Maimonides (1136-1204)
Maimonides - Famous physician, philosopher and Rabbi
Moshe ben Maimon was a Jewish physician, rabbi and philosopher born in Cordoba, Spain in
1136. This famous individual is more commonly referred to as Maimonides which literally means
son of Maimon in Greek. Others refer to this universally famed figure in Jewish history as
RaMBaM, an acronym for Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon.
Social and Cultural Background and Influences
In order to fully appreciate the monumental impact which Maimonides had on Judaism one firstly
needs to understand the social and cultural backdrop against which Maimonides' composed his
great literary and medical texts. This context for his work will help provide an understanding of
Maimonides, his writings and the impact his work had during his lifetime and beyond.
Islamic world where Jews were considered as second class citizens
It is not the intent of this text to paint a comprehensive picture of the early Medieval period. Rather
it will focus on some of the more important historical events and socio-political influences which
pertain more specifically to the life of Maimonides. In short, it should be noted that Maimonides
lived in an Islamic world where Jews were regarded as second class citizens.
However, Islam was not the only threat to Judaism during this time. The early Medieval period also
marks a revival of classical learning, especially a revival of Greek philosophy.
This age was characterised by the dominance of Islam in parts of Europe, the Middle East and the
Near East. This powerful force that began in the Middle East in the 7th century had established an
empire which extended from Northern Spain in the West to India in the East by the twelfth century.
Through their conquests, Muslims had access to Greek science and philosophy as well as Persian
history and literature. With this wealth of both classical and contemporary learning the Muslims,
who were great admirers of education, helped to disseminate knowledge of many new discoveries
to the areas where Islamic civilisations existed.
This diffusion of Islamic learning and culture throughout the medieval world was further facilitated
by the movement of European academics to Islamic countries to study Islamic mathematics,
medicine and philosophy. The result of this cultural diffusion was the translation and preservation
of the works of classical antiquity in Europe.
Revival of classical philosophy posed as a threat to monotheism
The translation of Greek philosophy to Arabic by Arab and Syrian scholars between the fifth and
eleventh centuries, enabled the re- emergence of Greek philosophy in Europe in the 11th and 12th
centuries CE. This revival of classical philosophy, especially the writings of Aristotle, challenged
the authority and validity of many religious ideas In particular it posed a threat to the monotheistic
religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
There were various philosophical challenges to Judaism but the major philosophical concerns
centered on concepts such as the Nature of God, the existence of God, free will and the existence of
evil. These perplexing issues posed a threat to monotheistic religions because for monotheistic
religions their faith in God was not based so much on reason as on experience - the heart over the
head, so to speak.
Thus the core belief of monotheistic religions was the belief in one God, a God who had been
revealed to human beings through the medium of other human being such as Abraham, Moses,
Jesus and Muhammad . The revelation is also believed to come through other ways such as in
creation, in deliverance from enemies etc.
One Aristotelian idea which presented as a major problem for these religions was the theory that
the prime mover, the first cause (God) was pure intellect. This view is linked to the principles of
Plato's Theory of Forms and to subsequent philosophers who developed Plato's principles into what
became known as Neoplatonism, a theory which was developed by a philosopher by Plotinus.
The revival of classical philosophy was not the only threat which faced Judaism during this time.
Another significant threat came from the fact that Jews lived in an Islamic world, where they were
more or less seen as second class citizens. That is not to say however that the Muslims did not
tolerate Judaism. In fact Muslims tolerated both Judaism and Christianity in the countries they
conquered mainly because they, like Islam, were monotheistic religions and based their teachings
on the sacred scriptures.
Muslims allowed Jews the freedom to practice their religion within the Muslim empire but they had
to pay special taxes and were considered lower than Muslims in the eyes of the law. Thus, the need
to preserve and perpetuate the Jewish religion in an Islamic environment became a primary concern
for Maimonides.
Sephardi and Askenazi Jews
Despite the dominance of Islam in early Medieval Europe, the Jewish culture flourished in Spain.
