BA 562 - Fall 2009
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Course Syllabus - BA 562
Seminar in Consumer Behavior
Jim Bettman – Fall 2009
Purpose
The purpose of this seminar is to provide PhD-level coverage of the major research work carried
out in consumer behavior. For each topic considered, a range of articles from early “classics” to
recent state-of-the art research will be distributed. The starred articles are the ones we will
discuss each week. For each topic, our goals will be to determine the main ideas and research
questions driving work in each topic area, what we have learned to date, where the gaps are in
our knowledge, and what ideas for new research those gaps imply. In particular, my goal is that
each week we should generate in class the design/idea for at least one new study in the focal
topic area. The other, non-starred articles are provided as important additional papers on the
topic. For a better grasp of consumer research, you should read those articles on your own.
Student Responsibilities
Each student should come to the seminar prepared to discuss each starred article in depth and to
present their ideas about the major ideas, contributions, or shortcomings of each article if asked
to do so. As noted above, we will also generate an idea for a study each week; students should
come to class with study ideas stimulated by the articles read.
You will also be responsible for writing up an approximately one-page (double-spaced) note for
each class focusing on one research idea you believe emanates from that week’s readings.
Ideally, these brief write-ups will propose new studies designed to extend a particular paper or to
build a bridge between papers. Please email me your write-up by 5 pm on the Sunday before
each class.
Each student will also be expected to do a research paper, which can be a design for a study, a
critical literature review, etc. I will set aside 1-2 hours on October 19 when we will discuss
preliminary ideas for the papers, and I will ask each student to present an idea at those times.
Papers are typically 20-30 pages in length and will be due on Friday, December 11 (the end of
finals period) by 5 pm.
In order to facilitate the writing of your paper, on Monday, October 19 you will present 3-5
overheads in class to the group to gather ideas and feedback; please send your slides to me by 5
pm on Sunday, October 18.
Course Grading
The course grade will be based on your seminar paper.
Course Calendar
8/24 Session 1 – Organizational & Introduction
BA 562 - Fall 2009
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*1.
John A. Howard and Jagdish N. Sheth, The Theory of Buyer Behavior, Chapter 2.
*2.
James R. Bettman, An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice,
Chapter 2.
8/31 Session 2 - Motivation and Personality
1.
Harold H. Kassarjian, “Personality and Consumer Behavior: A Review,” Journal
of Marketing Research, 8 (1971), 409-18.
*2.
Russell Belk, “Possessions and the Extended Self,” JCR, 15 (September 1988),
139-168.
3.
Richard S. Lazarus, “Progress on a Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory of
Emotion,” American Psychologist, 46 (1991), 819-834.
4.
Jennifer Aaker, “Dimensions of Brand Personality,” JMR, 34 (August 1997),
347-356.
*5.
Susan Fournier, “Consumers and Their Brands: Developing Relationship Theory
in Consumer Research,” JCR, 24 (March 1998), 343-373
6.
Rosellina Ferraro, Baba Shiv, and James R. Bettman, “Let Us Eat and Drink, for
Tomorrow We Shall Die: Effects of Mortality Salience and Self-Esteem on SelfRegulation in Consumer Choice” 32, JCR, (June 2005), 65-75.
7.
Joel B. Cohen and Eduardo B. Andrade “Affective Intuition and Task-Contingent
Affect Regulation,” JCR, 31 (September 2004), 358-367.
8.
Stacy L. Wood and James R. Bettman, “Predicting Happiness: How Normative
Feeling Rules Influence (and Even Reverse) Durability Bias,” JCP, 17 (3), 188201.
*9.
Ayelet Fishbach and Ravi Dhar “Goals as Excuses or Guides: The Liberating
Effect of Perceived Goal Progress on Choice,” JCR, 32 (December 2005), 370377.
*10.
Tanya L. Chartrand, Joel Huber, Baba Shiv, and Robin J. Tanner, “Nonconscious
Goals and Consumer Choice” JCR, 35 (August 2008), 189-201.
9/7 Session 3 - Attention and Perception (Labor Day but classes in session)
1.
Herbert Krugman, “The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning Without
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Involvement,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 29 (Fall 1965), 349-356.
*2.
John A. Bargh and Tanya L. Chartrand, “The Unbearable Automaticity of Being,”
American Psychologist, 54 (July 1999), 462-479.
