Foundations: What is culture?
Culture refers to the pattern of human activity and the symbols, which give significance
to this activity. Culture is represented through the art, literature, costumes, customs and
traditions of a community. Different cultures exist in different parts of the world. The
natural environment greatly affects the lifestyle of the people of that region, thus shaping
their culture. The diversity in the cultures around the world is also a result of the mindsets
of people inhabiting different regions of the world.
e.g a particular society at a particular time and place; "early Mayan civilization" . it can
also refer to the tastes in art and manners that are favored by a social group; or the
attitudes and behavior that are characteristic of a particular social group or organization;
"the developing drug culture"; "the reason that the agency is doomed to inaction has
something to do with the civil service culture"
Why is culture important?
Identity: The cultural values of a community give it an identity of its own.
A community gains a character and a personality of its own, because of the culture of its
people. Culture is shared by the members of a community. It is learned and passed from
the older generations to the newer ones. For an effective transfer of culture from one
generation to another, it has to be translated into symbols. Language, art and religion
serve as the symbolic means of transfer of cultural values between generations.
Culture is a bond that ties the people of a region or community together. It is that one
common bond, which brings the people of a community together. The customs and
traditions that the people of a community follow, the festivals they celebrate, the kind of
clothing they wear, the food they eat, and most importantly, the cultural values they
adhere to, bind them together.
Social control
Culture is seen as a system of social control, wherein people shape their standards and
behavior. The cultural values form the founding principles of one’s life. They influence
one’s principles and philosophies of life. They influence one’s way of living and thus
impact social life. The importance of culture lies in the fact that it is a link between
people and their value systems.
Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") is a term
that has different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn
compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts
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and Definitions.[2] However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic
senses:
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excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture
an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon
the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning
the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an
institution, organization or group.
When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it
connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the
nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual,
especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals.
In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a
universal human capacity.
In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology,
encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics.
Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the
evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act
imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts
of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Following
World War II, the term became important, albeit with different meanings, in other
disciplines such as sociology, cultural studies, organizational psychology and
management studies.
Sociology;
Behind the materialistic definition of culture that culture is fine art, dining in costly
restaurants, having the money to satisfy ones need, and living a luxurious life, there lays
an additional meaning. In a much universal term, sociologists have defined culture as the
concept which includes the shared products of human alignments. What do sociologists
mean by the term "products"? In sociological manifestation, products not only mean
physical objects but it also means their philosophy, morals and values, and different ways
of behaving. Material culture is the term used for physical objects that human beings
create such as machinery, buildings, clothes, and food. Non material cultures are a
group's theoretical formations such as language, values and norms, beliefs, regulations,
and living patterns.
Culture is something that a person learns from his family and surroundings, and is not
ingrained in him from birth. It does not have any biological connection because even if a
person is brought up in a culture different from that in which he was born, he imbibes the
culture of the society where he grows up. Culture is a complex tool which every
individual has to learn to survive in a society.
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It is the means through which people interact with others in the society. It acts in a
subconscious way and whatever we see and perceive, seems to be normal and natural.
Sometimes, other societies and people seem to be a little odd because they have a
different culture from ours. Some people feel the need to follow the beliefs and traditions
of their own culture. Every society has a distinct culture that forms the backbone of the
society. Culture does not remain stagnant, it is evolving constantly and is in fact
somewhat influenced by the other cultures and societies.
Every society has a different culture, where people share a specific language, traditions,
behaviors, perceptions and beliefs. Culture gives them an identity which makes them
unique and different from people of other cultures. When people of different cultures
migrate and settle in another society, the culture of that society becomes the dominant
culture while that of the immigrants forms the subculture of the community.
Usually, people who settle in other nations imbibe the new culture, while at the same
time strive to preserve their own. It is said that animals have certain social rules which
they teach their young ones as a medium for survival. Culture is necessary to establish
order and discipline in the society. It is a means of communication between people. It
also creates a feeling of belonging and togetherness among people in the society.
Elements of Culture
Although every society has a specific culture, there are certain elements of culture that
are universal. They are known as cultural universals, in which there are certain behavioral
traits and patterns that are shared by all cultures around the world.
For instance, classifying relations based on blood relations and marriage, differentiating
between good and bad, having some form of art, use of jewelry, classifying people
according to gender and age, etc., are common in all cultures of the world.
The elements of culture include:
 Language: The various languages are essentially an important part of the culture.