In fact the period from 900-1200 CE is frequently referred to as "The Golden Age of Spanish
Jewry". The Jews who lived in Spain were known as the Sephardi Jews, a word which is derived
from the Hebrew word "Sepharad" which means " Spain". The other major community of Jews in
Europe was known as the Ashkenazim, a word which is derived from the Hebrew word
"Ashkenez" meaning "German".
One of the critical differences between these two communities was their attitude towards education.
For the Sephardim, education was based on a sound knowledge not only of the Torah but also of
science and philosophy. It was in this community, with its spirit of inclusive education, that
Maimonides grew up. It is to be expected therefore, that his writings would be greatly influenced
by his knowledge of philosophical concepts. In contrast the Ashkenazim regarded education as
being solely directed towards knowledge of the Torah and Talmud.
Almohades
This golden era of Spanish Jewry which was characterised by tolerance and progress came to an
end with the emergence of a Muslim sect known as the Almohades. The Almohades were a very
powerful and fanatical group of Muslims who, under their leader Aba al-Mu'min, invaded Spain in
1148. They claimed that they had discovered a teaching of Muhammad which stated that Muslims
were only to tolerate Jews for five hundred years and if, at the end of that period of time, the Jewish
Messiah still had not come, then Jews hadto renounce Judaism and become Muslims, or to be
given the option of exile or death. These options - conversion, death or exile - also applied to
Christians. The result of such persecutions was that thousands of Jews fled from Spain and
Morocco.
Biography
Family background
Moses Maimonides was a Sephardi Jew born in Cordoba, Spain in 1136, a few years before the
emergence of the Almohades during the period known as "The Golden Age of Spanish Jewry". His
family came from a long line of judges and his father also followed this profession. Maimonides'
father was a deeply learned man whose education consisted of Torah study, mathematics and
astronomy. His father also held a position of leadership in his community arising from his vast
Torah knowledge and overall scholarship.
Early education
It is not surprising therefore, that Maimonides was given a thorough education by his father in
Jewish religion (Torah and Talmud) as well as an education in the secular sciences and
philosophy. These areas of study dominated his life and were the sources of some of his greatest
works.
The Exilic Years
Maimon family flees Spain to escape persecution
In 1148 the fanatical Almohades sect invaded Spain. Maimonides' family was given the option of
exile, death or conversion. Maimonides and his family, along with thousands of Jews fled from
Spain and Morocco. After some years of displacement, the Maimon family finally settled in
Fotstad, near Cairo in Egypt.
Maimon family settles in Egypt under a tolerant Fatimide rule
In Egypt, the rule of the tolerant Fatimide caliphs allowed Jews to freely practice their religion.
Shortly after the arrival of the Maimon family in Fotstad, Maimonides' father passed away.
Maimonides' brother David became a dealer in precious stones in order to support the family and to
allow Maimonides', his prodigious brother, to continue his studies. However, when David was lost
at sea along with a great deal of the family fortune, Maimonides had to earn a living and it is
thought that it was at this time that he started practicing medicine.
Maimonides is appointed as physician at the court of the Sultan
In 1183, he was appointed as a physician at the court of the Sultan. In his capacity as royal
physician he was responsible for supervising the health of Grand Vizier Alfadhel, along with
members of the royal family. His fame as royal physician was so great, that even Richard the Lionheart of England sought his medical services, by offering him the position of royal physician for the
English court.
During these final years Maimonides, in addition to his devotion to the practice of medicine, also
continued to revise and add to his collection of great works, while acting as the Chief Rabbi of
Egypt. The years of strenuous labor and weariness took its toll on Maimonides and in 1204 he
passed away, and was mourned by Jews from all over the world. His body was laid to rest in the
holy city of Tiberias.