3.
Scott McKenzie, “The Role of Attention in Mediating the Effect of Advertising
on Attribute Importance,” JCR, 13 (September 1986), 174-195.
4.
Susan M. Broniarczyk and Joseph W. Alba, “The Importance of the Brand in
Brand Extension,” JMR, 31 (May 1994), 214-228.
*5.
Ran Kivetz and Itamar Simonson, “Earning the Right to Indulge: Effort as a
Determinant of Consumer Preferences Toward Frequency Program Rewards,”
JMR, 39 (May 2002), 155-170.
6.
Stacy Wood, “Remote Purchase Environments: The Influence of Return Policy
Leniency on Two-Stage Decision Processes,” JMR, 38 (March 2001), 157-169.
7.
John A. Bargh, “Losing Consciousness: “Automatic Influences on Consumer
Judgment, Behavior, and Motivation,” JCR, 29 (September 2002), 280-285.
8.
Angela Y. Lee and Aparna A. Lebroo, “The Effect of Conceptual and Perceptual
Fluency on Brand Evaluation,” JMR, 41 (May 2004), 151-165.
*9.
Gavan J. Fitzsimons, Joseph C. Nunes and Patti Williams, “License to Sin: The
Liberating Role of Reporting Expectations,” JCR, 34 (June 2007), 22-31.
*10.
David Luna, Torsten Ringberg, and Laura A. Peracchio, “One Individual, Two
Identities: Frame Switching among Biculturals,” JCR, 35 (August 2008), 279-293.
9/14 Session 4 - Applications of Attention and Perception; Search
1.
Raymond Bauer, “Consumer Behavior as Risk-Taking,” in Donald F. Cox, ed.,
Risk Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behavior, 23-33.
2.
James R. Bettman, “Consumer Information Acquisition and Search Strategies,” In
Andrew Mitchell, ed., The Effect of Information on Consumer and Market
Behavior, 1978, 35-48.
*3.
Joseph W. Alba and J. Wesley Hutchinson, “Dimensions of Consumer Expertise,”
JCR, 13 (March 1987), 411-454.
4.
Mita Sujan and James Bettman, “The Effects of Brand Positioning Strategies on
Consumers’ Brand and Category Perceptions: Some Insights from Schema
Research,” JMR, 26 (November 1989), 454-467.
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*5.
William Boulding, Ajay Kalra, Richard Staelin, and Valarie Zeithaml, “A
Dynamic Process Model of Service Quality: From Expectations to Behavioral
Intentions,” JMR, 30 (February 1993), 7-27.
6.
John G. Lynch and Dan Ariely, “Wine Online: Search Costs Affect Competition
on Price, Quality, and Distribution,” Marketing Science, 19 (Winter 2000), 83103.
7.
Joseph W. Alba and J. Wesley Hutchinson, “Knowledge Calibration: What
Consumers Know and What They Think They Know,” JCR, 27 (September
2000), 123-156.
8.
Gal Zauberman, “The Intertemporal Dynamics of Consumer Lock-In,” JCR, 30
(December 2003), 405-419.
*9.
Baba Shiv, Ziv Carmon, and Dan Ariely, “Placebo Effects of Marketing Actions:
Consumers May Get What They Pay For,” JMR, 42 (November 2005), 383-393.
*10.
Gal Zauberman, B. Kyu Kim, Selin A. Malkoc, and James R. Bettman,
“Discounting Time and Time Discounting: Subjective Time Perception and
Intertemporal Preferences,” JMR, 46 (August 2009).
9/21 Session 5 – Memory
*1.
James R. Bettman, “Memory Factors in Consumer Choice: A Review,” JM, 43
(1979), 37-53.
*2.
John Lynch and Thomas Srull, “Memory and Attentional Factors in Consumer
Choice: Concepts and Research Methods,” JCR, 9 (June 1982), 18-37.
3.
Gabriel Biehal and Dipankar Chakravarti, “Information Accessibility as a
Moderator of Consumer Choice,” JCR, 10 (June 1983), 1-14.
4.
Meryl Lichtenstein and Thomas Srull, “Conceptual and Methodological Issues in
Examining the Relationship between Consumer Memory and Judgment,” in Linda
Alwitt and Andrew Mitchell, eds., Psychological Processes and Advertising
Effects, 1985, 113-128.
