CHAPTER 4
PERSPECTIVES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Chapter Overview
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the field of consumer behavior and to demonstrate how
knowledge and understanding of the consumer can be used in developing promotional strategies and
programs. This chapter utilizes the basic consumer decision making process model as a framework for
examining consumer behavior. The chapter takes the student through the various stages of this model and
discusses what occurs at each and how advertising and other forms of promotion can be used to influence
consumer decision making. The influence of various psychological concepts or influences such as
motivation, perception, attitudes and integration processes are examined at the appropriate stages of the
decision process model. Attention is also given to the three major variations in the consumer decision
making process: routine response behavior, limited problem solving and extended problem solving.
Consideration is given to how advertising and promotional strategies may differ depending on the type of
decision making process consumers are likely to be using.
Learning Objectives
1. To understand the role that consumer behavior plays in the development and implementation of
advertising and promotional programs.
2. To understand the consumer decision-making process and how it varies for different types of
purchases.
3. To understand various internal psychological processes, their influence on consumer decision
making, and implications for advertising and promotion.
4. To recognize various approaches to studying the consumer learning process and their implications
for advertising and promotion.
5. To understand external factors such as culture, social class, group influences, and situational
determinants and how they affect consumer behavior.
6. To understand alternative approaches to studying consumer behavior.
Chapter and Lecture Outline
I.
AN OVERVIEW OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
A.
A brief introduction to the field of consumer behavior and an indication of the increased
importance that this domain of study has assumed in marketing would be a good starting point.
The instructor should discuss the fact that to operationalize the marketing concept it is critical that
the marketer have an understanding of some of the consumer decision making processes.
Likewise, to effectively design effective advertising and promotions programs, these processes
must be understood and considered. It is important to point out that the development of successful
marketing communication programs begins with understanding why consumers behave as they
do. Those who develop advertising and other promotional strategies begin by identifying relevant
markets and then analyzing the relationship between target consumers and the product/service or
brand.
49
B.
Consumer Behavior can be defined as the process and activities that people engage in when
searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services so
as to satisfy their needs and desires.
The decision process model should be introduced and a brief description given of the five stages:
 Problem recognition
 Information Search
 Alternative Evaluation
 Purchase Decision
 Post purchase Evaluation
You should let the students know that this model will be used as a framework for analyzing the
consumer decision making process. You will be going through the various stages of the model,
discussing what occurs at each and how advertising and promotion can be used to influence
consumer decision making.
Professors Notes
II.
THE CONSUMER DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The consumer purchase decision process is generally viewed as consisting of sequential steps or stages
through which the buyer passes in purchasing a product or service. Figure 4-1 of the text shows the
various steps in this process as well as the relevant internal psychological processes that occur at each
stage such as motivation, perception, attitude formation, integration and learning.
A.
Problem recognition—The first step in the consumer decision-making process is that of problem
recognition, which is caused by a difference between the consumer’s ideal state and actual state.
There are various causes of sources of problem recognition. These include:
1. Out of stock
2. Dissatisfaction
3. New needs/wants
4. Related products/purchases
5. Marketer induced problem recognition
6. New products
Examining Consumer Motivations—the way a consumer perceives a need and becomes
motivated to solve a consumption problem will influence the remainder of the decision making
process. To better understand the reasons underlying consumer purchases, marketers develop
considerable attention to examining motives or factors that compel or drive a consumer to take a
particular action.
Hierarchy of needs—one of the most basic and popular approaches to understanding consumer
motivation is the classic theory of human motivation popularized by Maslow. His hierarchy of
needs postulates five basic levels of human needs:
 physiological needs
 safety needs
 social/love and belonging needs
50
 esteem needs
 self-actualization needs
The implications of Maslow’s hierarchy for developing advertisements that appeal to different
types of needs should be discussed.
Psychoanalytic theory—One of the initial approaches to the study of consumer behaviors in
marketing used Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory as its basis. This approach viewed consumers as
having complex, subconscious motivations for purchasing.
Motivation research in marketing—While very popular in the late 1950s, this area of study—
known as motivation research—received much less attention through the 1960s and 1970s. The
text brings up several associations related to products and brands. Very recent applications of
motivation research are discussed.
Problems and Contributions—Because of problems with reliability and validity, and the fact that
consumers were often considered as unaware and unable to control their motivations, this area
has received substantial criticism. Nevertheless, as noted in the text, the 1990’s has seen a return
of this theory in the formulation of advertising programs and strategies as demonstrated in this
chapter.
B.
Information Search—the second step in the consumer decision making process is information
search. Internal search involves a scan of information stored in memory to recall past
experiences or knowledge regarding purchase alternatives. External search involves go to
outside sources to acquire information such as personal sources, marketer controlled sources,
public sources, or through personal experiences such as examining or handling a product.
Perception—perception is the process by which an individual receives selects, organizes, and
interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world. There are a number of
processes involved in perception which determine how marketing information will be received:
 Sensation—the immediate and direct response of the senses to a stimulus such as an
advertisement.