Language is a tool for doing things in the world, for reproducing as much as changing
reality. “Language is Culture and Culture is Language” implies that there is a complex
relationship between language and culture. One cannot really understand another culture
without having direct access to its language because of the intimate connection between
the two.
According to A.L. Kroeber (1923) culture began when speech was present; and from then
on, the enrichment of either means the further development of the other. According to the
linguistic relativity principle, the way in which we think about the world is directly
influenced by the language we use to talk about it. As Edward Sapir (1929) put it, “…the
‘real world’ is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the
group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing
the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds,
not merely the same world with different labels attached.”
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Language exists in the context of cultural practices which, in turn, depend on the
linguistic practices necessary for competent participation in a community. Therefore, to
speak is to assume a culture, and to know a culture is like knowing a language. Culture is
as much a product of language as language is a product of culture. Language is used to
maintain and convey culture and cultural ties. Different ideas stem from differing
language use within one’s culture and the whole intertwining of these relationships start
at one’s birth.
All people are similar at birth. When an infant is born, it is quite similar to any other
infant born. It is not until the child is exposed to their surroundings that they become
individuals in and of their cultural group. From birth, the child’s life, opinions, and
language are shaped by what it comes in contact with. Everyone’s views are dependent
on the culture which has influenced them, as well as being described using the language
which has been shaped by that culture. The understanding of a culture and its people can
be enhanced by the knowledge of their language. Emmitt and Pollock (1997) argue that:
“even though people are brought up under similar behavioural backgrounds or cultural
situations but however speak different languages, their world view may be very
different.”
Language is rooted in culture and culture is reflected and passed on by language from one
generation to the next.
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Norms: Every society or every civilization has a set of norms, which are an
inseparable part, and an important element of the culture.
Also called social norms, these are customary rules of behavior that coordinate our
interactions with others. Norms are rules that a group uses for appropriate and
inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. These rules may be explicit or
implicit. Failure to stick to the rules can result in severe punishments, the most feared of
which is exclusion from the group.
Once a particular way of doing things becomes established as a rule, it continues in force
because we prefer to conform to the rule given the expectation that others are going to
conform. Norms are often transmitted by non-verbal behavior, for example with 'dirty
looks' when people act outside the norms. hey may also be transmitted through stories,
rituals and role-model behavior.
Norms play a central role in the construction of social order.
For instance:
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They define property rights-who is entitled to what
They determine what commodities are accepted as money.
They shape our sense of obligation to family and community.
They determine the meanings we attach to words.
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They govern our concepts of justice etc
They include the folkways, mores/traditions, taboos and rituals in a culture. Norms
impose uniformity of behavior within a given social group. Over time norm shifts may
occur, prompted either by changes in objectives, circumstances or by subjective changes
in perceptions and expectations.
Other norms include:
 Injunctive Norms are behaviors which are perceived as being approved of by
other people.
 Descriptive Norms are perceptions of how other people are actually behaving,
whether or not these are approved of.
 Explicit Norms are written or spoken openly.
 Implicit Norms are not openly stated (but you find out when you transgress
them).
 Subjective Norms: Expectations that valued others have about how we
will behave.
 Personal Norms: Standards we have about our own actions.
Values
The social values of a particular society are also considered as an element of the culture.
A value is a belief, a mission, or a philosophy that is meaningful. These are the things to
be achieved or the things which are considered of great worth or value in a particular
culture. They are those things that really matter to each of us ... the ideas and beliefs we
hold as special.
Values are traits or qualities that are considered worthwhile; they represent your highest
priorities and deeply held driving forces. When you are part of any organization, you
bring your deeply held values and beliefs to the organization. There they co-mingle with
those of the other members to create an organization or family culture. Whether we are
consciously aware of them or not, every individual has a core set of personal values.
Values can range from the commonplace, such as the belief in hard work and punctuality,
to the more psychological, such as self-reliance, concern for others, and harmony of
purpose. When we examine the lives of famous people, we often see how personal values
guided them, propelling them to the top of their fields.
Examples.
1. One actor was motivated by his commitment to social justice, which
led to important acting roles related to that value that made him
famous world over.
2. A well-known business CEO was motivated by the personal value that
technology should be easy to use, which caused his company to spawn/initiate a
technology revolution. Whatever one's values, when we take them to heart and
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implement them in the smallest details of our lives, great accomplishment and
success are sure to follow. Organizations and institutions also have values they
subscribe to-which act the key to their success.
Examples
1. Commitment to trusting the customer which engender great trust in both directions,
enabling booming sales, and, the great success for the firm.
