command such a force under Sulla
- later married to Aemilia Sullas step Daughter
- Held imperium of Propraetor 2 years whilst waging successful campaign against
Marians in Africa and Sicily
- Demanded a Triumph for success, used army as a threat in order to gain it, thos
undermined Sullas own reform
- acted in direct opposition to Sulla by getting M. Aemilius Lepidus elected to
consulship by using own popularity
- 78 Lepidus outlined program directly opposed to Sullas work
- 77 when proconsul of Gaul lepidus raised army with Brutus and prepared to March
on rome
- Senate granted Pompey propraetorian imperium to help Catulus who defeated
Lepidus
- Brutus surrendered to Pompey, and was killed
- Their supporters fled and joined Roman rebel leader Sertorius in spain
- Pompey ignored catalus’ order did not disband army, senate granted him another
illegal command to help Q Metelus fight the rebels in spain, this one with proconsular
imperium.
- Sertorius was a popularis who fought with the Marians against Sulla
- when Sulla defeated marians sent army to deal with him , sartorius fled to Africa,
but returned to spain in 80
- defeated many incompetent roman generals, organised alternate roman government
- Pompey with illegal proconsular imperium arrived in spain in 76 to help Metellus
- Lost two majour battles against sartorius, sent for urgent reinforcements and was
sent 2 legions
- sartorius under pressur, losing loyalty of Spanish allies
- roman supporters became resentful of his authority
- Perpena wanted his supreme command, and had sartorius assassinated in 72
- Perpena was then defeated and executed by Pompey in 71bringing war to an end
- treated Spaniards humanly
- Pompey given credit for victory
- 73 whilst in spain, Thracian gladiator Spartacus lead gladiator+ slave uprising
Plutarch
“The situation had become dangerous enough to inspire real fear, and as a
result both consuls were sent out to deal with what was considered a major
war and a most difficult one to fight”
- both consuls defeated, M. Licinius Crassus 73 granted consular imperium to take
supreme command of war
- believing serious danger wrote to senate asking to recall Pompey and Lucullus to
help, but regretted it and tried to finish war quickley
- In three dangerous engagements Crassus defeated Spartacus
- Pompey arrived 71, officially associeated with Crassus in command, Crassus had
done all work but Pompey prevented 5000 fugatives escaping north, and wrote to the
senate that he had finished the war off entirely
- Pompey awarded second Triumph (whilst Army still not disbanded), Crassus only
got an Ovation
- agreed to campaign together in 71 because both wanted consulship for 70
- both elected as consuls in 70
- destroyed what was left of Sullas constitution
- returned legislative power to tribunes
Plutarch on Pompey
“ Thought himself particularly lucky to have the opportunity of
passing this particular measure, since if some other statesman had
anticipated him in this, he could never have found an equally good
way of expressing his thanks to the people for the good will which
they had shown him”
- aware of possibilities of using tribunate to promote career
- won popularity by promising drastic reform of senatorial juries ( which had proved
corrupt)
- revived censorship, censors then revised senatorial list and replaced 60 senators ( all
endebted to Pompey)
- revised composition of law courts, so they consisted of equal numbers of senators
equites, and Tribuni aerarii ( group just below equitesin wealth) allowed equites to
keep senatorial juror in check
- Cicero prosecuted govoner of Cicely Gaius Verres for misgovernment, and
extortion, outwitted aristocrats, produced damning evidence, imposed fine double the
extorted amoun, turning point in his career
- the increased number of quaestors to 20 maintained, but the number of consuls only
being two competition for consulship intensified, proving desasterous for the republic
- After consulship neither sought commands, as none were sufficient to enhance
reputations
- Pompey wanted the commands against the meditaranian Pirates, or Mithridates of
Pontus handled by Q. Caecilius Metellus, and L. Lucullus
Early Caesar
- Caesar had left rome at 19 for the east and served on staff of govoners of Asia and
Cilicia as he had refused Sullas demand for him to divorve his wife Cornelia, the
daughter of the popularis Cinna
- Returned on Sullas death
- Prosecuted number of people in the courts and returned to east to study oratory
- captured pirates, and later intervened in war against Mithridates
- 73 returned to rome, took seat on board of preists, supported Pompeys move to
restore tribunes power
- 69 eligible to stand for Quaestorship next 10 years career followed path of Cursus
Honorum
- Optimates nervous, as he refused to break with tradition of Marius
When aunt Julia died, used funeral to express anti conservative attitude
- when wife Cornelia died, used occasion to refer to her father Cinna and his
connection with Marius
- Went to spain as Quaestor, gained clients in Caspuline Gaul through their unrest of
lack of Roman citizenship
Pirates
- pirates becoming serous problem for rome, plundered and raided, demanded
ransomes
- first blind eye turned, as wealthy land owners profited from their slave trade
- some attempts to stop pirates 78 Sevilius Vatia, &4 M.Antonius, 69 Q. Caecilius
Matellus – all attepts either resulted in death or other wise pirates just relocated
- 67 roman corn trade so threatened people faced with famine
- Tribune Aulus Gabinius proposed extrodinary command given to pompey
- senate weary of this, only Caesar supported it, voted by people
- Pompey given 3 year imperium, could operate any where in meditaranian and in all
provinces up to fifty miles inland, had authority to nominate legates + take any money
from treasury and tax officials, and recruit troops and sailors for large fleet