Works and Bibliography
Major literary works
Despite his amazing schedule and the demands on his time, Maimonides was a prolific writer of
important works in the fields of Jewish law, medicine and philosophy. During his lifetime,
Maimonides wrote prolifically but his three best known works are:
1. Commentary on the Mishnah (written in Arabic in his youth)
2. Mishneh Torah (a Code of Law written in Hebrew in middle age)
3. Guide for the Perplexed (written in Arabic in old age)
Most of Maimonides' works were written in Arabic, the main exception being the Mishneh Torah
which was written in Hebrew. In addition to his three best known works, Maimonides also
composed various teshuvot (responsa), which is essentially a collection of correspondence between
Maimonides' and various other Jewish authorities around that time. In addition to these texts,
Maimonides also composed some medical texts, during his time as physician in the court of the
Sultan.
Maimonides the Talmudist
Renowned Talmudist
In his capacity as a renowned Talmudist, Maimonides made three major contributions to Jewish
law: Commentary on the Mishnah, Sefer HaMitzvot and with his 'magnum opus', the Mishneh
Torah. These works earned Maimonides' the reputation of being a highly learned Talmudist with an
extremely thorough knowledge of Scripture, Talmud, Jewish law and traditions.
Appointed as the Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewish community
Maimonides' reputation for his scholarly wisdom meant that he was frequently called upon to
resolve religious disputes and corresponded with other Jewish authorities in relation to the
deconstruction of difficult halakhic passages. In 1178, when Maimonides was 42, he was appointed
as the Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewish community. This was indeed a vote enormous of
confidence from his Jewish peers since the office of Chief Rabbi was one of the highest offices in
the Jewish world at that time.
Commentary on the Mishnah
Significance of the Commentary on the Mishnah
In his "Commentary on the Mishnah" (Sefer HaMaor) Maimonides provides a comprehensive
commentary oneach of the tractates of the Mishnah. He does this through providing a history of
the Oral Torah and explaining thelink between learning the Torah and putting it into practice. The
Commentary was written in Arabic, the vernacular language of the masses. Later, successive parts
were rendered into Hebrew by various scholars.
The Commentary focused directly on the halakhic decision
In this commentary Maimonides focused directly on the final halakhic decision found within the
rabbinic discourse. This is done clearly and concisely before offering a detailed commentary
explaining the meaning of the text. This method allowed Maimonides to deal directly with the
mishnaic text outside of the convoluted rabbinic discourse.
Thirteen Principles of Faith
Significance of the 13 Principles of Faith
According to Maimonides these principles were the foundations on which Judaism was based.
Today, these principles are accepted as the foundation of many credal statements. These
principles also form the basis of the Shulchan Aruch the authoritative code of Rabbi Yosef Karo,
formulated in the 16 th century and remaining as a text of great significance throughout the
different strands of Judaism today.
The 13 Principles of Faith are as follows:
1. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is the Creator and Guide
of all the created beings, and that He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.
2. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is One and Alone; that
there is no oneness in any way like Him; and that He alone is our G-d - was, is and will be.
3. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is incorporeal; that He is
free from all anthropomorphic properties; and that He has no likeness at all.
4. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is the first and the last.
5. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is the only one to whom
it is proper to pray, and that it is inappropriate to pray to anyone else.
6. I believe with complete faith that all the words of the Prophets are true.
7. I believe with complete faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace unto him, was
true; and that he was the father of the prophets, both of those who preceded and of those
who followed him.
8. I believe with complete faith that the whole Torah which we now possess was given to
Moses, our teacher, peace unto him.
9. I believe with complete faith that this Torah will not be changed, and that there will be no
other Torah given by the Creator, blessed be His name.
10. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, knows all the deeds and
thoughts of human beings, as it is said "It is He who fashions the hearts of them all, He who
perceives all their actions". (Psalm 33:15)
11. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, rewards those who
observe His commandments, and punishes those who transgress His commandments.
12. I believe with complete faith in the coming of Mashiach (messiah), and although he may
tarry, nevertheless, I wait every day for him to come.
13. I believe with complete faith that there will be resurrection of the dead at the time when it
will be the will of the Creator, blessed be His name and exalted be His remembrance
forever and ever.