2.Some politicians subscribe to certain core values- ranging from helping the poor, easing
the burden of the middle class, improving the environment, making government
responsive and efficient, engendering loyalty and unity, and so forth.
Examples of Values: Ambition, competency, individuality, equality, integrity, service,
responsibility, accuracy, respect, dedication, diversity, improvement, enjoyment/fun,
loyalty, credibility, honesty, innovativeness, teamwork, excellence, accountability,
empowerment, quality, efficiency, dignity, collaboration, stewardship, empathy,
accomplishment, courage, wisdom, independence, security, challenge, influence,
learning, compassion, friendliness, discipline/order, generosity, persistency, optimism,
dependability, flexibility
Importance of establishing one’s values
Our values are made up of everything that has happened to you in your life and include
influences from: our parents and family, our religious affiliation, our friends and peers,
our education, our reading, and more. Effective people recognize these environmental
influences and identify and develop a clear, concise, and meaningful set of values/beliefs,
and priorities. Once defined, values impact every aspect of your life:
 You demonstrate and model your values in action in your personal and work
behaviors, decision making, contribution, and interpersonal interaction.
 You use your values to make decisions about priorities in your daily work and
home life.
 Your goals and life purpose are grounded in your values.
Religion and Beliefs
The religion and beliefs of the people in a society play an important role in shaping up of
the culture as well. To many, religion is something that gives a person a purpose. It gives
people a sense of who they are and what they were put here to do. To some, it is a manmade finish line-something created, bred, and bloomed in the human brain to give us a
way to relax, to let out a sigh.
A religious person knows what they must do: Follow their gospel and receive their prize,
be it eternal life or another treasure. They can stop being curious, stop searching for
answers, stop learning. Religions have rules and restrictions that govern human behavior
and interactions. They teach us to be virtuous.
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Religion helps us accept, appreciate and realize our mutual rights and responsibilities,
which result in the strong bonds of family, friendship, tribe and society. The whole
corpus of religion is based upon the realization, recognition and acceptance of our part of
the relationship between ourselves and our unseen Creator and Provider.
After realizing the existence of an unseen Creator and benefiting from the extra-ordinary
blessings of the Merciful Provider, it becomes our moral obligation to show our
gratefulness and gratitude for all the blessings that we enjoy; to seek and realize the
purpose for which God has created us; and to find out if God has given us any
information of His likes and dislikes and then to try to live a life, which is in agreement
with this purpose of life and with the likes and dislikes of our Creator.
In essence, therefore, ‘religion’ holds significance in man’s life because man knows
himself to be morally obliged to acknowledge and respond, in the most appropriate and
befitting manner, to the great bounties and privileges that God has bestowed upon him.
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Social Collectives: Social collectives refer to the social groups, organizations,
communities, institutions, classes, and societies, which are considered as
symbolic social constructions.
Statuses and Roles: A status or a social role is a slot or position within a group or
society, which gives an overall idea of the social structure and hence is an
important element of culture. This can also include traditional gender-based or
age-based roles.
Cultural Integration: This includes the degree of harmony or integration within
the various elements of culture. This can include elements like sub-cultures, local
cultures and the difference between historical and cultural traditions.
Qns.
1. i) Choose the values that are most important to you, the values you
believe in and that define your character.
ii) How have these values helped you be the person you are and
accomplish your goals and dreams in life?
2. i) From where does the present day generation learn its values?
ii) How does what they see and hear on television or on the street
influence their behavior and perception of the world?
Characteristics of Culture
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Culture is shared: Every culture is shared by a group of people. Depending on the
region they live in, the climatic conditions they thrive in and their historical heritage, they
form a set of values and beliefs. This set of their principles of life shapes their culture. No
culture belongs to an individual, rather it belongs to a community.
Culture is learned. The members of a culture share certain ideals, which shape their
lives. Generations learn to follow these ideals and principles. Culture propagates through
generations, which adopt their old customs and traditions as a part of their culture. The
ideals they base their lives on is a part of their culture. Cultural values are imparted from
one generation to another, thus resulting in a continual of traditions that are a part of
culture. The language, the literature and the art forms pass across generations. Culture is
learned, understood and adopted by the younger generations of society. No individual is
born with a sense of his/her culture. He/she has to learn it.
Culture is dynamic/changes
A gradual change is characteristic to almost every culture; cultures are subject to change.
Culture loses some of its traits and gains new ones. The aspects of culture that change
vary across societies. The changes are attributed to new technologies, new modes of
work, social thinking undergoing transitions and so on. Every culture changes in time
although the rate of change of every culture varies.