- vote of Lex Gabinia passed Pompey given 500 ships, 120000 troops and 5000
cavalry + 24 men chosen by him out of senate as lieutenants
- Mediteranian + adjacent coasts divided up into 13 parts each patrolled by
commander with a fleet
- this dispersal allowed him to surround entire pirate fleets
- 40 cleared western half of mediteranian
- At coracesium in cilicia they were defeated
- Their surrender marked the end of the war in only 3 months
- Pompey had them resettled and given land in underpopulated areas in Greece, some
given citizenship
Mithridates and the Lex Manilia
- Mithridates allied with sin in law Tigranes of Armenia (powerful ruler in east) with
support attacked Roman province Bithynia
- L. Lucullus had command of campaign against Mithridates
- 70 had deprived Mithridates of conquests and large part of army + taken control of
Pontus
- invaded Armenia without senates permission
- defeated Tigranes
- 68 defeated their combined forces
- disheartened troops due to harsh conditions of long war refused to go on –
Mithridates recovered much of Kingdom
- people in rome criticised prolonging war for own benefit
- had reorginised finances of cities of Asia+ aleiviated Debt caused by excessive
payments demanded from provincials- brought on hatred of the equites
- business class in Rome called for replacement
- Pompey replaced Lucullus ( already in east hoping for command after defeating the
pirates)
- Gaius Manilius proposed bill to give Mithridates command to pompey, met little
opposition
- Caesar and cicero supported it
- Cicero needed votes of pompey supporters for consulship as he was a Novus Homo
Pompey reported to have said
“ How sad it makes me, this constant succession of labours! Really I would
rather be one of those people who no one has heard about…”
Plutarch on Pompeys new command
“ Lucullus was being robbed of the glory which he had earned by his
acheivments and was being replaced by some one who would only reap
the honour of triumph rather than undertake the difficulties of war.”
Speech to the Roman people – Princeps senatus Quintus Catulus 67 – views on
extraordinary commands
“I, for my part assert first and foremost that it is not proper to entrust to any one man so many
positions of command one after another. This has not only been forbidden by the laws, but has
been found by experience to be most perilous. What made Marius what he became was
practically nothing else than being trusted with so many wars in the shortes space of time and
being made consul six times in the briefest period; and simarlarly Sulla became what he was
because he held command of the armies so years in succession and later was appointed
dictator… For it does not lie in human nature for a person- I speak not alone for the young but
for the mature as well- after holding positions of authority for a long period to be willing to
abide by ancestral customs. Now I do not say this in any disparagement of pompey, but because
it does not appear ever to be of any advantage to you in any way, and in particular because it is
not permitted by the laws…Second there is the consideration that so long as consuls and
praetors and those serving in their places are receiving their commands conformably to the law
it is in no wise fitting , nor yet advantageous, for you to over look them and introduce some new
office. To what end, indeed, do you elect the annual officials, If you are going to make no use of
them on such occasions?... How can you fail to rais the enmity of these and all the rest who
have a purpose to enter public lie at al, if you over throw the ancient offices, and entrust
nothing to those elected by law, but assign some strange and hitherto unheard of command to a
private individual?”
Extract – Cicero speech 66 – transfer of command of Mithridates to Pompey
“ The war under discussion, then, is so necessary that it cannot be avoided, and so important
that it requiresthe utmost care. But you are in the happy position of being able to entrust its
condutct to a commander whos remarkable military knowledge is equalled by his extrodinary
personal gifts, outstanding presteige and pre – eminent good fortune. It is inconsivable, then ,
gentilemen that you should hesitate to utilise, for the preservation and greater glory of our
country, this exceptional blessing… (and it is a) remarkably fortunate coincidence that he is
actually on the spot with and army of his own: which moreover he can supplement by taking
over the forces of other commanders.”
Discusses objections raised by opponents to the bill
“ Innovations, it is objected, must not be made contrary to the precedents and principals of
our ancestors. I will refrain from pointing out in reply, that whereas our ancestors respected
tradition when Rome was at peace, they were in variably guided by expediency in time of
warm constantly meeting new emergencies by fresh devices.”
“ And finally, let us pass on to Gnaeus Pompeius himself. Here is the man for whom Quintus
Catulus objects that no new precedent should be established. But just consider how many
new precedents have been created in his favour – with Catulus’ full approval. That some one
of extreme youthfulness, who held no public office, should raise an army in a time of national
crisis was a complete innovation. Yet that is what Pompeius did. For the same young man to
be made its commander was equally novel. However, this is what he became. The he should
succed so triumphantly in the enterprise was equally un parralelled. Never the less this was
his achievement. It was wholey contrary to custom that a youth of very tender years, who was
far below the minimum age even for admition to the senate, should be given command and an
army, allocated a sphere of action comprising Sicily and Africa… For a Roman knight to be
awarded a triumoh was unheard of.