5.
Kevin Lane Keller, “Memory Factors in Advertising: The Effect of Advertising
Retrieval Cues on Brand Evaluations,” JCR, 14 (December 1987), 316-333.
6.
Prakash Nedungadi, “Recall and Consumer Consideration Sets: Influencing
Choice Without Altering Brand Evaluations,” JCR, 17 (December 1990), 263276.
7.
Mita Sujan, James R. Bettman, and Hans Baumgartner, “Influencing Consumer
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Judgments Using Autobiographical Memories: A Self-referencing Perspective,
JMR, 30 (November 1993), 422-436.
8.
Geeta Menon, “The Effects of Accessibility of Information in Memory on
Judgments of Behavioral Frequencies,” JCR, 20 (December 1993), 431-440.
*9.
Kathryn A. Braun, “Post-experience Advertising Effects on Consumer Memory,”
JCR, 25 (December 1999), 319-334.
*10.
Gal Zauberman, Rebecca K. Ratner, and B. Kyu Kim, “Memories as Assets:
Strategic Memory Protection in Choice over Time,” JCR, 35 (February 2009),
715-728.
9/28 Session 6 - Decision Processes I
*1.
James Bettman, Mary Frances Luce, and John Payne, “Constructive Consumer
Choice Processes,” JCR, 25 (December 1998), 187-217.
2.
Robert Zajonc, “Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences,”
American Psychologist, 35 (February 1980), 151-175
3.
Mita Sujan, “Consumer Knowledge: Effects on Evaluation Strategies Mediating
Consumer Judgment,” JCR, 12 (June 1985), 31-46.
4.
Michael Johnson, “Consumer Choice Strategies for Comparing Noncomparable
Alternatives,” JCR, 11 (December 1984), 741-753.
5.
J. Edward Russo, Margaret G. Meloy, and Victoria Husted Medvec,
“Predecisional Distortion of Product Information,” JMR, 35 (November 1998),
438-452.
*6.
Itamar Simonson, “Choice Based on Reasons: The Case of Attraction and
Compromise Effects,” JCR, 16 (September 1989), 158-174.
7.
James R. Bettman and C.W. Park, “Effects of Prior Knowledge and Experience
and Phase of the Choice Process on Consumer Decision Processes: A Protocol
Analysis,” JCR, 7 (December 1980), 234-248.
8.
Mary Frances Luce and Barbara E. Kahn, “Avoidance or Viglance? The
Psychology of False-Positive Test Results, JCR, 26 (December 1999), 242-259.
*9.
Donnel A. Briley, Michael W. Morris, and Itamar Simonson, “Reasons as Carriers
of Culture: Dynamic versus Dispositional Models of Cultural Influence on
Decision Making,” JCR, 27 (September 2000), 157-178.
BA 562 - Fall 2009
*10.
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Rosellina Ferraro, James R. Bettman, and Tanya Chartrand, “The Power of
Strangers: The Effect of Incidental Consumer Brand Encounters on Brand
Choice,” JCR, 35 (February 2009), 729-741.
10/5 Fall Break, No Classes
10/12 Session 7 - Decision Processes II
1.
Jacob Jacoby, Donald Speller, and Carol Kohn, “Brand Choice Behavior as a
Function of Information Load: Replication and Extension,” JCR, 1 (June 1974),
33-42.
2.
J. Edward Russo, “The Value of Unit Price Information,” JMR, 14 (May 1977),
193-201.
3.
Peter Wright, “Concrete Action Plans in TV Messages to Increase Reading of
Drug Warnings,” JCR, 6 (December 1979), 256-269.
*4.
Itamar Simonson and Amos Tversky, “Choice in Context: Tradeoff Contrast and
Extremeness Aversion,” JMR, 29 (August 1992), 281-295.
5.
John G. Lynch, Howard Marmorstein, Michael F. Weigold, “Choices from Sets
Including Remembered Brands: Use of Recalled Attributes and Prior Overall
Evaluations,” JCR, 15 (September 1988), 169-184.
*6.
Baba Shiv and Alexander Fedorikhin, “Heart and Mind in Conflict: The Interplay
of Affect and Cognition in Consumer Decision Making,” JCR, 26 (December
1999), 278-292.
7.