 Selecting information—determining whether incoming information will be attended to and
how much attention it will be given.
 Interpretation—the process by incoming information is interpreted and assigned meaning.
 Selective perception—a filtering or screening may occur at various stages of the perceptual
process such as exposure, attention, comprehension and retention.
 Subliminal perception—refers to the ability of an individual to perceive a stimulus that is
below the level of conscious awareness. The possibility that marketers could use subliminal
advertising to influence consumers at a subconscious level has very strong ethical
implications and can be discussed using Ethical Perspective 4-2.
C.
Alternative Evaluation—after acquiring information during the information search stage the
consumer moves to alternative evaluation. At this stage the consumer compares the various
brands and services he or she has identified as being capable of solving the consumption problem
and satisfying the needs or motives that initiated the decision process. The evoked set is a subset
of all the brands of which the consumer is aware and actively considering in the decision process.
A goal of marketers is to ensure that their brands are included in the evoked set of consumers.
There are a number of important factors and processes that are important during the alternative
evaluation stage:
51
1. Evaluative criteria and consequences—evaluative criteria are the dimensions or attributes of
a product or service that are used to compare different alternatives. Consequences are the
specific events or outcomes that consumers experience when a product or service is
purchased and/or consumed. Functional consequences are tangible and can be experienced
directly by consumers. Psychosocial consequences are more intangible, subjective and
personal.
2. Attitudes—attitudes refer to a summary construct that represents an individual’s overall
feelings or evaluation of an object such as a brand, a company, another person, a retail store,
or even an advertisement. Attitudes are one of the most heavily studied concepts in consumer
behavior. Marketer’s keen interest in attitudes is based on the assumption that they are related
to purchase behavior. Advertising and promotion are used to create favorable attitudes toward
new products/services, reinforce or maintain existing favorable attitudes, and/or change
negative attitudes.
a. Multiattribute attitude models have been used by marketers to study consumer
attitudes. These models view an object such as a product as possessing a number of
attributes that provide the basis on which consumers form their attitudes. According to
this model consumers have beliefs about specific brand attributes and attach different
levels of importance to these attributes.
b. Attitude change strategies—The multi-attribute model focuses on the underlying
structure or basis of an attitude and provides insight into ways marketers can influence or
change consumers’ attitudes such as:
 increasing or changing the strength or belief rating of a brand on an important
attribute
 changing consumers’ perceptions of the importance or value of an attribute
 adding new attributes to the attitude formation process
 changing perceptions of belief ratings for a competing brand
3. Integration Processes and Decision Rules—an important aspect of the alternative
evaluation stage is the way consumers integrate or combine information to evaluate
alternatives and arrive at a purchase decision. Consumers may use formal integration rules
which require examination and comparison of alternatives on specific attributes. These
include both compensatory and non-compensatory integration strategies. Consumers may
also use informal integration rules which are often referred to as heuristics. Promotional
planners need to understand consumers’ integration processes and the types of decision rules
they might use in a situation. Advertising messages can be constructed to be consistent with
these decision rules or to suggest how consumers might go about making a decision. It is also
important for marketers to recognize that some purchase decisions are the result of a
constructive process that occurs at the time of purchase.
D.
Purchase Decision—as an outcome of the alternative evaluation stage the consumer may develop
a purchase intention or predisposition to buy a certain brand. Once a purchase intention has been
made and an intention formed, the consumer must still implement it and make the actual
purchase. Many purchase decisions are made on the basis of brand loyalty which is a preference
for a particular brand that results in its repeated purchase. Many purchase decisions for non-
52
durable, low involvement items take place in the store and decision and purchase occur almost
simultaneously. For these types of decisions top-of-mind awareness of a brand is important as is
the influence of packing, shelf displays, point-of-purchase materials, and various sales promotion
tools.
E.
Post-purchase Evaluation—the consumer decision process does not end once the product or
service has been purchased. After using a product or service the consumer compares the level of
performance with expectations. Satisfaction occurs when the consumer’s expectations are either
met or exceeded, while dissatisfaction results when performance is below expectations. Another
possible outcome of purchase is cognitive dissonance which refers to a feeling of psychological
tension or post-purchase doubt a consumer may experience after making a difficult purchase
choice. Consumers often look to advertising for supportive information regarding the choice they
have made.
F.
Variations in Consumer Decision Making—consumers do not always engage in all five steps of
the purchase decision process nor proceed in the sequence presented. There are three major
variations of the consumer decision making process:
1. Routine response behavior—many purchase decisions for low-priced, frequently purchased
products are based on a habitual or routine choice process consisting of little more than
recognizing the problem, engaging in brief internal search and making the purchase.
Marketers of products characterized by routine response behavior must get and/or maintain
their brands in the consumers’ evoked set and encourage brand loyalty. Those not in the
evoked set must encourage trial and brand switching.