…it was totally unprecedented when two eminent and gallant consuls were available, for a
Roman knight to be sent out with consular powers, to wage a grave and terrible war, all the
same he was sent.
It was equally without parallel, again, that he should be exempted by the laws by a resolution
of the senate, and elected to a consulship actually before he had the legal right to hold any
office at all. , and that he not yet a senator, but a knight, should celebrate a triumph, not once
but twice, might seem incredible. If you count up every single departure from precedent since
the very beginning of Roman history, they add up to a smaller total than those which have
been lavished on the career of this single man. And all these remarkable and revolutionary
innovations…were brought about as a result of enactments by distinguished national leaders
– of whom Quintus Catulus was one.”
Eastern settlement
- achievements based on hard campaigning by Lucullus over previous 6 years
- Mithridates weakened army + resources presented little challenge to Pompey
- Mithredates died 63
- Created new provinces in the east
- united area under Roman control – fostered growth of cities
- organised and promoted large number of client states – independent but maintained
friendly relations with rome as many owed positions + land to Pompey
- added to Romes empire and sphere of influence
- 480 million sesterces in war spoils to Roman treasury
- Roma annual revenue from tribute raised 70%
- East received peace+ security
- Pompey patron for provincials in dealings with Roma
- Increased Pompeys overseas clientele
- Crassus jealous of military triumphs, + worried about return
- Optimates feared he would return in same fashion as Sulla
- Crassus had used his great wealth tho help Caesar gain aedileship for 65 –
resultingly Caesar won great popularity with lavish public games, very in debt to
Crassus
- With Caesar support crassus trying to build power base in order to be in bargaining
position upon Pompeys return
- 63 cicero entered as candidate for consulship
- elected overwhelmingly
speech to assembly
“I am the first new man, after a very long interval, almost more
remote than our times can remember, whom you have made
consul; that position which the nobility held secured by guards
and fortified in every way, you have brocken open, and have
shown your desire that it should in future be open to merit,
allowing me to take the lead.”
Catiline conspiracy
- Lucius Sergius Catilina ( Catiline) had missed out at the elections in 64, decided to
campaign in 63 for the following year
Cicero speech against Catiline
“For imagine every typeof wickedness and criminality that you can think of;
he has been behind them all. In the whole of Italy there is not one single
poisoner, gladiator robber, assassin, parricide, will-forger, cheat, glutton,
wastrel, adulterer, prostitute, corrupter of youth, or youth who has been
corrupted, indeed any nasty individual of any kind whatever, who would not
be obliged to admit he had been Catilines intimate.”
- he was in serous debt from campaigning
- debt was a big problem at this time in rome
- in 63Catiline promised to cancel all debt if he were elected
- won large support from the poor
- failed to be elected for the second time
- his constitutional methods were now abandoned in favour of extreme measures
- conspired to overthrow government
- He sent Manlius north to organise troops to march on rome, whilst he remained
plotting on the lives of the consuls
- Senatus Consultum Ultimum passed gave Cicero right to make military preparations
- Tried to assassinate Cicero, but he was well protected
- Cataline joined Manlius, was outlawed by senate, when written proof of conspiracy
was intercepted, those involved in rome were arrested
Plutarch
“The disclosure of the plot produced a ‘volt – face’ in public opinion.
The common people, who at first, in their desire for a new regime, had
been only too eager for war, now cursed Catilines scheme and parised
Cicero to the skies.”
- Caesar spoke against the death penalty for the conspiritars, as they had no trial, but
the dicision was turned in favour of the death penalty by Cato.
- Catiline made a stand against the government forces led by Antonius, but they were
all Killed
- Cicero and Sallust have exaggerated Catilines place in History
- Cicero used as opertunity to praise himself
- Plutarch
“One could attend neither the senate or a public meeting, nor a
session of the law courts without having to listen to endless
repetitions of the story of Catiline and Lentulus, He went on to fill
his books and writings with these praises of himself…”
- Cicero was later attacked for his harsh actions (the execution of the conspirators
without trial)
- 58 sent into exile for actions
- In 63 had developed ideal Concordia ordinum ( harmony of the orders) wished
senate and equites to work together
Cicero’s 4th speech against Catiline
“If this harmony, brought about in my consulship, can survive forever
in the Republic, then we shall never again see the state torn by civil
war and strife.”
