Temporal Modelling: Summary of Research and Project Outline
Johanna Drucker and Bethany Nowviskie
October 2001, Intel Presentation
Abstract: The practical goal of this project is to create a visual scheme and interactive
tool set for the representation of temporal relations in humanities-based or qualitative
research, with particular emphasis on the subjective experience of temporality. Our
rhetorical goal is to bring visualization and interface design into the early content
modeling phase of humanities computing projects, with an eye toward both enriching the
design aspects of established scholarly endeavors and making humanities computing
attractive and comprehensible to students and faculty without specialized technical skills.
Providing a foundation for the project involved several aspects:
1) Drawing on research across a range of disciplines, we focused on:
a) classifying existing concepts of time and temporality,
b) elaborating a stable nomenclature culled from the existing literature, and
c) establishing the requirements for a graphical system for the visualization of temporal relations.
Our approach emphasizes the need to create a structural and notational scheme that accommodates
subjective perceptions and experiences of time as well as multiple, even contradictory, temporalities
within the document-dependent domains of humanities and social sciences research.
The goal of our first phase of research was to lay out these conceptual and representational issues in
such a way that they could expand our understanding of time and temporal relations beyond the usual
linear, time-line approach.
2) The application of this research to the development of a demonstration gave rise to a distinction
between approaches to visualization, fundamentally different in aim and functionality, though capable
of sharing the same visualization schemes. These two approaches we named the “composition” or
“play” space and the “display” space. Our conviction was that the capability to use a composition
space to conceptualize temporal relations in humanities research in advance of the content modeling
used for XML mark-up would enrich the possibilities for interpretation. If we can create a space in
which visualization is a primary epistemological tool (both in sequence of use and in importance), then
our composition space will permit design-conscious thinking about temporal relations, which can then
lead to generating a content model that better lends itself to display. The visualization scheme (types of
visual metaphors and templates) will be the same in the composition and display modes. Our posited
use of a data visualization tool for experimenting with and generating a content model in the absence
of marked data – in fact as an aid to marking data – is a departure from established humanities
computing practices, under which visualization and interface design are generally marginalized as last
steps.
3) The next goal was to distill these concepts into schemata that meet requirements for translation into
parameterized diagrams within a digital composition space, as per the preliminary demonstration. The
result of the research seminar and technical workshop held in June at University of Virginia was the
design of a more refined (more carefully specified and graphically effective) visual composition space
and development of a set of fundamental "primitives" that meet technical requirements for the
underlying architecture of that composition space. These structures and requirements will be
formalized in an XML Schema document (or a similarly unambiguous form). This family of temporal
objects and relations will be sufficiently rich and flexible to accomodate radically different conceptual
models of time, events, and temporal relations.
4) Future work involves research in the area of smart diagrams, temporal linguistic analysis, and greater
refinement of the visual schemata. A final phase will link the composition space/schemata with display
capabilities that engage existing databases for query, manipulation, and analysis.
Basic argument and issues
The visual conventions used for schematically representing elements (items, objects,
photographs, events, etc.) in temporal relation generally share certain common
assumptions: time is unidirectional, neutral, and homogenous. The design proposed
challenges all three of these assumptions and creates a visual scheme in which alternative
approaches may be represented for purposes of basic research and visual display. We
don’t disagree with these assumptions as ways of interpreting or representing
interpretations of time, but we disagree with the idea that they are the only way to
represent temporal relations or that they have any greater validity or objectivity than our
system for representing subjective temporality. Humanities scholars deal with many
variables in the temporal relations within accounts and among documents and have a
need for a less rigidly empirical and more flexible system of representing these relations.
We will discuss each of these assumptions in turn.