2. Limited problem solving—often a consumer has a limited amount of experience in
purchasing a product or service but in somewhat aware or knowledgeable of the brands
available and/or the criteria to use in making a purchase decision. When consumers purchase
a product through limited problem solving, marketers should make information available to
consumers that will help them make their decision.
3. Extended problem solving—the most complex and detailed form of decision making occurs
when consumers have little, if any, knowledge regarding the criteria to use in making a
purchase decision or the various brands available. As with limited problem solving, marketers
of products characterized by extensive problem solving must provide consumers with detailed
information that helps them in making their purchase decision.
Professor’s Notes
53
III.
THE CONSUMER LEARNING PROCESS
Up to this point of the chapter, the focus on consumer behavior has been from a cognitive orientation. The
decision process model looks at the consumer as a problem solver and information processor who
engages in a variety of mental activities in evaluating and choosing among alternatives. There are,
however, alternative perspectives regarding how consumers acquire the knowledge and experience they
use in making purchase decisions. To examine some of these perspectives we examine various
approaches to the consumer learning process and their implications for advertising and promotion.
Consumer learning is the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption
knowledge and experience they apply to future related behavior.
A.
Behavioral Learning Theory—behavioral learning theory emphasizes the role of external or
environmental stimuli in causing behavior while minimizing the significance of internal
psychological processes. There are two major behavioral learning approaches to learning:
1. Classical conditioning—this approach assumes that learning is essentially an associative
process whereby the relationship between an unconditioned stimulus and conditioned
stimulus develops through repetition and contiguity. Classical conditioning has many
applications in advertising as products and services are become associated with perceptions,
images, and emotions that evoke favorable reactions from consumers.
2. Operant conditioning—this approach, which is sometimes called instrumental conditioning,
requires the individual to operate or act on some aspect of the environment for learning to
occur. Learning occurs as a result of the outcomes or consequences associated with a
particular response. Reinforcement refers to a reward or favorable consequences associated
with a behavior and are an important element of instrumental conditioning. Many
advertisements emphasize the benefits or rewards a consumer will receive from using a
product or service or encourage a consumer to use a brand to avoid unpleasant consequences.
There are a number of operant conditioning concepts that are particularly relevant to
marketers such as schedules of reinforcement and shaping. Shaping is particularly relevant
to the introduction of new products through the use of sales promotion tools and techniques.
B.
Cognitive Learning—Cognitive learning theory has as its basis a problem-solving, information
processing, reasoning approach to human behavior. In contrast to behavioral learning theory
perspectives, cognitive orientations emphasize internal processing or thinking. Many consumer
researchers disagree with the simplified explanations of behavior offered by behavioral learning
theories and are more interested in examining the complex mental processes that might underlie
consumer decision making. Thus the cognitive approach to studying learning and consumer
decision making has dominated the field of consumer behavior. The various processes examined
during the discussion of the consumer decision making process are all relevant to a cognitive
learning approach to consumer behavior.
Professor’s Notes
54
IV.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Consumers do not make purchase decisions in isolation as there are various external factors that may
influence their purchase decisions. These include:
A.
Culture—culture refers to the complexity of learned meanings, values norms, and customs
shared by members of a society. The importance of understanding the impact of culture on
consumer behavior has become increasingly important as marketers expand their international
marketing efforts.
B.
Subcultures—subcultures refer to smaller groups or segments in a society that possess similar
beliefs, values, norms and patterns of behavior that set them apart form the larger cultural
mainstream. Subcultures may be based on age, geography, race, religion, racial, lifestyles, and
ethnicity.
C.
Social Class—social class refers to relatively homogenous divisions in a society into which
people sharing similar lifestyles, values, norms, interests, and behaviors can be grouped. Social
class structures in the United States are generally based on occupational status, educational
attainment and source of income. Social class is important to marketers because consumers within
various social strata often exhibit similar values, lifestyles and buying behaviors thus providing a
natural basis for market segmentation.
D.
Reference Groups—a reference group is a group whose perspective or values are being used by
an individual as the basis for his/her judgments, opinions and actions. Marketers utilize reference
group influences in developing advertisements by associating, or sometimes disassociating,
products, services or certain behaviors with certain types of groups.
E.
Family Influences—many purchased decisions are made by families rather than by individuals.
Marketers must understand the various roles in the family decision making process such as
initiator, information provider, influencer, decision maker, purchaser and user or consumer. They
must also determine who in the family is responsible for the various roles in the decision making
process so messages can be targeted to them. Messages must also be designed so as to appeal to
the appropriate family member(s).
F.
Situational Determinants—another type of external factor that promotional planners must
consider is that of situational determinants on consumer behavior. Three types of situational
determinants may have an effect—the specific usage situation, the purchase situation, and the
communications situation.
Professor’s Notes
55
V.
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
In the past decade, a growing number of consumer researchers have examined this process from a
different perspective, often referred to as alternative, interpretive, postmodern, or post positivist.