Cultures are dependent on each other
Studies have brought out a fact that no culture can remain in isolation. There is hardly
any social community that is completely isolated from the rest of the world. Every culture
is mostly influenced by cultures of the surrounding regions. Cultural values are prone to
be affected by the values of communities in close vicinity. The cultures, which emerged
during the same periods of time often, show certain similarities. Modern times have
witnessed an intermix of cultures; cultures are blended together giving rise to shared
cultures.
Importance of culture in communication
Cultures differ in several ways that affect communication:
• Stability: conditions in the culture may be stable or may be changing either slowly or
rapidly;
Example:
1. The position of women and men in some African cultures-which has greatly changed.
2. Rites of passage in some communities e.g. circumcision among Luo men and Kikuyu
women.
• Complexity: cultures vary in the accessibility of information.
-Some cultures are very complex; intricate
E.g.
1.The Tiriki of western Kenya who are known to be quite reserved about their culture
2. The teachings given during the seclusion period after initiation-secrets not be revealed.
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• Composition: some cultures are made up of many diverse subcultures and generally,
the fewer the subcultures in a person's background, the easier it is to communicate,
because you have fewer potential differences to consider.
Subcultures are distinct groups that exist within a major culture.
E.g. The common luhya culture and the Balunda clan who burry people in a sitting
position-with many other rituals following.
• Acceptance: cultures vary in their attitudes toward outsiders, some are openly hostile,
some maintain a detached aloofness, and others are friendly, and cooperative toward
strangers.
E.g Some African communities known to be hospitable-socialized that visitors are
blessings, angels. Chasing or killing a stranger is an abomination.
Different Cultures of the World
There are many distinct cultures across the globe that are the essence of various human
civilizations. Studying a single culture in depth requires immense effort and time to
fathom the core values and fundamentals. Some basics of different cultures of the world.
African Culture
The continent of Africa is a vast one and it contains as many as 53 countries. Although
essentially similar, these countries in Africa have some subtle differences in their culture.
African Tribes: There are a number of African tribes in the African continent. The Afar
tribes are found in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. The Anlo-Ewe tribes were once
inhabitants of Notsie, from where they migrated in 1474 and are currently found in the
southeastern areas of Republic of Ghana. The Amhara tribes are found in Ethiopia,
Ashanti tribes in central Ghana, Bakongo tribes along the Atlantic coast and the Bambara
tribes are located in Mali. The Bemba tribes are located in Zambia, the Berber tribes in
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. The Bobo tribes are found in western
Burkina Faso and Mali. The Bushmen tribes are located in the Kalahari Desert. The
Chewa tribes are located in Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. The Dogon tribes live in
southeastern Mali and Burkino Faso. Some other tribes found in Africa are the Fang
tribe, Fon, Fulani, Ibos, Kikuyu, Maasai, Mandinka, Pygmies, Samburu, Senufo, Tuareg,
Wolof, Yoruba and Zulu.
African Religions: There are two major religions in Africa and hence most of the
Africans adhere to either Christianity or Islam. Many adherents of both Islam and
Christianity also follow African traditional religions.
African Arts: African art has certain themes that are repeated throughout all the art
forms, be it painting, pottery or any other handicrafts. Some of the subjects that are
commonly portrayed are couples, the depiction of woman and a child, a male with a wild
animal or the portrayal of an outsider. According to African culture, the depiction of the
couples represents ancestors or even community founders. Often there is also depiction of
twins. However the representation of the couple is rarely the kind to show sexual
intimacy or loves, more often it depicts strength and honor. The portrayal of the woman
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and her child represents mother earth and the child represents the people living on the
earth. The portrayal of the male with the weapon or with a horse is usually representing
the power or status conferred upon that man.
Finally the portrayal of the stranger represents a foreigner or an outsider. In ancient
African culture, the stranger was not welcome and there always existed a gap between the
stranger and the African people in the pictures. In the African culture, the songs are used
as a mode of communication. Melodies in African music are organized within a scale of
four, five, six or seven tones. Common musical instruments used in African music are
drums, slit gongs, double-bells, rattles, harps, musical hows, xylophone, flutes and
trumpets. Drums are particularly popular which explains the use of several different types
of drums like – tama talking drums, bougarabou, djembe, water drums and the ngoma
drums.