The first assumption is often referred to as the time arrow, a familiar notion that
time has a unidirectional, irreversible flow in which the past is unchangeable, the future
unknowable, and the present elusive but all-present. The very concept of the time-arrow
is itself premised on a second assumption – that time is unified, a pre-existing whole that
simply is. According to this notion, events are contained in time in much the same
manner as objects are contained in space. Finally, the conventional conception of time
used for measuring phenomena in objective, empirically-based time measures, is that
time has a single metric. Though degrees of granularity may differ in their usefulness for
assessing various phenomena or different parts of complex events, the underlying
assumption is that there is a single unified temporality within which such granular
differences can be reconciled (as different scales of the same measure).
We suggest that all three of these are assumptions, and that the vocabulary of
interpretive possibilities may be extended through addition of alternatives that modify
each of these assumptions.
The idea that time is an arrow, and that events follow each other in fixed sequence
such that past events are unchanged by those that succeed is the first assumption that is
contradicted by the way temporal relations are experienced within individual human
perception and within the broader context of documents that form the basis of humanities
research. The frames of interpretation that are common practices within history or
narrative, for instance, show that a map of past events may change dramatically
according to new information, or occurrences, that do not merely recast our interpretation
of what occurred but our conviction about what actually occurred. (The development of
theories of the geological history of the earth in the 19th century offer a very clear
example of such a transformation, since biblical measures of past events, taken quite
seriously as metrics by historians as well as theologians, were subject to radical
reconfiguration in order to conform to empirical evidence offered in the physical record.)
Similarly, anticipation of future events and the degree to which this anticipation shapes
the present, a major aspect of narrative practice in prose and drama, is difficult to chart on
a standard time-line.
The idea that time is neutral and that it provides a bland, container-like setting for
events outside of their individual existence is countermanded by the realization that
temporality is constructed precisely by the relations among elements. Tensions and
pressures exerted by such events inflect all temporality with subjective qualities. The idea
of “the distant future” or “someday” or “after my lover comes back” – all quite logically
compatible with subjective experience of temporality, are not able to be absorbed into a
neutral concept of time with a stable metric that exists independent of events. The
relations among events separated by time, rather than an experience of time itself, is the
focus of such experience.
This leads directly to the final alternative to the idea of time as a single, linear,
scale of temporality that is homogenous and consistent. In much humanities-based
research and much lived human experience, subjective notions of time are distinctly
different depending upon circumstances and emotional or other investments. Not only is
the perception of granularity different among various areas of particular events or
phenomena, but the relation of parts to each other, parts to a whole, or metric scales to
each other are not always able to be unified within a single homogenous frame. (Clearly
the appropriate granularity for a historian documenting the burning of Atlanta during the
Civil War, for instance, is quite different from that used in the narrative of Gone with the
Wind in either its film or book versions). Breaks, ruptures, inequities and discrepancies in
pacing – these are all elements of lived experience of time and its record in humanistic
documents -- and these ruptures or lacunae are often the periods of greatest interest to the
humanities scholar and lay user of time-based digital media alike.
The challenge is to create a framework for graphically representing such elusive
and subjective seeming phenomena. What notation scheme allows us to map anticipation
or regret, both ways of conceiving of future and past in modes that inherently involve
transformation of past record and future events? Consider the unfolding of multiple
narratives simultaneously with contradictory accounts – another standard feature of
historical record – or of individual memory against the backdrop of official history. How
may we create a graphical communication scheme that allows these concepts clear
enough representation to be useful? What metaphors and templates are capable of
presenting a conceptualization framework within which interpretation of such events may
take place according to these mutable and inflected timescales in a way that may
nonetheless prove useful as a research tool for interpretation, analysis, and display of
temporal data?
A. Classification of concepts
Our starting point was to delve into the literature on time and temporality across a
number of disciplines in order to compile as extensive a list as possible of viable
concepts. Our sources included works in humanities, social sciences, and informatics.