- Expected Pompey to assist him with future plans, but was disappointed with
Pompeys lack of enthusiasm ( being preoccupied in the east with own victories)
- The Bona Dea scandal – 62, P. Cloduis Pulcher, young aristocrat caught dressed as a
woman atgathering of female cult Bona Dea (good goddess)
- also believed to be having an affair with Caesars wife Pomponia – Caesar divorced
her
- broght to trial for sacrelige, tried by Cicero
- only just got off with huge bribary
- Cicero incurred lasting hatred of Clodius
- inquireries into bribary lead to further tension between equites and optimates
Pompeys return
- Optimates very worried he would lead army against city
- however, disbanded army – had no desire of dictatorship, just wanted popularity –
he remained out of city until Triumph
- Cicero in letters to friend Atticus in early 61 shows he thought Pompeys signs of
friendship were to hide his jealousy
- Pompey needed optimates support for land for his veterans, and arrangements in east
rattified
- diffused some tension for optimates by disbanding army – majority still suspicious
of him
- opposition of Cato and associates, + lucullus blocked his land for veterans, and
resulted into much scrutiny of every item in eastern settlement.- as a result pompeys
presteige suffered.
- Crassus had become spokesman for equestrian tax farmers – contracted to collect tax
from Asia province – due to war would not make usual profit – and would barley
recover costs, requested rebate through Crassus which was refused by senate
- Caesar hoped to return from spain in 60 and stand for consulship in following year,
since he would be celebrating a Triumph asked if he could stand in absentia, whoch
was refused thinking he would not stand, however arrived in rome in time to enter
nomination
- The senate then assigned his next province which was not near enough to Caesars
ambitionshoping to dprive him of important post
- decided to exploit difficulties of Pompey and Crassus
- Caesar needed powerful backing to get elected, and Pompey needed his veterans
land, and ratified eastern settlements,
Plutarch
“if he was not to recide into insignificance, have his credit with the
veterans and the common people destroyed, his godlike stature in the
provincesand the kingdoms of the east undermined and his self
repect in shreds.”
- Crassus also needed his short term financial interests resolved, and needed long term
safeguard against Pompey.
First Triumvirate
- Formed to further oen ends in face of optimates opposition
- gang warfare, bribary and assassination marked the period
- triumvirate was not actually an official, legally recognized organisation, largely kept
in secret.
- Caesar had to reconcile Pompy and Crassus
- political friendships or partnerships (amicitiae) normal, Two aspects which differed
1. between them had wealth, popularity, support of equites, and of armed forces (
veterans) 2. had much more dramatic repecutions when failed to sustain allience
Scullard
“Its formation was a turning point in the history of the free state, and it
was, as both Cicero and Cato recognised, the ultimate origin of the Civil
War of 49 BC”
Plutarch
“the first disaster and the worst had been, not the quarrel and split
between Pompey and Caesar, but the friendship and harmony that had
existed between them.”
Cicero
“Oh Pompey, I wish you had either never formed an alliance with
Caesar or never brocken it.”
Velleius Paterculus
“its results were to bring ruin to the city, the world,
and even, at different times, to each of the three
men.”
- coalition in 60 greatly responsible for civil war in 49
- actions of senate due to their own fear drove them to the coalition
Caesar consul in 59, elected with backing of Pompey and Crassus
- Collaegue = conservative Calpurnius Biblius ( catos son in law)
- senate hostile towards Caesar
- introduced bill to provide for Pompeys veterans (Lex manillia) – land bill
- bill met with prolonged systematic obstruction, request for bilius to remove veto
refused
- on option to resort to threat of force
- Plutarch
“ Caesar brought Pompey out openly in front of the people on the speakers platform and asked him
weater he approved of the new laws. Pompey said that he did, when Caesae went further and asked
him weather he would defend the peoples rights if their opponents used force, Pompey replied if it is a
question of swords, (he) could produce a sword and a shield aswell”
- likely that some veterans were present in the forum
- rioting supposedly occurred – Biblius Cato and Luculluc threatened
Plutarch
“ Biblius was set upon by the crowd who broke the fasces of his lectors in pieces;some one emptied a
basket of dung over Biblius’ head; and two of the tribunes who were escprting him were wounded.”
Dio Cassius
“When Biblius realised he could not prevent the agrarian law from being passed by any of the normal
methods, he proclaimed that the remaining days of the year were to be regarded as a sacred period,
this ment that it was legally impossible for the people to even meet in an assembly.”
- Caesar ignored this, Bill passed any way.
- Caesar governed alone, did as he pleased
- land for Pompeys veterans, and for some urban plebs purchased using funds from
eastern conquests
- Second land law lex Campania last public lands in Italy divided into 20,000
allotments for mostly Urban poor.
- Pompey uneasy about Caesars methods ( afraid of losing popularity)
Cicero – letter to Atticus
“Pompey has fenced so far with the important questions. When asked, he said that
he agreed with Caesars laws. But what about methods? ‘Caesar must answer that
for himself’, he replied.”