African Languages: There are close to 2000 languages spoken throughout Africa. All
these languages can be broadly categorized into four major categories, which are AfroAsiatic languages, Nilo-Saharan languages, Niger-Congo languages and the Khoisan
languages. Some of the Nilo-Saharan languages are Kanuri, Songhay, Nubian, and the
Nilotic family languages, which include Luo, Dinka, and Maasai. The Niger-Congo
languages include the Bantu and Niger-Kordofanian language families. The Khoisan
language family includes around thirty languages categorized into five Khoisan families.
In addition to these above-mentioned languages, there are also certain non-African
languages as well as a large number of sign languages.
African Clothing: Vibrant colors have always been a prominent feature of the African
clothing. A near eastern influence is evident in countries like Egypt where the Gellabiya
is worn. The Dashiki is a very colorful men’s garment that covers the upper half of the
body, while the traditional female attire is called a Kaftan, which is a loose-fitting
pullover garment, usually with an embroidered V-shaped collar. The Boubou, Tuareg,
and Mitumba are some other common traditional costumes found in the African
countries.
African Cuisine: The African cuisine is a beautiful concoction of tropical fruits and
vegetables as well as the exotic seafood varieties. There are various regional differences
in the African cuisine. For instance the Central African cuisine is influenced by the plants
grown in the region which chiefly include plantains, cassava, spinach stew, peppers,
chilies, onions, okra, ginger and peanut butter. Meat preparations containing crocodile,
monkey, warthog and antelopes are also found at times. The East African cuisine rarely
features meat forms and includes maize, rice, saffron, cloves, cinnamon, tomatoes,
pineapple, orange, lemon and bananas. The North African cuisine owing to the Turkish
influence has inclusion of several popular pastries and other bakery items. The southern
Africa, owing to its Malay influence includes spicy chutneys and curries and marinated
kebabs and sweets savories in its cuisine. On the other hand typical West African meal
includes a large number of starchy items and a relatively less number of meat products.
African Festivals: They include the traditional Muslim festivals like Ramadan, Eid-ul-
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Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha and other universal festivals like New Year celebration and
Christmas. There are several other festivals in Africa. Many of the African festivals are
oriented around the farming and harvesting cycles. Each community has their names for
the different festivals.
Ancient Egyptian Culture
Ancient Egyptian civilization is considered as one of the oldest civilization in the history
of mankind. Ancient Egyptian culture is known for their pyramids which are still
considered as the wonders in 21st century. Scientist and Architects of the modern world
are not able to answer the simple question: "How did they build it?" The treasure
discovered from the pyramids and other monuments put more light on the ancient
Egyptian culture. The greatness of this civilization is that it has three thousand years of
continuous history.
Clothing: Ancient Egyptian people usually wore white linen tunics, drapes and loin
clothes. The clothing style was different for different classes of society. Pharaohs and
priests used high quality material. The people from high society used to possess gold
jewelery to maintain their status.
Farming: The life of the ancient Egypt was dependent on Nile river, which was equal to
life for them. The farmers of that age are known for the invention of the first irrigation
system. Some scientists also believe that Egyptian farmers were the first farmers to use a
plough.
Language: Ancient Egyptian language was at one point the longest surviving and used
language. It was used from 3000BC to 11th century. Their writing system was made up
of pictures of the real things like birds, tools, etc. These pictures are known as
hieroglyph. This language was made up of more than 500 hieroglyphs and is known as
hieroglyphics. On the stone monuments or tombs many forms of artistic hieroglyphics
can be found.
Legal System: Pharaohs were the rulers of ancient Egypt. The laws were made and
maintained by them. These laws of the ancient time were based on common-sense view
of right and wrong. -The punishments were decided considering the severity of the crime.
Tomb robbery was considered a serious crime and tomb robbers were punished by
execution.
Sometimes criminals' families were also punished.
Religion: The ancient Egyptian religion was followed for more than ten thousand years
until the establishment of Christianity and Islam. Egyptians believed that spiritual part is
the integral part of the human body. The beliefs and rituals developed, changed and
merged with time depending on the ruling families. Ancient Egyptians were polytheistworshiped a vast array of gods with many different powers, for instance protection,
fertility, etc. Pharaohs were considered as the connections between material and spiritual
realms. Priests worshipped gods on behalf of the Pharaohs. Though Egyptians built the
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temples, they were not open to the public. The system of oracles/prophecy/
foreshadowing, was used to communicate with gods.
Leisure Activities: They had a variety of game- music and other leisure activities such as
hunting and boating were enjoyed by ancient Egyptians. The board games were played
for entertainment. Music was played and dances were performed during the feasts and
festivals where harps, drums, flutes were quiet popular. Special kinds of musical
instruments were played during religious ceremonies.
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