(See Figures 1A-1D and Bibliography)
The most fundamental distinction in all of these areas, already mentioned above,
is between time and temporal relations. Time is thought of as neutral, unbounded, a
given. Temporal relations are specific to the relative sequence and duration of events
within a frame of reference. Most conventional time-lines are conceived of according to
the first notion, with assumptions about time built in to the linear structure and
standardized measure. Such concepts are convenient because they appear objective and
stable. They allow complex phenomena to be charted in graphic form as single or
multiple variables in stable relation to each other. Again, our argument is not with the
logical validity or communicative efficacy of such systems, merely with their limitation
for use in humanities research or in the expression of more complex aspects of human
experience of temporality.
B. Stable Nomenclature
We have made every effort to use existing nomenclature rather than invent an
idiosyncratic terminology. To this end, we have culled vocabulary from across
disciplines, with every attempt to keep the usage and definitions within established
conventions. This nomenclature list outlines the concepts that are fundamental to our
project. A number of specialized terms from various fields, though not immediately
aligned with our visual project, have been kept on this list because they have suggestivity
for later use. (See Figure 2: Vocabulary of Concepts)
C. Visualizations and schemata
Because almost all conventional graphical schemes for representing temporality assume
the unidirectional, neutral, and homogenous character of time, they are describable in
terms of tables with single or multiple variables. The exception to this is found among
those conventions (such as calendars, clocks, or other time-keeping devices) whose form
is not necessarily derived from a mathematically based structure or metric, but from a
convention of visualization established through other cultural patterns of use. Almost
without exception, these schemes assume that temporal sequence, once enacted, is not
changed and that future events are similarly stable, even if inaccessible to our perception
and understanding. (We may count on the fifty-two weeks of the year having passed, and
coming ahead in the next, for instance, without any doubt about their being of the same
duration in every case.) Our aim in developing usable visualization tools is to marry the
metrical with the cultural and evocative in such a way that our tools remain intuitive but
are able to describe complex temporal inflections. (See Figure 3:Typology of schemata
and image archive under “Visualizations” at www.iath.virgina.edu/time/)
D. Composition and Display Spaces
Our demonstration of a composition space allowed us to test certain concepts in graphic
and conceptual terms and to refine them with the help of interested humanities scholars,
graphic designers, and computer scientists. We decided we wanted to be able to show
patterns within conventional schemes such as calendars or time lines through effects of
visual layering or other graphic devices, for instance, or to be able to use a dynamic timeline with a “now” slider to introduce elements into a past sequence from a newly arrived
at perspective (or moment). (See Demo 1 and 2.)
Our research and project development were guided by certain principles. We
wanted to keep our schemata as simple and as few in number as possible. We would not
needlessly complicate our system. Nor would we introduce new or idiosyncratic
terminology, concepts, or visual metaphors and templates if existing terminology,
concepts, or visual templates existed that were sufficient to our purpose.
Pursuant to our seminar in June 2001 and the technical workshop that followed it,
we came up with a clearer, more reduced (though perhaps not less complex) set of
concepts to organize the composition space. These concepts are divided into three types
of elements: objects, relations among objects, and actions that can be performed. This list
of elements is extended by a notation system for inflecting these entities as vocabulary (a
modification of semantic value) or as grammar (a modification of syntactic value). Our
intention is to create a basic set of metaphors and templates for the visualization and
representation of temporal relations in a composition space, one that includes some
flexibility for user-defined notation, and one that will also serve as the basis of visual
conventions for display. A continuing criterion is that our basic set of elements permit the
visualization of our counter-assumptions about time: that it is dynamically multidirectional for purposes of representation and interpretation, that it is not neutral, and that
it is not homogenous. (See: Figure 4 and Figure 5)
E. Technical conclusions: Concepts and XML Schema Definition
We are currently in the process of using our outline of fundamental elements (objects,
relations, and actions) as the basis on which to define the XML Schema underlying the
visual components of our prototype. Our temporal data model is being captured in a
formal schema, so it is unambiguous in the strictest sense, though the meaning of a given
model will certainly be subject to interpretation by thinking people. A primary goal of
our design process is to develop a legible set of visual conventions that can be employed
by a non-technical user for pedagogical or critical purposes in the composition space, but
which remain useful for the retrospective display of marked data. These conventions will
be manifested as parameterized Flash smart clips, which follow strict rules and
communicate with our XML data through Actionscripts and Javascript wrapper objects.