Anusree Mitra and John G. Lynch, Jr., “Toward a Reconciliation of Market Power
and Information Theories of Advertising Effects on Price Elasticity,” JCR, 21
(March 1995), 644-659.
8.
Leonard Lee, On Amir, and Dan Ariely, “In Search of Homo Economicus:
Cognitive Noise and the Role of Emotion in Preference Consistency,” JCR, 36
(August 2009), 173-187.
*9.
Kathryn M. Sharpe, Richard Staelin, and Joel Huber, “Using Extremeness Aversion
to Fight Obesity: Policy Implications of Context Dependent Choice,” JCR, 35
(October 2008), 406-422.
*10. Simona Botti, Kristina Orfali, and Sheena S. Iyengar, “Tragic Choices: Autonomy
and Emotional Responses to Medical Decisions,” JCR, 36 (October 2009).
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10/19 Session 8 – Attitudes (present paper ideas in class)
*1.
Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and
Contemporary Approaches, 183-212.
2.
Richard Lutz, “The Role of Attitude Theory in Marketing,” in Kassarjian and
Robertson, Third Edition, 233-250.
3.
Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein, “Attitude-Behavior Relations: A Theoretical
Analysis and Review of Empirical Research,” Psychological Bulletin, 84
(September 1977), 888-918.
4.
Richard Bagozzi, “Attitudes, Intentions, and Behavior: A Test of Some Key
Hypotheses,” JPSP, 41 (October 1981), 607-627.
5.
Russell Fazio, Martha Powell, and Carol Williams, “The Role of Attitude
Accessibility in the Attitude-to-Behavior Process,” JCR, 16 (December 1989),
280-288.
*6.
Julie Edell and Richard Staelin, “The Information Processing of Pictures in Print
Advertisements,” JCR, 10 (June 1983), 45-60.
*7.
Andrew Karpinski and James L. Hilton, “Attitudes and the Implicit Association
Test,” JPSP, 81 (November 2001), 774-788.
*8.
Robyn LeBoeuf and Joseph P. Simmons, “Branding Alters Attitude Functions and
Reduces the Advantage of Function-Matching Persuasive Appeals,” JMR, 47.
10/26 Session 9 - Persuasion and Attitude Change I
*1.
Richard E. Petty, Rao H. Unnava, and Alan J. Strathman, “Theories of Attitude
Change,” in H. H. Kassarjian and T. S. Robertson (Eds.), Handbook of Consumer
Behavior, Prentice-Hall, 1991, 241-280.
*2.
Peter Wright, “The Cognitive Processes Mediating the Acceptance of
Advertising,” JMR, 10 (February 1973), 53-62.
3.
Richard Petty, John Cacioppo, and David Schumann, “Central and Peripheral
Routes to Advertising Effectiveness: The Moderating Role of Involvement,”
JCR, 10 (September 1983), 135-146.
4.
Chris Janiszewski, “Preconscious Processing Effects: The Independence of
Attitude Formation and Conscious Thought,” JCR, 15 (September 1988), 199209.
5.
Julie Edell and Kevin Keller, “The Information Processing of Coordinated Media
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Campaigns,” JMR, 26 (May 1989), 149-163.
6.
Baba Shiv, Julie Edell, and John Payne, “Factors Affecting the Impact of
Negatively and Positively Framed Ad Messages,” JCR, 24 (December 1997), 285294.
*7.
Michaela Wänke, Gerd Bohner, and Andreas Jurkowitsch, “There Are Many
Reasons to Drive a BMW: Does Imagined Ease of Argument Generation
Influence Attitudes?” JCR, 24 (September 1997), 170-177.
8.
Pablo Brinol , Richard E. Petty and Zakary L. Tormala, “Self-Validation of
Cognitive Responses to Advertisements,” JCR, 30 (March 2004), 559-573.
9.
Joseph R. Priester, Dhananjay Nayakankuppam, Monique A. Fleming, and John
Godek, “The A2SC2 Model: The Influence of Attitudes and Attitude Strength on
Consideration and Choice,” JCR, 30 (March 2004).574-587
*10.
Noah J. Goldstein, Robert J. Cialdini, and Vladas Griskevicius, “A Room with a
Viewpoint: Using Social Norms to Motivate Environmental Conservation in
Hotels,” JCR, 35 (October 2008), 472-482.