Regardless of the name, alternative ways of attempting to understand consumer behavior assume a crossdisciplinary approach. Those who conduct research from this perspective believe that consumers’
decision-making processes do not occur in isolation. Rather, they view consumer decision making as
influenced by cultural, linguistic, and historical factors. In examining the significance of communications,
they have adopted three perspectives: socio-cultural, structural, and semiotic. Many consumer researchers
believe that dross-disciplinary research is better suited for the study of consumers because it takes into
account their complexity and multidimensionality. When considered with psychological research, these
alternative approaches help us better understand the impact of communications.
Professors Notes
Teaching Suggestions
Because of the consumer emphasis dictated by the marketing concept, consumer behavior has increased
in importance, and has found its way into virtually every aspect of marketing. Of course, advertising and
promotion are no exception. As a result, it is very important for the student to understand that advertising
and promotion strategies are designed for the purpose of influencing customer behavior. Thus, it is
important for promotional planners to have some understanding of consumer behavior including the way
consumers relate to products and services, the goals and motives they seek to achieve and satisfy, and the
process by which they make purchase decisions. You should emphasize that the success marketers have in
influencing the purchase behavior of their target customers depends in large part on how well they
understand their purchase patterns and behavior.
This is one of the longer chapters in the text as it covers an extensive amount of material. Some students
may have covered some of this material in a basic marketing or consumer behavior class. However, this
chapter will still be valuable to them since it discusses how this material is used in the development of
advertising and promotional programs. You may wish to divide the topics into two lectures to reduce the
possibility of information overload.
Answers to Discussion Questions
1. A number of factors may lead to problem recognition among consumers. Discuss the various causes
of problem recognition, and give an example of each.
As noted on pp. 107-109 of the text, problem recognition may result from a variety of factors. Some
of these may be as simple as repeat purchase situations, while others may be more complex. For
example, out of stock situations occur simply when the existing supply is diminished, and usually
may require only routine re-purchase behavior (for example, replacing an empty salt box, or milk).
Problem recognition may also occur as a result of dissatisfaction with the existing product/service
being used. An example of this might be that having purchased a product, the consumer was
disappointed in its performance, taste, etc. In other situations, the existing product may no longer be
acceptable due to new needs and/or wants of the consumer. Changes in lifestyles, education, income
and/or a number of factors may create new needs or wants. In turn, the purchase of a new and related
56
product may lead to a new problem. Consider the purchase of a digital camera. If one wants to use
the camera to send pictures through the Internet, an additional purchase of computer software will be
required. Some times needs are created through marketer-induced problem recognition.
Advertisers may be telling you that your teeth are not white enough, that your clothing is out-of-style
or that your Internet modem is too slow, creating—or at least, helping you recognize—a problem.
Finally, the introduction of new products into the marketplace may lead the consumer to problem
recognition. The advent of cellular telephones led many consumers to recognize the advantages of
this form of communication, leading to problem recognition when they did not have one.
2. Explain the concept of an evoked set. Why is this concept important to marketers? Give examples of
an evoked set, and how marketers might attempt to influence consumers to gain consideration.
When one considers the numerous options for purchase in almost any product category, the choices
may become overwhelming. One way that consumers manage this situation is to consider only a
subset of the alternatives available, leading to an evoked set. Often referred to as a consideration set,
this subset of brands are those that will be actively considered in the purchase decision process.
This is an important concept for marketers to understand, in that if their brand does not get included
in the evoked set, it is not likely to be purchased. Or, should the consumer become dissatisfied with a
brand currently in the evoked set, it might be removed, eliminating it from future purchase
consideration.
Consider the purchase of a new car. The choice of alternatives runs from low end entries like
Hyundai, Kia, etc. to expensive luxury and sports cars—not to mention SUV’s and others. It is highly
unlikely that a consumer would consider the entire range of possibilities. The list would be narrowed
down given decision criteria to a much smaller grouping, based on purchase criteria. It may lead to
consideration of only Japanese cars, American cars or German cars. It might be limited based on price
or past experiences. Whatever the criteria used, the entire list of cars will not be considered.
Marketers attempt to gain entry into the evoked set through positioning against others in the category,
marketing communications and other marketing tools. Their goal is to get the brand/product to be
considered. In other instances, the marketer is concerned with maintaining customer satisfaction,
recognizing that consumers will buy again, and may or may not consider the existing product in the
evoked set.
3. Jerry Olson and J.Paul Peter define two broad categories of evaluative consequences. Describe each
of these and provide examples.
Peter and Olson define consequences as specific events or outcomes that consumers experience when
they purchase and/or consume a product or service. They distinguish between two types of
consequences.
Functional consequences are outcomes of product or service usage that are tangible and directly
experienced by consumers. Taste of a product, the clarity of a picture on a television set and quality
of sound of a stereo system are examples.