Because the diagrams of temporal relations a user will be able to generate inside the
composition space are to be restricted and recorded as XML, the composition space itself
becomes a tool for formal experiments in content modeling.
Conclusions: The goals for the first phase of this project were to make a survey of ways
of conceptualizing and representing time and temporal relations, come up with a set of
metaphors and templates for visualization, and lay the technical foundation for creation
of an interactive tool set for composition and display spaces. These goals have been
accomplished. The next phases of work include conceptual and technical aspects as well.
On the technical side, we are proceeding with the creation of an XML schema,
development of an interactive visual tool set in Flash, as well as the graphic design of a
legible notation system. These are still in preliminary stages, but are mapped out for
prototype development. Research goals in the conceptual realm focus on three specialized
areas: smart diagrams, linguistic analysis of temporal relations in discourse, and
topological mathematics for event modeling.
Next steps: Phase II: Research goals: smart diagrams, natural language
Production goals: refining the visual system, continuing to build
and test the prototype
Phase III: Production goal: linking composition/display spaces.
Figure 1.A: DISTINCTIONS between TIME and TEMPORALITY
TIME: Time appears to be a container, neutral, unbounded.
Time may be understood a container for a reality that exists in time, as an aspect of reality, or an
appearance/artifact of human perspective. Sources from philosophy, history, anthropology, the natural
sciences.
Various concepts of time (temporal ontologies) (Schreiber)

linear vs. circular

finiten vs. infinite

open vs. closed

discrete vs. continuous

absolute (past, present, future) vs. relative (before, concurrent with, after)

objective vs. subjective
TEMPORAL RELATIONS: Temporal relations are specific to the relative sequence and
duration of elements within a frame of reference.
Ways to describe or represent relations among events according to a temporal sequence or order come
from two main disciplinary sources, LOGIC and LINGUISTICS.
Logical: Formal relations
James Allen's relational diagrams of time intervals are the standard source:
 before
 meets
 overlaps
 during
 starts
 finishes
 equals
These temporal logics are used to represent temporal information that cannot always be correlated to
an absolute dating system (extrinsic) and may be ordered according to pseudo-dates (intrinsic).
His system accommodates forward branching, a desirable feature for computational situations in
which a single, determinate past may have multiple future options and where undesirable
orderings may result if these are forced into a single linear system. (Allen)
Linguistic: Relations specified within tense structures of language
A standard framework for describing four categories of temporal elements in linguistic terms:
1) achievements – at or in a particular period of time
2) activities – for a set period of time
3) accomplishments – extended in time
4) points – temporal mode with no extensible duration
(Steedman)
Figure 1.B CONCEPTIONS of TIME from VARIOUS DISCIPLINES (Fraser)
Eotemporality
rational progression of events in apparently sequential form
Nootemporality
(noos: thought/mind) Time as perceived by the human mind
Psychotemporality: perceived time, psychologically inflected
Sociotemporality:
time proper to a specific social system or condition
Biotemporality
future/past distinctions operate within continuity
Organic present (“banana-now time”)
Circadian (24-hour rhythms)
Life cycle of an organism: Birth/growth/maturation/death
Atemporality
physics, simultaneous, chaotic, unordered
Prototemporality
undirected and discontinuous, primary elements
Discursive temp:
representation of time in discourse
Linguistic structures – tense modalities (Steedman)
Palimpsestic – layered temporality in narrative (Jordan)
Systematic temporal relations among non-linguistic elements (Kubler)
Figure 1.C: ELEMENTS of TEMPORALITY from INFORMATICS
Valid Time (moment at which the fact is true within the modelled reality)
Transaction Time (moment at which the fact is stored in the database)
Query Time (moment at which a database is queried)
User-defined Time (birthday, hiring date)
Snapshot
Valid Time Relation
Transaction Time Relation
Snapshot Relation
Bitemporal relation
Transaction time slice operator
Temporal Element
Chronon: smallest unit in any time system
Time stamp
Event
Life-span
Temporal homogeneity
Interval
Span – directed duration
Temporal expression – syntactic expression used in a query
EXCERPT: C.S.Jensen at al., , “Glossary for Temporal Database Concepts”
Figure 1.D: CULTURAL and CROSS-CULTURAL CONCEPTS of TIME and TEMPORALITY
Greek, Roman, and many non-western conceptions of time are cyclic and repetitive.