- Political marriage of Pompey to Caesars daughter Julia – tied Pompey to Caesar +
assured him of Pompeys loyalty
- Pompeys eastern settlements ratified en bloc + equestrians rebate one third of tax
contract
- with help of Vatinius Caesar received Caspuline Gaul and Illyicum as province with
three legions and 5 year imperium – Transalpine Gaul and an extre Legion added
- Caesar was now able to keep an army close to Rome
- German chief recognized as friend of rome + King Ptolomy of Egypt recognized (
when promised to pay huge fee
- Measure passed to prevent exploitation of provinces by Roman governors, limit put
on what governors could requisition from provincials, acceptance of gifts restricted,
Strict accounts made to be kept,
- Senatorial resolutions made to be published
- Public attacks and humiliation greatly affected Pompey, who was only after
popularity
- Cicero maintained friendship with Pompey, but wished for breakdown of triumvirate
- Caesar realising the danger of Cicero offered him post on staff in Gaul – which he
refused
- triumvirs secured favourable candidates for 58 consulship L. Calpurnius Piso, and A
Gabinius.
- Caesar got P Clodius Pulcher elected to tribune in 59 to keep an eye on Pompey and
get rid of Cicero and Cato whilst he was in Gaul. (clodious hated cicero due to his part
in Bona Dia scandal prosecution)
- all of Caesars legislation technically illegal – used force openly
- needed to retain imperiumin order to avoid prosecution for this
- Pompeys loss of popularity with people and optimates humiliating
- cracks in coalition, Pompey and crassus’ aims short term
- Clodious bribed people with corn distribution bill legalised collegia ( clubs or
associations_ leading to formation of political gangs/ mobs
- bill introduced to banish magistrate who put to death without trial – cicero banished
due to part in cataline conspiracy
Pluarch on Cicero
“put on mourning and, with his hair long and unkempt, went about the city approaching
the people as a suppliant. However, he could not enter a single street without being
accosted by Clodius with a band of insolent ruffians around him…”
- Pompey failed to support Ciccero over this
- Cicero left rome, and was soon after officially exiled
- Clodius arranged that Cato was sent on special mission to supervise annexation of
Cypres – could no more speak against great commands as he had accepted on + out of
rome
- Crassus used Clodius and his gang to humiliate Pompey, Pompey resorted to
retaliate with a gang led by T Annius Milo – gang warfare between the two
highlighted the conflict between Pompey and Crassus.
- increase in attacks prompted pompey to support Ciceros recall from exile ( once
approved by Caesar grudgingly)
Cicero
“…when I reached the porta Capena I found the steps of the temples
thronged by the common people who welcomed me with vociferous applause.
Like numbers and applause followed me to the capital.”
- further tried to weaken triumvirate pushed appointment of Pompey to special
command
- Critical shortage of grain – people demand Pompey take charge of grain supply –
bill drafted by consuls giving him 15 legate, control of all ports and trading centres,
authority to arrange distribution of foodstuffs for 5 years
Plutarch
“Appointment made pompey once again virtually the master o all
Roman possessions by sea and land”
- did not please Caesar and Crassus
- good propaganda – regained popularity
- former king of Egypt, Ptolemy Auletes, asked to be restored to throne, caused
tension in the triumvirate
- Cicero brought up question of Caesars lex Campania, if Pompey did not object
repeal or modification he would benefit financially (valuable source of revenue)
needed funds for grain control task + win back some seatorial support – this would be
a major threat to Caesar.
- Further threat, consul candidate 55 L. Domitius Ahenobarbus wanted to recall
Caesar from Gaul
- Crassus wanted triumvirate to continue, but wanted to gain same presteige as Caesar
and Pompey
- Caesar couldn’t afford to be recalled from Gaul
- In best interests for pompey at that moment to renew political association with
crassus + Caesar
- Resulted in conference in Luca 56 – political association renewed – strengthened
position of the three
- Agreed Pompey and Crassus would stand for second joint consulship – look after
own proconsular commands- gain extension of Caesars command – prevent
discussion of lex Campania, and Caesars recall,+ disassociate Crassus from Clodius +
stop attacks on Pompey
- Election would be difficult with so many powerful enemies – so delayed elections in
56 by all means, using violence and bribary, Interrex friendly to pompey
apointedwho proposed only two candidates for election Crassus and pompey elected,
even then only after huge bribarys.
- got good proconsular commands Crassus Syria, and Pompey both Spains, ( who
stayed n rome and governed by proxy to keep am eye on things.using corn supply as
excuse
- Caesars command extended 5 yrs till 50
break down
- Pompey on position of strength in 54 ( imperium of corn supply and Spanish
provinces)
- 54 Julia Pompeys wife+ Caesars daughter died = major political tie severed
- 53 Defeat of Roman army by Parthians+ death of Crassus at Carrhae
- Pompey rejects Marriage offer to Caesars great neice Octavia and in 52 married
daughter of Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica – moving away from Caesar
towards optimates.
- anarchy growing back in rome, elections delayed, candidates being prosecuted for
corruption no consuls in 53 – mass political violence, clash between clodius and
Milo,supporters, clodius injured then killed on milos orders, carried to senate house to
be burned, entire senate house burned down – on orders of clodius’ wife mob raided
milo and interrex Lepidus house
- pompey took advantage of situation, looking like he was going to be made dictator
to restore order optimates proposed a sole consulship for 52
- showed weak senate – proposed by them but most unconstitutional ( exceptional
command, + only 3 yrs since last consulship)
- Legislation = stopping public violence + 5 yr interval between urban magistracies +
provincial commands + candidates must appear in person for elections (legislation
clashing with Caesars interests)
- Milo exiled
- Caesar suspicious of pompey over his 2nd and 3rd laws, meant he could be replaced
from gaul, and have a period as a citizen in which he could be prosecuted – Pompey
then added a clause exempting caesar
- Pompey extended his own command for 5 yearsm but did nothing more for Caesar
- Pompey in huge position of power, and sitting in between senate and Caesar with
both sides needing him, Caesars enemys would later force Pompey to pick a side.