Psychosocial consequences are more subjective in nature, less tangible and objective, and subject to
the perceptions of the consumer. The way clothes make one feel when worn would be one such
example.
What is important for marketers to understand is that consumers may experience one or both of these
consequences with any given purchase. Too often, marketers think of their products as bundles of
attributes, forgetting that it is not the attributes themselves that are important, but it is the
consequences which they result in for the consumer that impact the decision process.
57
4. Figure 4-10 details a number of external influences on consumer behavior. Describe each of these
influences, explaining how it might have an impact on consumer behavior, and provide an example of
each.
As can be seen in Figure 4-10 on page 126, there are five external influences on consumer behavior.
Theses will be discussed, with examples of their influence.
Culture—culture is the complexity of learned meanings, values, norms, and customs shared by
members of a society. Buying behaviors are directly influenced by cultural values and norms. For
example, in some cultures it may be improper to bargain over a purchase, whereas in others it may be
expected. In the Latino culture, family is one of—if not the—most important values. As a result, ads
depicting families and family values are more widely accepted than are those not showing these
characteristics.
Subcultures—within cultures are smaller groups of people sharing similar beliefs, values, norms, and
patterns of behavior that set them apart from other groups. For example, in the U.S. there is the Latino
subculture, the various geographic subcultures, age subcultures like Generation X and Generation Y,
etc. These various groups may exhibit many of the same characteristics which impact their purchase
behaviors. Generation X and Y may be different in their lifestyles and purchase behaviors. Those
living in the South are often different than those in the Midwest, etc. Advertising agencies have
sometimes found it necessary to have field offices in various cities to insure that their ads and
commercials are “subculturally correct”—i.e. not out of touch with the geographic subculture.
Social Class—the relatively homogeneous division in society into which people sharing similar
lifestyles, values, norms, interests and behaviors can be grouped is known as social class. Virtually all
societies have these stratifications. In the U.S., social class is determined by an index based on
occupational status, educational attainment, and income (other cultures may have different criteria).
The three classes in the U.S.—upper, middle, and lower—will exhibit different purchasing behaviors,
media habits, shopping habits, lifestyles, etc. Marketers must identify these patterns to successfully
attract these segments.
Reference Groups—a group whose presumed perspectives or values are being used by an individual
as the basis for his or her judgments, opinions and actions are known as a reference group. These
reference groups can be either associative—a group to which one might aspire to belong--, or disassociative—a group to which one does not wish to identify or be associated. Both groups may
impact consumers’ purchase decisions. For example, members of a group share similar values and
lifestyles, and may purchase similar types of products. Groups to which one aspires may provide a
model for the way the aspirant dresses, acts, etc. Disassociative groups provide standards which the
consumer may wish not to emulate. Smoking, the types of clothes worn, the type of music listened to,
and so forth may be perceived as standards the non-associating member wants to stay away from.
Situational Determinants—The specific situation in which the consumer plans to use the product or
brand may directly affect the choice or consumption behavior. For example, consider the purchase of
a bottle of wine for dinner. If dining alone or with the family on a regular night, one brand might be
appropriate. On the other hand, for a special occasion with the family, a more expensive choice might
be made. Now consider the situation if friends, associates or fellow-workers were coming for
dinner—might the choice change again? The choice of clothes will also be situational. We often buy
new clothes for vacations, special events, parties, etc.
58
5. Psychoanalytic theory has been criticized for its problems with validity and reliability. How do the
current methods discussed in the text—for example, hypnosis—fare in regard to these criteria?
As noted in the text, one of the problems that consumer behaviorists have with Psychoanalytic theory
is that of validity and reliability. While the techniques employed by these researchers have been used
for years by those in other professions (for example, psychology) these issues still remain. The use of
these techniques to research consumer behaviors still leads to skepticism among many behavioral
scientists.
At the same time, marketers are constantly searching for new methods of gaining insights into
consumer behaviors. While criticized for a lack of reliability and validity, motivation research has
made numerous contributions to our understanding of consumer behaviors. As noted in the text, such
research has led to successful strategy implementations (for example, Folgers and the PT Cruiser). To
some involved in research into the minds of consumers, any insights are valuable insights. To others,
research that has not been validated or is potentially not reliable is of little or no value.
One possible solution is to employ psychoanalytic techniques in conjunction with other research
methods, like surveys, personal interviews, observations, etc. If possible, this strategy might alleviate
many of the criticisms aimed at these forms of research. Until this time, hypnosis, mind probing, etc.
will still suffer from problems concerning reliability and validity.
6. Explain how consumers might engage in each of the processes of selective perception described in the
chapter. Provide examples.