Heraclitus, for instance, birth and death are part of an endlessly repeating cycle in the natural, as well as
human, world that leaves the substance of the universe unchanged. Ceaseless change.
Pythagoras’s notions of number and measure, have been understood as timeless truths.
The Old Testament, from the very first word, “In the beginning,” establishes a linear, progressive
concept of time known as “salvation time” in anticipation of a messiah not yet come.
Christian salvation time demarcates human history in reference to Christ as the messiah.
Plato understood time as a product of the revolution of the celestial spheres – universal and absolute.
Aristotle, by contrast, understood time as an aspect of movement, as the numerable aspect of motion
designated by “before” and “after” and quantifiable within consistent systems of measure. Time
in his conception is infinite, open, and continuous.
An atomistic conception of time allows for no beginning point, and sees the future as closed.
Tense logic, or modal logic, conceives of time in terms of possibility (sometime) and necessity (always
or never), thus linking time with causality.
Augustine considered time a function of human mind within which only the present was real.
Kant linked time to internal and space to external sensibility as fundamental modalities of human
understanding or intuition. Time does not organize the senses, but is presupposed by them.
Newton established modern mechanics on the basis of time as an absolute, mathematical entity, “an
independent variable used to describe the laws of mechanical systems.”
Leibniz emphasized order relations without any objective stability.
Einstein conceived of time as an a-temporal space-time, spatial and symmetric rather than linear and
asymmetric, and of temporal relations as dependent upon frames of reference within that
“block” of time.
Systems of time-keeping also embody cultural distinctions
Bablyonian and Greek time-keeping marked the beginning of the day at sunrise,
Egyptians marked the day from midnight to midnight,
Julian calendar starts the day at sunset, and until 1925,
Astronomers’ clocks went from noon to noon, after which they switched to midnight as the
start/end point.
In medieval monastic society where the day was divided into 12 units of daylight and 12 of
darkness whose dimensions varied according to seasonal cycles.
See Fraser, Time the Familiar Stranger).
Figure 2: NOMENCLATURE LIST of CONCEPTUAL PRIMITIVES
(bold terms were adopted for use in our conceptualization)
Time
absolute time: container of events
relative time: temporal relations among events
Temporality
(our system is constructed as a way to visualize temporal relations)
Axis or Line
time arrow
Point
(no extensible duration)
start point
end point
Interval
(demarcated segment of time)
Event
(occurrence in time)
Linguistic vocabulary for modal expressions of events
(Mark Steedman, "The Productions of Time")
achievements -- at or in particular period of time
activities - for a set period of time
accomplishments -- extended in time
Formal logic
(James Allen, "Time and Time Again"
extrinsic (absolute dating system)
intrinsic (pseudo-dating system)
forward branching (multiple future options)
logical relations of temporal intervals
before
meets
overlaps
during
starts
finishes
equals
Metrics
extrinsic metric: conventional measure (e.g. hours, days, weeks, years)
physical measure (e.g. quartz clock cycles)
intrinsic metric: in relation to lived experience (e.g. birthday)
chronon: smallest unit in any time system
Ordering
sequencing without regard to a metric
Iterations
Versions of temporal sequence reordered through subjective perception
Now slider
fundamental reference point within the field of interpretation
deixis -- indication of subjectivity within a representational system
Granularity
change of scale of a fixed order or chosen metric
Slice
single time frame of elements at a specific temporal moment
Date stamped
element with certain and determined form
Dividing instant
special case of a point that sits at the intersection of two segments
Vocabulary inflections (apply to points, intervals, events to give character attributes)