Caesars campaigns in Gaul ( 58 – 50)
- Cisalpine Gaul (advantages – good recruiting grounds – future source of strength –
won many clients – close proximity to Rome
- Transalpine Gaul – Military glory + extending Rome’s influence – great wealth to
be acquired – immunity from prosecution as long as he held command imperium.
- 58 – 56 defeat of Helvetii and Suebi
- Helvetii swiss migrating via north of romean province, prevented by Caesar – they
then went through and plundered Aedui ( allies) war provoked by Caesar who won
and drove them back to home land
- Suebi, Germans from across Rhine, refused to leave Sequani and began to expand at
their expense as well as Aedui – Caesar drove them beyond Rhine
- Belgian Gauls then planned revolt- Caesar Defeated strongest tribe Nervii rest
yielded to legates, all under pretext of protectingsouthern Belgian tribe Remi who
submitted to roman rule
- 56 Veneti revolted, attacked Roman Garrisons – defeated by Caesar fleet from
mouth of loire River
- Reputation further advanced – Romans masters of Gaul – Caesar protector of Gallic
people – plans to annex whole area – large amount of wealth – created jelousy with
Pompey over success
- 55 2 german tribes crossed Rhine, exterminated by Caesar who then bridged the
Rhine as display of Romes strangth
- 55 reconnaissance of Brittain, then 54 crossed channel + defeated King
Cassivellaunus crossed Thames river took capitol of King
- Harsh treatment of german tribes criticised by senate
- interest in Brittain increased + strengthend traid links
- Independent Belgic tribe ( Eburones) attacked Roman Garrison at Aduatucas –
defeated revolt, but discontent spread among Gauls
- Apeared that back in Rome Pompey being made to chose between Optimates and
Caesar
- 52 serious revolt – Vercingetorex Leader of Arverni tribe, revolt spread, Caesars
forces divided
- After series of victories Vercingetorex besieged at Alesia – eventually starved into
submission
- spent 51-50 subduing remnants of rebels + organising government of Province.
- huge amount of plunder left Gauls financially exhausted, tribes retained own
organisation, coleected moderate tribute imposed
- gained equal military reputation of Pompey + wealth + support of Gauls
- Increased Romes strength + gained vast resources
- Future peace and protection of Gauls by Germans, introduced roman civilisation to
Gaul
Leading up to civil war + end of republic
- Lots of pressure from optimates to have Caesar recalled from Gaul
- Pompey indicated it legitimate to discuss recall afte 1 march 50
- Curio – tribune 50 vetoed any discussion of replacement through out 50 in return for
paying off debtd, suggested both Pompey and Caesar give up extrodinary commands
- Pompey refused, - counter proposal Caesar should leave province 13 Nov
- Curio again proposed both give up commands to reduce tension + balance power
- Threat of war in Syria = senate decree both give up 1 legion for east. Pompey orderd
legion previously sent to Caesar to be used so that Caesar lost 2
- 2 legions later kept in Italy, strengthened Pompeys position.
- Majority of senate supporting Curios proposal both resign commands however
consul for 50 Marcellus spread rumors of Caesar marching on Rome
- Demanded Pompey take up defence of state, Pompey agreed, committing himself to
the optimates
- Caesar sent letter proposing that both give up powers, could not if Pompey retained
Power, threatened Civil war if he did not comply
- Consul 49 Lentulus said would override senate if any conciliation policy with
Caesar attempted
- All conciliatory offers refused SCU passes Tribunes fled to Caesar
- Pompey assumed command of roman forces
Caesar crossed River Rubicon there for committed Rome to Civil War
Evaluation of Pompey
- Frequently changed sides through out career (switched from popularis to optimates
on several occasions) in order to advance career
- Greatly mistrusted by senate due to side switching + extra ordinary powers held (
although many granted by senate) and his his of violence, or threat of fource to
achieve what he wanted (eg triumphs)
- supported sull, fought for him, then supported popularis Lepidus whilst Sulla was
still alive, Suported Optimates in 77 to gain a further command and then fought
against Lepidus, granted special dispensation from lex Villia Annalis by senate
fearing another Sullan revolution, elected to legal consulship
- 70 consulship proceeded to destroy Sullan constitution
- Followed Marius’ example to gain commands
- Granted extraordinary commands by people
- rejected by optimates on return from east, afraid of the power and popularity he held
- did not wish to over throw government, only wanted popularity
- Joined Populares Caesar and Crassus in 60 to gain what he wanted
- Attempted reconciliation with optimates 58-57 ( supported ciceros recall from exile)
- Renewed alliance with Crassus and Caesar in 55
- alliance breaking down, moved towards optimates
- Gang war fare in rome, appointed sole consul to restore order 52 ( greatest political
aim)
- used it to put self in strong position against Caesar
- alliance totally broke down in power struggle, commited self to optimates, led
senatorial forces against Caesar 49
- One aim to be needed by people and optimates, political opportunist
- Would tolerate no equal to himself
Velleius Paterculus
“When Pompey was in civilian life he behaved very moderately except when he feared
he might be facing a peer and he was free of all vices, unless you counted the greatest
one that in a free state… he should be indignant that anyone should be seen to be and
equal to him in dignity”
- Wanted glory rather than power
- wanted appearance of legality with appointments by senate or peoplem but did not
mind how much constitution stretched for his career
PlutarchB
“was willing to violate the spirit of the constitution if he could observe the letter of it
and was ready to profit by illegality if some one else would take the responsibility.”