Codification of Jewish law
Sefer HaMitzvot
Positive and negative mitzvot
The Sefer HaMitzvot (The Book of the Commandments) is essentially an introduction to his great
work, the Mishneh Torah. The Sefer HaMitzvot seeks to list the 613 commandments (mitzvot)
found in the Torah. Maimonides divides these 613 mitzvot into two categories: positive mitzvot
and negative mitzvot. Positive mitzvot are commands to perform an act, for example to love one's
neighbour. Negative mitzvot are commands to refrain from doing something, for example do not
murder.
Process of determining the 613 mitzvot
There are 248 positive or affirmative precepts and 365 negative or prohibitory injunctions. But
before Maimonides enumerates these 613 mitzvot, he gives an explanation of how he determined
which commandments were the 613 commandments, remembering that a simple counting of
Biblical mitzvot would yield a much greater number of commandments than 613.
Maimonides sets out fourteen rules by which one comes to include and exclude particular
commandments to form the 613 commandments.
Mishneh Torah
Mishneh Torah
It is generally agreed that Maimonides' greatest contribution to Jewish life was this code of law,
the Mishneh Torah. Maimonides' Mishneh Torah provided an exhaustive topical codification of
the Talmud which facilitated much quicker and easier access to the Jewish precepts. This work
comprised 14 books and was written in Hebrew in a style which was easy to read and understand.
Significance of the Mishneh Torah
It seems that Maimonides' intention in compiling the Mishneh Torah was to provide Jews with a
comprehensible guide to Jewish Law without having to spend long hours studying the Talmud.
By referring to the Torah and his code, Jews should be able to work out how to behave in any given
situation.
Prior to Maimonides there was no systematic presentation of the Jewish law (Torah and Talmud)
thus a Talmudist would need to make an exhaustive study of the entire text in order to explain the
Talmudic perspective on an issue. The Mishneh Torah was the result of ten years of meticulous
study.
Summary of the Contents of the Mishneh Torah
General contents of the Mishneh Torah
In terms of the specific contents of the Mishneh Torah, the first book, the Book of Knowledge
(Sefer HaMada in Hebrew) contains laws concerning belief in God, idolatry, repentance and the
study of Torah. The other thirteen books detail Jewish ritual and civil laws such as blessings,
circumcision, holy days, relationships between males and females, dietary laws and ethics.
Messiah
The conclusion of the Mishneh Torah deals with Maimonides' interpretation of the notion of the
Messiah. Unlike some views of Messiah as the one who would come and make Jews a dominant
people over their enemies, Maimonides saw the coming of the Messiah as a time of peace and
prosperity in which Jews would not have to worry about wars and oppression but would be free to
study the Torah and become familiar with the wisdom of the Law so that they would be worthy of
the life that was to come.
Responsa
Maimonides was a much respected Jewish authority
Maimonides was a much respected authority on Jewish law and religion, even prior to his
appointment as Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewry. As a result many Jewish leaders and authorities
directed queries towards and called upon for his scholarly opinion on matters ranging from
religious law to the general civil issues which affected Jews in that time.
Teshuvot (responsa)
He wrote various Teshuvot (Responsa) in answer to the numerous queries which were directed to
him from Jews from all around the world. These Teshuvot deal with a broad spectrum of issues,
ranging from religio-philosophical problems to matters dealing with Jewish law and to explanations
of complex Torah passages.
Maimonides the Philosopher
Religious rationalist
Following the completion of his momentous work, the Mishneh Torah, Maimonides set about to
write his great philosophical tractate, the Guide for the Perplexed (Moreh Nevuchim). This text
essentially deals with the key doctrines of Judaism from a philosophical standpoint. For example, it
deals with issues such as the nature of God, what it means for God to be omnipotent, free will, what
is evil and what goodness means, justice and divine revelation.
Moreh Nevuchim
Innovative nature of Maimonides' Moreh Nevuchim
Among the Sephardim there had been some previous interest in the secular sciences, however,
Maimonides brought this to a new level with his Guide for the Perplexed. Among the
Ashkenazim there had not been any attempt to study anything beyond the Torah, thus for the
Ashkenazim, Maimonides' approach was radically new.