determinate / indeterminate (with respect to beginning and end)
certain / uncertain (with respect to date stamped accuracy)
rupture
user-definable list:
mood
atmosphere
importance
other user-defined terms
Grammatical inflections (structural relation of elements)
prospective effects:
foreshadowing
causality
anticipation
other user-defined relations
retrospective effect
causality
regret
other user-defined relations
Figure 3: TYPOLOGY











of VISUAL SCHEMATA
Linear
Calendrical
Bivariate and Multivariate Tables
Bar Graphs / Sliders
Dials
Maps (2, 3, 4-dimensional)
Drawings (flow charts, tree structures, other topographies)
Temporal Relation Diagrams
Hyperspace images (n-dimensional)
Projects: Ontologies and Relations
Time Lines (graphs, sliders, dials)
Time Planes
charts (calendars, tables, graphs)
topography (flow charts, trees)
Time Spaces 3, and n-dimensional
Reference Frames
Extrinsic – temporal references
Intrinsic – discursive structures
Notation Systems – causality, inflection, emphasis etc.
Figure 4: CONCEPTS
FOR XML SCHEMA DEFINITION
in COMPOSITION SPACE
OBJECTS/ELEMENTS:
line or axis
calendar grids
clock faces
points
intervals
events
granularity tics
metrics (intrinsic and extrinsic)
notations and inflection markers
start and stop points
now and the nowslider
RELATIONS/STRUCTURES:
order (or temporal direction?)
rupture
multiple and/or inflected granularities
the dividing instant
visual positioning of elements
certainty of temporal position
determinacy of boundedness
alternative iterations (nowslider-generated lines)
degrees of inflection and relation among inflected elements
ACTIONS/OPERATIONS:
generating and viewing timeslices
positioning and labelling elements
ordering and reordering
attaching and detatching a metric
choosing / inflecting / zooming a metric
defining intrinsic granularities
nowsliding (generating alternative iterations)
inflecting temporal relations
Figure 5: INFLECTIONS
REQUIRING ICONS or ICON-ALTERATIONS:
GRAMMAR/SYNTAX: not having to do with labelling, not purely positional, not able to be dealt with via
a now slider, but dealing wholly with temporal relations.
foreshadowing
anticipation (positive or negative)
temporal speedups and slowdowns (perhaps actions taken with the tic-marks?)
causality: direct and indirect causes and effects
weighted impact or relative importance
delayed or repressed impact
VOCABULARY/SEMANTICS: not at all positional, not able to be dealt with via a nowslider or overlay,
and applied to objects which require more than a text label.
mood or atmosphere
ownership or source
value-judgements (reliability, etc)
user-defined coding
WHAT CAN BE LABELLED:
any temporal icon (points, events, etc.)
any interface element (the line itself, the nowslider, etc.)
any inflection
WHAT CAN BE POSITIONED (on a timeline) AND/OR INFLECTED:
points
events
intervals
metrics
WHAT CONSTITUTES "POSITIONAL":
absolute (and adjustable) attachment of an object (point, event, interval) to the metric
durations and relations: before, during, after, simultaneous with
objects relative to the dividing instant
repetition and pattern-matching mechanisms, including simple transparent overlays
objects whose metric attachment varies depending on the action of a nowslider
WHAT THE NOWSLIDER AND DRAGGABLE OVERLAYS SHOULD COVER:
all positional and inflectional differences in POV-based line iterations, however POV is defined
(as temporal deixis or with multiple agents)
reconsideration and retrospect as a dynamic force
planned/unplanned and foreseen/unforseen
[narrative flashback
subplot and character/agent perspectives
chronotopes, "the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships" expressed in
literature
palimpsests]
TEMPORAL MODELLING PROJECT: Users and Phases of Use
Playspace
Teaching
Scholarship
Computing
Displayspace
Playspace
preliminaries:
An asset for
students and
teachers:
An aid to
traditional
scholarship:
A gateway to
humanities
computing:
Displayspace
experiments:
First, identify and
consider a source
text or body of
information,
preferably data
that presents
interesting
problems in
temporal
subjectivity.