- Exploited violence for own benefit
- Competent soldier ( many victories were however him finishing up other peoples
hard work, much better organiser and administrator
- career was every thing oligarchy opposed, but they were responsible for giving it to
him
- he was a catalyst for the break down of the republic
Cicero sources on Pompey
1 command of Pompey in support of Manilian law
“ … Gnaeus Pompeius is in the unique position of not only exceeding all his contemporise in merit but even
eclipsing every figure recorded from the past … The ideal general… should posses four qualities – military
knowledge, talent, presteige, and luck. In knowledge of military affairs Pompey has never been supassed…
The abilities of Gnaeus Pompeius are too vast for any words to do them justice … The talents a general
needs are numerous… Meticulous organisation, courage in danger, painstaking execution, prompt action,
foresight in planning. In each and ever one of those qualities Pompeius excels all other generals we have
ever seen or heard of… such gifts need to be accompanied and supported by a variety of other talents… a
general needs to posses complete integrity. He must be a man of moderation in all that he does. He has to be
trust worthy, he has to be accessible, intellegant and civilised aswell.Let me now review these characteristics
(ok u get the point, im not fucking writing it all im sleepy its on pg. 365 – there lots of progressive cicero
comments on different stages of pompeys career as he switches sides and acts like an idiot, and basically
Cicero is like in love with him, its good for like a progressive opinion as things like develop, but its pretty
bias I guess)
Last years of Caesars Career
Suetonius – possible motives for crossing the Rubicon
“…He was resolved to invade Italy if force was used against the tribunes of the people who had vetoed the
senates decree disbanding his army by a given date. Force was, in effect, used, and the tribunes fled towards
cisalpine Gaul, which became Caesars pretexts for launching the Civil war.”
- used protection of rights of tribune for pretexts for war. (Plutarch agrees)
- good excuse + good propaganda among troops
Appian
“Caesar excited his soldiers by informing them that ‘distinguished men like these,
who had dared to say a word for them, had thus been driven out with ignominy’
This was also used for whipping up popular opinion in Rome”
- some modern scholars maintain “ flight of tribunes” was staged
- Cicero maintained they were not driven out.
- Later threats by Caesar to tribunes show he didn’t really care about them
Suetonius
“ Additional motives are suspected, however: Pompeys comment was that because Caesar had insufficient
capital to carry out his grandious schemes or give the people all that they had been encouraged to expect on
his return, he chose to create an atmosphere of political confusion.”
- had been very generous with money, gave money gifts to soldier + doubled pay
when occupied rome broke into treasury indespirate need of funds, possible did not
have money to fulfil promises to his men
Seutonius
“Another view is that he dreaded having to account for the irregularities of his first consulship… he said in
these very words: ‘They would have condemned me regardless of all my victories – me Gaius Caesar – had I
not appealed to my army for help’”
- believed political enemies would have prosecuted him for illegal legislation – and
sent into exil.
- not penalty he feared but indignity of it
- concerned only with own honour and reputation
Caesar
“ Prestige had always been of prime importance to me, even outweighing life itself; it
pained ne to see the privilege conferred on me by the Roman people being insultingly
wrested from me by my enemies”
- even willing to give up standing for consulship if Pompey demobilised
- Final attempts to negotiate failed, appealed to troops.
“ I alone have been denied the right always accorded to all commanders – that is the right
of coming home, after successful campaigns, with some honour, or at least without
disgrace, and disbanding ones army.”
Suetonius
“It has also been suggested that constant exercise of powergave Caesar a love of it; and
that, after weighing his enemies strength against his own, he took his chance of fulfilling
his youthful dreams of making a bid for monarchy: Cicer seems to have come to a similar
conclusion”
- no real evidence he aimed at becoming King
- crossed Rubicon on pretext of defending tribunes, but real reason to defend own
honour and reputation
- Although committing treason by crossin Rubicon, did not aim for war but quick
resolution by enemies followed by election to consulship in 48
- Pompeys main aim to make sure Caesar did not become his equal, but also did not
want to resort to Civil war, believed raising troops would force Caesar into peaceful
settlement, backing down and retaining Pompeys supremacy. – neither aimed for
Civil war.