11/2 Session 10 - Persuasion and Attitude Change II
2.
Richard Lutz, “Changing Brand Attitudes Through Modification of Cognitive
Structure,” JCR, 1 (March 1975), 49-59.
Scott MacKenzie, Richard Lutz, and George Belch, “The Role of Attitude Toward
the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: A Test of Competing
Explanations,” JMR, 23 (May 1986), 130-143.
3.
Julie A. Edell and Marian C. Burke, “The Power of Feelings in Understanding
Advertising Effects,” JCR, 14 (December 1987), 421-433.
*4.
Marian Friestad and Peter Wright, “The Persuasion Knowledge Model: How
People Cope with Persuasion Attempts,” JCR, 21 (June 1994), 1-31.
1.
5.
Scott Koslow, Prem Shamdasani, and Ellen Touchstone, “Exploring Language
Effects in Ethnic Advertising: A Sociolinguistic Perspective,” JCR, 20 (March
1994), 575-585.
*6.
Jennifer Aaker and Patti Williams, “Can Mixed Emotions Peacefully Coexist?”
JCR, 28 (March 2002), 636-649.
7.
Laura Peracchio and Joan Meyers-Levy, “Evaluating Persuasion-Enhancing
Techniques from a Resource-Matching Perspective,” JCR, 24 (September 1997),
178-191.
BA 562 - Fall 2009
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8.
Rebecca W. Hamilton, “Why Do People Suggest What They Do Not Want?
Using Context Effects to Influence Others’ Choices,” JCR, 29 (March 2003), 492506.
*9.
Eduardo B. Andrade “Behavioral Consequences of Affect: Combining Evaluative
and Regulatory Mechanisms” JCR 32 (3) December 2005, 355-362.
*10.
Echo Wen Wan, Derek D. Rucker, Zakary L. Tormala, and Joshua J. Clarkson,
“The Effect of Regulatory Depletion on Attitude Certainty,” JMR, 47.
11/9 Session 11 – Learning
1.
James R. Bettman, Deborah Roedder John, and Carol Scott, “Covariation
Assessment by Consumers,” JCR, 13 (December 1986), 316-326.
*2.
John Deighton, “How to Solve Problems that Don’t Matter: Some Heuristics for
Uninvolved Thinking,” Adv.Consum. Res., 10, 314-319, 1983.
3.
Stephen J. Hoch and Young-Won Ha, “Consumer Learning: Advertising and the
Ambiguity of Product Experience,” JCR, 13 (September 1986), 221-233.
4.
Greg Carpenter and Kent Nakamoto, “Consumer Preference Formation and
Pioneering Advantage,” JMR, 26 (August 1989), 285-298.
5.
Frank Kardes and Gurumurthy Kalyanaram, “Order-of-Entry Effects on Consumer
Memory and Judgment: An Information Integration Perspective,” JMR, 29
(August 1992), 343-357.
6.
Terence A. Shimp, Elnora W. Stuart, and Randall W. Engle, “A Program of
Classical Conditioning Experiments Testing Variations in the Conditioned
Stimulus and Contents,” JCR, 18 (June 1991), 1-12.
7.
Jennifer Gregan-Paxton and Deborah Roedder John, “Consumer Learning by
Analogy: A Model of Internal Knowledge Transfer,” JCR, 24 (December 1997),
266-284.
*8.
Patricia West, Christina Brown, and Stephen Hoch, “Consumption Vocabulary
and Preference Formation,” JCR, 23 (September 1996), 120-135.
*9.
Stijn M. J. Van Osselaer and Joseph W. Alba, “Consumer Learning and Brand
Equity,” JCR, 27 (June 2000), 1-16.
*10.
Marcus Cunha Jr. and Juliano Laran, “Asymmetries in the Sequential Learning of
Brand Associations: Implications for the Early Entrant Advantage,” JCR, 35
(February 2009), 788-799.
BA 562 - Fall 2009
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11/16 Session 12 - Group and Interpersonal Influence
1.
David Midgley and Grahame Dowling, “Innovativeness: The Concept and Its
Measurement,” JCR, 4 (March 1978), 229-242.
2.
Harry Davis and Benny Rigaux, “Perception of Marital Roles in Decision
Processes,” JCR, 1 (June 1974), 51-62.