Significance of the Moreh Nevuchim
Essentially, Maimonides was breaking down the tendency in the Jewish tradition to separate the
sacred and the secular in a way which compartmentalised life by attending to the study of religious
truths on the one hand and the living of life in a secular community on the other.
In doing so, what Maimonides tried to resolve genuine philosophical concerns over some apparent
contradictions in Jewish understanding. Ideas such as the spiritual nature of God and the
anthropomorphic depictions of God in the Tenak were at the centre of these concerns.
Effect of the Moreh Nevuchim
Maimonides succeeded in providing a clear and sound philosophical explanation of these issues. In
doing so he was also able to successfully defend Judaism against philosophical challenges that
the beliefs of Judaism could not be rationally sustained.
Contents of the Guide
In the first part of the Guide, for example, Maimonides deals with the question of
anthropomorphisms (describing God in human terms). He criticised Jews who accepted literally
such Biblical expressions as "the finger of God". Although the Bible described God in human
terms, they were not supposed to be taken literally. According to Maimonides, if taking the Bible
literally contravened reason, then it should not be taken literally. Religious belief should be logical
and open to intellectual debate.
He also felt that one could acquire knowledge of God through the mind and that studying the
Torah helped Jews to attain a greater knowledge of God in the philosophical sense. However, he
also stated that there was a limit to the kind of knowledge of God that a human could attain.
One could know what God was like through God's actions and knowing what God was like meant
that one must then act as God did. For example, one could learn that God was compassionate and
therefore Jews must be compassionate. They must "walk in God's ways".
The Guide is also devoted to providing reasons for the commandments in the Torah which may be
seen as unreasonable such as the dietary laws (kashrut).
The Legacy of Maimonides
It is difficult to overestimate the significance of Maimonides
Maimonides died in Egypt in 1204 but his body was taken to Israel for burial. His grave at Tiberius
remains a place of pilgrimage for Jews. The extent of the influence of Moses Maimonides on the
Jewish tradition can be readily seen through the esteem in which his teaching is held in all strands
of Judaism. In 1984 the Hasidic Rebbe Menachim M. Schneerson proposed a widespread study of
Maimonides' Mishneh Torah in preparation for the 850 th anniversary of the birth of Maimonides.
The Rebbe's call resulted in an overwhelming response of Jews from around the world and across
the spectrum of the Jewish tradition.
The biographers of Maimonides have acclaimed his significance through their coining of the saying
"from Moshe to Moshe there arose none like Moshe", thus giving voice to their belief that
Maimonides stands virtually without peer in the Jewish world in terms of his impact, his
significance and his recognition among Jews.
Maimonides' major contributions
The momentous contribution of Moses Maimonides to Judaism can be briefly summed up thus:
1. Maimonides sought to consolidate Jewish communities in the face of the dual threats of
persecution from Muslim communities and challenges of classical philosophy by advising
Jewish communities on significant areas of controversy and with his literary works.
2. Maimonides wrote the Commentary on the Mishnah and the Mishneh Torah to facilitate the
study of the Torah and Talmud among Jewish communities thus strengthening these
communities.
3. Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed addressed the relationship between religion and
philosophy to demonstrate that Jewish beliefs had a sound basis in rational thought.
4. Maimonides developed the 13 Principles of the Jewish Faith which would become the basis
for many Jewish credal statements.
Surely therefore, it must be acknowledged that Maimonides' influence is virtually unparalleled in
post biblical times. His influence embraces the great disciplines of religion, science and philosophy
as well as providing Judaism with some its mostly highly regarded reference texts. Not all have
embraced Maimonides' ideas however. Indeed he faced opposition from some of his
contemporaries and continues to evoke criticism today. Yet despite these limitations, the extent of
his impact is clearly remarkable as is summed up in the saying "from Moshe to Moshe there arose
none like Moshe".