As noted in the text, consumers may engage in selective perception for a variety of reasons, and in a
number of different ways. These include:
Selective exposure – Consumers may selectively decide what they will allow themselves to be
exposed to. For example, if a consumer knows information will be provided that may lead to
dissonance or the potential for inconsistency, they may consciously avoid the information. If one just
purchased a new Ford, having selected this model over Chevrolet, they may avoid advertisements for
Chevy’s to not create further dissonance. Changing stations during commercial breaks on television
or radio, or leaving the room, skipping over ads in magazines, or simply ignoring banner ads are all
forms of selective exposure. On the other hand, consumers may actually seek out information as well.
Accessing the Internet to obtain more information, reading Consumer Reports for product
comparisons, etc. are also forms of selective exposure.
Selective attention—Some consumers may stay in the room during commercials, but not pay attention
to them. Consumers will be more inclined to pay attention to ads when they are in a search and/or
evaluation stage of the decision process, and the ad is relevant to this decision. For example, if you
were in the market for a new car stereo, you might be more inclined to pay attention to commercials,
print ads and publicity regarding brands, sales, etc. Once the purchase has been made, the consumer
may engage in selective attention to these messages.
Selective comprehension—There is no guarantee that the information provided by an advertiser will
be comprehended in the manner intended. Consumers may distort information to meet their needs, or
take away a different meaning than intended. For example, a consumer is torn between two attractive
alternative automobiles. One gets 26 mpg highway, the other 22. Depending on which car is
purchased, the differences in gas mileage may be distorted. If the higher of the two was bought the 26
may be made out to be significantly higher than 22. If the lower mpg car was purchased, the
difference would seem to be much less.
59
Selective retention—Using the example of the two cars just above, what is remembered may be a
result of selective retention. “Oh, I don’t remember the difference in mpg, but I recall it was only
slightly higher” or “I remember there was a significant difference. My car got 4 mpg more, and over a
year this would amount to $200 in savings”. Consumers have a tendency to forget that information
that is inconsistent or contrary to what they want to believe, and may be more likely to recall that that
reinforces their existing beliefs, values, and/or attitudes.
7. Describe how cultural differences might impact viewers’ perceptions of advertisements. Provide
examples.
Cultural mores, values and experiences will directly impact perceptions of advertisements. As noted
in the text, understanding these differences may lead to success or failure of the message. For
example, in Latin cultures, family is an extremely important value. Thus, messages often focus on the
benefits of the product or service to the family as opposed to the individual. An ad that suggested that
the buyer purchase the product for self pleasure would meet with little or no acceptance. On the other
hand, the United States, comprised of many with Calvinist values can be appealed to with more
personal “me” type appeals.
Another example relates to age. In Far Eastern countries, age is to be respected, even revered. Ads
describe the knowledge and wisdom of the elders. In the US, youth is more desirable. Many products
stressing “how young it will make you feel” are advertised, cosmetic surgery is common, and fitness
to stay young is almost mandatory.
Cultures even differ in respect to eating habits. European countries, particularly the French, dine. That
is, they take their time eating meals, enjoy the setting and the moment, and have multiple courses.
The concept of fast foods, so common in the US, is still alien to many of these cultures (though there
is some evidence that this is changing among the youth).
8. In the text it was indicated that families may influence the consumer decision-making process.
Describe how various family members may assume the different roles described in Figure 4-11. Also
explain how these roles might change depending upon the product under consideration.
Research has shown that the family can both directly and passively influence the consumer decision
process. The amount of influence they may exert will depend on the product category, the level of
involvement of various family members with the product or product class, relative resource
contributions, etc. Family members may also assume various roles in the decision process, such as:
Initiator—different family members may initiate the purchase decision process. For example, a
teenager who is very much into music may request the family consider the purchase of a new music
system. The mother or the father may initiate the idea for a new family car, etc.
Information provider—different levels of expertise in product categories may lead to various family
members assuming the role of information provider. For example, as teenagers become more
involved with the Internet, they may be called upon to provide information into a variety of areas. For
example, they may be asked to search the Internet for vacation destination, music equipment or other
products or services and provide information back to the family. The father may be the primary
information provider for the family car, while the mother may have most of the input on furniture.
Children may be the providers of information on stereo equipment.
The influencer—each family member may have their own criteria in mind in the purchase decision
process. The father may want an economical car, the mother an SUV for functional purposes, the
children something more sporty to impress their friends. Again, depending on their involvement and
expertise, various family members may be able to exert more or less influence. Another example
60
might be a stereo system. If the teenager is more involved in music than other family members, they
may have more interest and be more able to exert more influence than those with less product
expertise.
The decision maker—who actually makes the purchase decision? It used to be that the mother had
influence at various stages for autos, but the father actually made the final decision. In many families,
this is not longer the case. In two car families, the mother may have her car, and the father his, both of
whom made the decision as to what it would be. In families where children work, they may actually
purchase their own cars, preferring to do so to make their own decisions rather than have the parents
make it for them.
The purchasing agent—regardless of the various roles assumed, the parent(s) may actually be the
purchasing agent. When children are not of age to make the purchase, do not qualify for financing, or
for other reasons, the parent may act as the purchasing agent to expedite or culminate the purchase
decision.