3.
James C. Ward and Peter H. Reingen, “Sociocognitive Analysis of Group
Decision Making among Consumers,” JCR, 17 (December 1990), 245-262.
4.
Kelly Tepper, “The Role of Labeling Processes in Elderly Consumers’ Responses
to Age Segmentation Cues,” JCR, 20 (March 1994), 503-519.
5.
Thomas O’Guinn and L. J. Shrum, “The Role of Television in the Construction of
Consumer Reality,” JCR, 23 (March 1997), 278-294.
6.
David Glen Mick and Susan Fournier, “Paradoxes of Technology: Consumer
Cognizance, Emotions, and Coping Strategies,” JCR, 25 (September 1998), 123143.
*7.
Albert M. Muniz and Thomas C. O’Guinn, “Brand Community,” JCR, 27 (March
2001), 412-432.
*8.
Dan Ariely and Jonathan Levav, “Sequential Choice in Group Settings: Taking
the Road Less Traveled and Less Enjoyed,” JCR, 27 (December 2000), 279-290.
*9.
Escalas, Jennifer Edson and James R. Betman, “Self-Construal, Reference
Groups, and Brand Meaning,” JCR, 32 (December 2005), 378-389.
*10.
Jonah Berger and Chip Heath, “Where Consumers Diverge from Others: Identity
Signaling and Product Domains,” JCR, 34 (August 2007), 121-134.
11/23 Session 13 – Interpretive Approaches and Other Topics
1.
Morris Holbrook and Elizabeth Hirschmann, “The Experiential Aspects of
Consumption: Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun,” JCR, 9 (September
1982), 132-140.
2.
Dennis Rook, “The Buying Impulse,” JCR, 14 (September 1987), 189-199.
*3.
Russell Belk, Melanie Wallendorf, and John Sherry, “The Sacred and the Profane
in Consumer Behavior: Theodicy on the Odyssey,” JCR, 16 (June 1989), 1-38.
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*4.
Grant McCracken, “Who Is the Celebrity Endorser? Cultural Foundations of the
Endorsement Process,” JCR, 16 (December 1989), 310-321.
5.
Thomas O’Guinn and Ronald Faber, “Compulsive Buying: A Phenomenological
Exploration,” JCR, 16 (September 1989), 147-157.
6.
Linda M. Scott, “Images in Advertising: The Need for a Theory of Visual
Rhetoric,” JCR, 21 (September 1994), 252-273.
7.
Douglas Holt, “Does Cultural Capital Structure American Consumption?” JCR,
25 (June 1998), 1-25.
*8.
Mark Ritson and Richard Elliott, “The Social Uses of Advertising: An
Ethnographic Study of Adolescent Advertising Audiences,” JCR, 26 (December
1999), 260-277.
*9.
Nina Mazar, On Amir, and Dan Ariely, “The Dishonesty of Honest People: A
Theory of Self-Concept Maintenance,” JMR, 45 (December 2008), 633-644.
BA 562 - Fall 2009
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WRITING A BEHAVIORAL PAPER
Introduction
Positioning
Importance - big picture - knowing the literature and important issues
State purpose early and often
Issue in marketing/conceptual issue/combination of the two
Not “no one has studied this” (as the main reason)
Overview of the paper
Literature Review and Hypotheses
Use only what you need for the case at hand
Use subheads and overviews of coming points - try to have a logical flow
Summarize main points you want the reader to get
Hypotheses - explicit or not?
Method
Overview
Sections - see psychology journals
Ss, Design, Procedure, Measures, Analyses
Results
Only present results relevant to hypotheses
Organize by H (repeat) or by major dependent variable
Try to present in some logical flow
Use tables and figures
Discuss after presenting - discussion section for each study
Overall Discussion
Summary
Relate back to introduction and purpose - conclusions
Some issues better in discussion than up front
References
Pick a style and stick with it - either the journal you’ve targeted or APA
General issues
Top down vs. bottom up writing – write using a powerpoint “outline”
You are telling a story – it must be coherent and simple (not too many “Main points”),
write using reader expectations (what does the reader know by this point, what does the
reader need to know to get what I am saying)
See Heath and Heath, Made to Stick; Peracchio and Escalas, JCP (2008), 18, 3,
pp. 197-204; Bem (see reference in Peracchio and Escalas).