As a teacher, you
can generate and
bring an image of
any lesson text or
subject to class
for discussion.
As a scholar, test
a preliminary
image against
your data by
introducing
changes, thereby
practicing
deformative
criticism.
As a humanist
new to digital
scholarship, you
may first
approach the
tool as a teaching
and scholarship
aid.
Use the
Displayspace to
render your data
with Temporal
Modelling
Project visual
vocabulary -whether or not
the content model
was designed
with our tool.
Enter the
Playspace and
familiarize
yourself with its
conventions.
Modify or
configure those
conventions to
better support
your data.
Create a
preliminary
visualization of
temporal
relations in your
subject matter.
Base student
writing
assignments or
other projects on
Temporal
Modelling
visualizations.
Have students
use the Playspace
to revise your
design or make
their own images.
Students may
use Temporal
Modelling
images as visual
aids in essays,
reports, or other
projects.
You may also
allow your
students to
exercise highlevel critical
thinking by
reconfiguring the
Playspace toolset.
Create multiple
options and
visualizations,
exploiting the
interactive and
interpretive
nature of the tool
to further your
own thinking.
Present your
subject matter
with visual aids
at conferences,
electronically,
and in the college
classroom.
Continue to
reconfigure the
model and
analyze your own
assumptions
based on it.
Use Temporal
Modelling
images to
illustrate and
argue in print or
electronic essay
and books.
Then begin to
analyze and lay
out in a rigorous
way the
underlying
assumptions your
visualization
reveals.
Ask the software
to output a
simple DTD or
database design
from your smart
diagram.
Interrogate that
content model
and adjust it,
using the visual
toolset in the
Playspace.
Output a finished
DTD or database
model.
Tag and parse the
temporal
relations in your
dataset according
to your visuallydesigned model.
If you have
worked with our
tools from the
outset, you may
compare your
preliminary
visual model to
the finished data
visualization for
refinement and
analysis.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, J.F. “Time and Time Again: The Many Ways to Represent Time.” International
Journal of Intelligent Systems, vol. 6, no. 4 (July 1991), pp. 341-355.
Bronstein, H. “Time Schemes, Order, and Chaos: Periodization and Ideology"” in Time.
Order. Chaos: The Study of Time IX. Ed. J.T. Fraser. International Universities Press:
Madison, CT., 1998.
Burg, J. et al . “Using Constraint Logic Programming to Analyze the Chronology in A
Rose for Emily” Computers and the Humanities 34 (4):377-392, December 2000.
Fraser, J.T. Time, The Familiar Stranger. Massachusetts UP, 1987.
----. "From Chaos to Conflict," in Time. Order. Chaos: The Study of Time IX.
International Universities Press: Madison, CT., 1998.
Gray, M., et al. “Coupling Application Design and User Interface Design.” Proceedings
of the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Operating Systems, May 1992; pp. 658
658.
Hoffman, B. and Minas, M. “A Generic Model for Diagram Syntax and Semantics.” In
Proceedings of the ICALP2000 Workshop on Graph Transformation and Visual
Modelling Techniques, 2000.
Jensen, C. S., et al. “A Glossary of Temporal Database Concepts.” Proceedings of ACM
SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data 23, 1 (March, 1994).
Jordan, P.W. Determining the Temporal Ordering of Events in Discourse. Unpublished
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