The consumer—in the case of the family car, vacation or stereo all family members may ultimately be
consumers. For other products, perhaps computers, all may use the product, but some may use it more
than others. In others, some family members may be involved in the decision making process, but
never use the product ( the child helps research the vacation, but doesn’t actually go along).
9. The text discusses alternative approaches to studying consumer behavior. Explain how these
approaches differ from those described earlier in this chapter.
Alternative approaches—often referred to as alternative, interpretive, postmodern, or post-positivist—
assume a cross disciplinary approach . Arguing that the focus on psychological perspectives may be
too narrow, these approaches focus on multi-sensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of consumer
behavior. The orientation is shaped with roots in anthropological, sociological, and historical
perspectives, and often employs different research methodologies common to these disciplines (i.e.,
participant observer studies, interpretative analyses, etc.)
Those who conduct research in this area argue that consumer behaviors do not take place in isolation,
but are influenced by cultural, linguistic, and historical factors. Three approaches are taken:
Socio-cultural- advertising and other forms of communication are viewed as both influencing and
being influenced by culture.
Structural- Consumption behaviors are examined to discover underlying meanings; these meanings
are examined in relation to cultural stories and myths
Semiotic- Products and ads are examined for their symbolic meanings to consumers.
10. Postmodern research often involves a sociological perspective to understanding consumer behavior.
Give examples as to how sociology might impact purchase behaviors.
A number of sociological factors may impact consumer behaviors. For example, social class has been
shown to influence purchase behaviors such as brands purchased, stores shopped and even activities
in which one engages (bowling versus tennis). Reference groups, including families provide both
inspirational and disassociative groups influencing purchases. Where one shops, or for that matter,
where one has the opportunity to shop may be affected by social factors. For example, rural dwellers
may have a limited number of options available to them for shopping. Cultural and subcultural
differences (see the text) have been shown to impact all aspects of the purchase decision process.
Likewise, many sociologists take the perspective that not only do sociological factors impact
consumer behaviors, but consumption also directly shapes the way that we live, our values, motives
and behaviors. Advertising has been accused of shaping society—often in a negative way—as well as
61
being designed in response to societal needs. In sum, it can be said that sociological factors both
shape and are shaped by consumer behaviors.
Additional Discussion Questions (not in text)
11. What is subliminal perception? Describe how marketers are attempting to use this concept in the
marketing of goods and services.
While many marketers argue that the controversy surrounding subliminal advertising be put to rest
because of a preponderance of evidence that such tactics cannot work, many others still believe that it
is possible to influence consumers subliminally. In fact, many companies have successfully marketed
subliminal self-improvement tapes—and argue that they can provide data to substantiate their
effectiveness.
For purposes of this question, let’s assume that subliminal or other subconscious methods might
work. If this were the case, as is suggested by William Bryant Key, advertisers could manipulate us
without our even knowing that such manipulations were taking place. Given that subliminal
advertising would not be evident to the consumer, then the advertiser could suggest behaviors, present
product benefits, etc. that might influence our purchase behaviors. A number of books have been
written suggesting how this might occur through the implanting of symbols and words in ads and
commercials, by auditorially sending messages through the airwaves, encouraging consumers to buy
by sending subliminally messages through the store’s public address system, etc.
Even if less sinister methods were employed (for example, selling products that supposedly offer
subliminal benefits) one must argue that the consumer is being taken advantage of. Each year millions
of dollars are spent on the purchase of subliminal tapes that supposedly help the buyer in some way. If
these tapes do not have the benefits they claim, then the advertiser is engaging in deception, and the
consumer is spending monies for products that do not work.
While most advertisers claim that they do not believe in, nor employ subliminal advertising, there are
many who believe that the practice continues to exist. Subliminal implants in ads would appear to be
the most common form, with the goal more likely being to create awareness or interest rather than
actually persuading the consumer to buy.
12. Explain how reference groups influence buyers’ behaviors. Give an example of how both
inspirational and disassociative groups might have an impact.
Reference groups are defined as “two or more individuals who share a set of norms”. As such, these
groups can be both inspirational—those to which one might wish to aspire—to disassociative—those
to which one does not wish to be associated. As such, these groups may pose both a boon and a threat
to marketers. For example, inspirational reference groups may serve as a goal, or an image to which
consumers might aspire. The growth of the athletic shoe market—particularly the expensive
basketball shoes like Nike Air- have benefited, as young athletes aspire to play like Kobe Bryant, or
Shaq or other NBA stars. People aspire to own certain types of cars, or live in certain areas to let
others know that “they have arrived”. The attractiveness of name brand clothing like Versace, Calvin
Klein, and others have become identified with specific groups—attractive to large segments of
society.
On the flip side, disassociative groups can also be motivating. Many of use do not wish to be
identified with the likes of drug users or alcoholics. Obesity has almost become an obsession, as
consumers join health clubs, jog and purchase diet pills and programs so as not to be seen as fat.