- Small group of optimates pushed the situation, wanting to destroy Caesar, beliving it
could only be done through war
- Caesar moved quickley, Pompey not ready, so evacuated to Greece
- Caesar tried to get an interview with him, but Pompey refused
- Caesar broke into treasury
- Cicero in a dilemma, not happy about the situation, eventually followed Pompey to
Greece
Cicero
“ I really do not know what I am doing or going to do, I am so confounded by the rashness of this
crazy proceeding of ours… What our Gnaeus has decided or is deciding I don’t know…” Pg 379
cont.
- firstly secured spain, drove out Pompeys commanders Afranius and Varro. He
would then march against Pompey without leaving any enemy forces behind his back
- Commanders sent to take control of grain supplies in Sardinia and sicily
- 48 after elected consul crossed Adriatic
failed to maintain blockade, moved inland to Thessaly
- Pompey followed Caesar, forces met at Pharsalus
- followed Pompey to Egypt to prevent gaining forces – but soon became involved in
separate campaigens of dynastic intrigues of cout of Ptolemy and Cleopatra.
- 47 returned to Rome via Syria and Asia Minor
- 47 sailed to Africa remnants of Pompeians – defeated forces, Pompeys sons escaped
- returned to rome to celebrate triumphs, + issued some reforms
- 45 spanish campaign against Pompeys sons
- returned to rome, and became dictator, carried out vast reform and building
programs
- throughout wars, position gradually became autocratic
- 49 apointed dictator, resigned 11 days later 48 elected consul, , then dictator for one
year, after victorious command in Africa 46 became dictator for 10 years – but still
held consul election in 46+ 45 ( possible disguise of rise to power)
- 44 during 5th consulship ( sole consulship) declared self dictator for life
- belief amongst nobles that he wanted to become King
- Mommsen maintains Caesar was always aiming for a crown
Gelzer
“ Caesar had only one unshakeable principal – he would not let go of the power he had
won.”
- Nobility resentful – ambitions frustrated – resulted in widespread unpopularity, and
growing hostility towards him.
- ruling class considered selves his equal, resented being treated as tools of an autocrat
- deprived them of right to compete for highest offices in state
Suetonius
“ Not only didhe accept excessive honours, such as life – consulship, a life dictatorship, a
perpetual Censorship, the title ‘Imperator’ put before his name and the title of ‘ Father of
his country’ appended to it… but took other honours, which as a mere mortal, he should
have refused.” … cont. Pg 386 Caesars behaviour as dictator, how it pissed off Nobility.
Reforms
- 49 – 44 spent little time in rome
- reorganised local government of Italian towns, changed amountof tenure of
provincial governors, reduction of Romans receiving free grain, increase penalties for
criminal offences, reorganised ratio of free laborers to slaves on large estates,
improved traffivc congestion at forum, altered composition of Law courts, reform of
Calender, restriction of luxury displayed by nobility – legislation which would
improve efficience, and prevent abuse of the system
- Left much for others to complete ( eg engineering program)
- founding of cononies outside Italy + extension of citizenship to provincials –
provided for vast number of veterans
- Started effective romanisation of the Empire, land in colonies distributed to
unemployed and urban poor of Rome aswell as veterans
- Added to senate influential romanised Gauls
- Conservatives resented actions – jelousy of his power even over calender reform
- 45 drew up a will – most left to grand nephew Gaius Octavius ( later Augustus)
- No evidence of grand scheme for the future
- soon made plans to leave rome on another campaign against Parthis
- 16 legions recruited to leave March 44
- group of 60 leading Romans formed conspiracy to assassinate him on 15 march 3
days before intended departure
- Instigator of plot Gaius Cassius Longinus
- Figure head of Conspiracy Marcus Brutus
- Variety of motives – but all believe with his death the republic would be restored,
however it only led to another civil war between Octavious, and Mark Antony
- Murder in senate house, conspirators surrounded him on pretext of paying respects,
then stabbed him.
Suetonius – account of the assasination
“ This is violence! Caesar cried, and at that moment, as he turned away,
one of the Casca brothers with a sweep of his dagger stabbed him
justbelow the throat… he was leaping away when another dagger blow
stoped him. Confronted by a ring of drawn daggers, he drew the top of his
gown over his face, and at the same time ungirded the lower part, letting it
fall to his feet so he would die with both legs decently covered. Twenty
three dagger thrusts went home as he stood there…”
Evaluation
- until 59 career followed standard military and political requirements of cursus
- Committed Popularis – did not switch sides like pompey
- out standing soldier and military leader
- admired by his men
- flair for administrative efficiency – carried out decisions swiftly
- extension of Roman citizen ship
- Realised that old republican form of government finished
- Failed to realise or did not care offence coused amoungst nobles due to autocratic
rule
- little interest in religion ( although efficient pontifix maximus)
- Highly intelligent and cultured