These disassociative groups then serve as a group which is to be avoided through the purchase of
products, services or just specific behaviors.
62
Finally, disassociative reference groups can hurt marketers. Many auto buyers see the Volvo as a
family car of someone in the suburbs or the BMW as a “Yuppie” car. Others see specific name brands
as associated with “snobs”, etc., and (whether these true or not) do not wish to purchase these brands
and become affiliated with these groups.
13. Explain how the screening processes involved in selective perception might impact a viewer of TV
commercials.
As noted in the text, the consumer may engage in a screening process known as selective perception.
This process may be enacted through selective exposure, selective attention, selective comprehension,
and/or selective retention. The problem that this screening process may present is that the advertisers’
ad may not have the impact desired due to the fact that these processes are being enacted. For
example, viewers may decide not to expose themselves to the information provided in an ad or
commercial by skipping over it, changing stations, etc. Even if the consumer is exposed to the ad,
there is no guarantee that he or she will attend to it. Consumers may pay attention to some ads, while
ignoring others, or may pay attention only to information that is considered relevant or of interest to
them. Consumers may also distort or comprehend information provided in ads in a way other than the
advertiser intended, again in an attempt to support their previously held beliefs. Finally, consumers do
not retain all of the information provided in the ads, perhaps even selectively forgetting discrepant
information.
Consumers may use selective screening processes to assure themselves that they made the proper
decisions by selecting only supportive information, and screening out any information that might
create dissonance or conflict.
Perhaps the most effective way for advertisers to avoid the selective perception processes is to design
more effective advertisements. By more effective we mean more interesting, more attention-getting,
and more informative ads. Given the high volume of ads to which the consumer is exposed, it is
critical that the ad break through the clutter. If the ad is not noticed and does not attract the interest of
the viewer, higher order processing (comprehension and retention) will never take place.
The use of mnemonics, or memory aiding devices, will also help the retention process. (You probably
often catch yourself humming a tune or jingle without even thinking about it, or liking it, if it is well
done.)
14. Discuss the various attitude change strategies recognized by the multi-attribute model. Discuss how
an airline could use some of these attitude change strategies in their advertising and marketing
programs.
The multi-attribute model provides insight into several ways marketers can influence consume
attitudes. Each of these strategies might be used by an airline to influence the attitudes of flyers
toward their airline. Each will be discussed.
The first strategy is increasing or changing the strength or belief rating of the airline on an important
attribute. The airline should identify which attributes are important to flyers and emphasize them in
their ads. For example, most airline flights are priced similarly so they focus their marketing and
advertising on the quality of their service. They run ads that stress the high quality of customer
service they provide at all levels of the flying experience.
Another strategy is changing consumers’ perceptions of the importance or value of an attribute. An
airline may want to emphasize a particular feature or benefit and why it is should be important to
flyers. For example, many airlines talk about their frequent flyer programs and encourage consumers
to accumulate miles by being loyal to them.
63
Adding a new attribute to the attitude formation process is another strategy recognized by the multiattribute model. An airline may find a new service or benefit it wants to provide to consumers that
isn’t currently offered by competitors. For example, American Airlines has increased the amount of
leg room it offers in coach class while others offer wider seating.
A final strategy is changing perceptions of belief ratings for a competing brand. An airline may
identify an area where a competitor is weak or vulnerable and note this in a comparative ad. For
example, one airline may have a better offering of flights between two cities or may have a better ontime arrival record. These advantages could be pointed out in a comparative advertisement.
15. Discuss the three variations of the consumer decision-making process. What is the importance of
communications in each type?
The three variations of the decision making process are (1) routine response, (2) limited problem
solving and (3) extensive problem solving. Obviously, the role of marketing communications will
differ in each.
Routine response behaviors are close to habits. As a result, they require little external search (if any)
and there is little or no reliance on communications. The role of advertising and promotions is more
of one of reinforcement, and of reminding the consumer that it is time to purchase. The role of
providing information for evaluation is minimal.
Limited problem solving involves both internal and external search behaviors. As a result, the role of
marketing communications increases. Consumers are more likely to have recognized the problem,
and are using advertising and other forms of communication to provide information for evaluation.
Consumers are also more likely to employ a variety of sources of information in the process, and the
marketer wants to be sure that his/her product is considered in the evoked set.
The consumer’s most extensive use of communications is likely to occur in the extensive problem
solving situation. Decisions are given much more thought, external search is more involved, and there
is a much greater reliance on advertising, sales persons, friends, family, etc. as input into the decision.
As a result, the responsibility of communications is increased as the marketer wants to have the
information readily available to consumers when and where they want it.
IMC Exercise
Have the class collect ads that reflect various concepts of consumer behavior discussed in the text such as
learning theories, attitudes, and various stages of consumer decision making. They should explain how
the ads they have selected relate to a specific consumer behavior concept or theory and how it is reflected
in the ad.
64