A Research article on
The plight of the Ex-Kamaiyas
(A Comparative study on Syani Ambapur Settlement camp of Tribhuvan Nagar Municipality and Manikapur
Settlement camp of Gadhawa VDC)
This Article Submitted to
Social Inclusion Research Fund (SIRF)
SNV-Nepal, Bakhundole, Lalitpur
Submitted By
Suresh Chaudhary(Tharu)
Dang Deukhury
2008
1
Acknowledgment
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my respected research mentor Dr. Pratush
Onta of Martin Chautari for valuable suggestions, constructive help, kind cooperation and
continuous encouragement during the various stages of preparing this article.
This article is a product of Social Inclusion Research Fund (SIRF) Apprenticeship Grant
research funded by SIRF, SNV - Netherlands Development Cooperation, Nepal. I would
like to express my sincere gratitude to the concerned institutions and individual for
providing me opportunity to be involved in the research and for providing the financial
assistance for this study/research.
My colleagues Mr Tek Ram Chaudhary and Keshab Lamicchane took the painstaking job
of substantially refining and bringing my entire write up to the present shape with long
patience. My also thanks go to Raja Ram Chaudhary, Daya Ram chaudhary, Churman
Chaudhary, Badri Narayan Chaudhary, Jung bahadur Chaudhary , Madan Chaudhary, Sita
Chaudhary, Sabita Chaudhary, Santoli Chaudhary, Thagu Chaudhary and other
respondents of the study area for their assistance during field survey. I would like to thank
all of the respondents who extended their cooperation during the field survey and data
collection. The Ex-Kamaiya and family member of the study area also deserve hearty
thanks.
Suresh Chaudhary(Tharu)
Dang Deukhury, Gadhawa-7
2008
2
1. Background of the study.
Nepal has been defined as one of the less developed country in terms of relative scarcity of
basic infrastructure and facilities such as road, drinking water, market facility, skill
oriented and income generating activities, among others (MLD, 1997). It is also the land
of indigenous groups (Bista, 1967). Each of them have their own individual languages,
culture and life style. In every ethnic group, one find different subgroup due to change of
place and influence by other ethnic groups. So, they forget and leave their main sociocultural norms and values. Most of this social degradation is created in such situation
when affected communities are unable to protect them. In a situation, Kamaiya practices, a
form of bonded labour prevailed in certain parts of the country. The vast majority of
Kamaiya are from tharu ethnic group.
Tharu, an indigenous group traditionally inhabits these areas. They are living in Terai area
of Nepal before 3-4 million years ago (Krauskapff, 1999, Rankin, 1999). They have a
larger concentration of population than non tharus. Tharu ethnic groups, in Nepal Terai
have not been a homogeneous group of people in terms of culture, language and political,
economic situation, although, they now claim a pan tharu ethnic identity (Guneratne,
2002). There were only tharu population in the lowland before 1960s. According to
population census of Nepal, there is 1533879 tharu population in Nepal, which is 6.75%
of the country’s total population (CBS,2002). In Nepal terai today, there are various
groups of people that are included under the ethnonym tharu (Bista, 1967). Their activities
vary from area to area and many diversities occur in terms of race , occupation, culture
and way of living. Within intra-ethnic or inter-ethnic groups social relations became
complex. And, many forms of interrelationship have been emerged for example Halia,
Haruwa, charuwa, gothala, bhaiswar and Kamaiya, Kamlahari.
Although they are in majority in the terai area, their socio-economic development shows
that they are neglected from development programmes and are in disadvantaged in
comparison to the non tharus. Newly migrated people from the hill districts disposed them
from their land(Kansakar, 1979). Thus, the emergence of intra and inter-ethnic economic
relations Kamaiya practices has remained widespread among the Tharu community.
Generally, Kamaiya denotes that person who works very hard in field. Literally means to a
3
hard tiller of land. In the tharu language, Kamaiya and Kamlahari used for male and
female hardworking persons respectively.
Kamaiya, a form of bonded labour, was widespread in several parts of terai districts like
Dang, Banke, Bardia, Kailai and Kanchanpur. Kamaiyas were and are used to work hard.
They work from birth to death in the field or in the houses of their landlords with their
family but hardly they have sufficient food, cloths and shelter for living. Saunki is the
main cause to bind them on this system. Those who were born in a slave family were
automatically enslaved for debt or fine. Under the system, Kamaiya male entered a labour
contract with a landlord. Payments to Kamaiya families would be either a fixed amount of
paddy and some lentils or in the share (Tikur)of the total production of the main crops. A
hard working person were sold and bought between landlord during Maghi. The large
landlords kept their Kamaiya to work on the land in the same way they kept
oxen(INSEC,1998). It is generally held that social, political and economical all the powers
were attached to the landlord.
Poverty, illiteracy, poor health condition, unemployment landless, homelessness, lack of
awareness, ignorance, lack of means of subsistence and social facts like caste system are
the main factors for promoting Kamaiyas(Lowe, 2002). Other hand, Krauskopff (2000)
claim that this community may have self sufficient land under the state intervened with its
taxation and land polices within a unified Nepal. The state recognized the land of terai as
an important resource in order to realize this potential lands were made in the form of
Birta, Jagir, Raikar etc to members of the royal family, nobility, civil and military personal
etc (Regmi, 1999). Such a practice of the state resulted in the eventual alienation of the
Tharus from their farmlands while creating a socio-economic and political environment
for the cycle of dependency, disempowerment.
This is an irony in the face of the fact that majority of the Tharus have been landless
people in recent years. Tharu community has inhabited since ancient time in terai with
their profession of farming. It is interesting to know how the ownership of their land lost
and converted them into Raiti. Tharu community believed in Republican system. In that
time land was enough, registration was not necessary, but tharu community could not
transform itself according to the modernization of state policy. These community was far
4
from administrative approach. So it is believed with the lack of authorized proofs
converted towards Raiti with the due course of modernization.
The Kamaiyas are extensively scattered all over Nepal but agricultural Kamaiyas are
mainly predominant in the mid and far western Terai region of Nepal. Under the system,
the landlord would retain Kamaiya through bonds of debt and affectionate ties in order to
ensure availability of labour supply during peak agricultural seasons. Both Kisan and
Kamaiya depend on each other and thus, in this case the bonded (Kamaiya) system serves
a social safety net that will protect them against utter destination (Lamichhane, 2005) the
Kamaya families would have access to food that came in the form of shares/wages annual
while their landlords did not have to worry about shortage of labourers.
Varieties of bonded laborers gradually increased as the time passed on and the official
orders were issued. Freedom movement emerged from Western Nepal. It began on 1st may
2000. BASE, a well known Tharu NGO led to the movement (Fujikura, 2007). Not only
poor and exploited people but also politicians and development organizations involved in
the movement.
The government of Nepal realizing the gravity situation of the Kamaiyas, abolished all
Kamaiya system and made the Saunki(debt) illegal on 17th July 2000. After abolition of
Kamaiya system, there have been efforts to rehabilitate the ex-kamayas. Government
declared allocation of parcel of land (2-5 katthas per house hold). 35 cft timber and 10000
rupees grant for house building for the rehabilitation of landless and homeless ExKamaiyas. NGO/INGOs also launched training, skill development, education and cooperative programmes to the identified Ex-Kamaiya families.
They settled into different camp with high expectation of employment and livelihood
problems would have been solved and they would lead a comfortable life like other
citizens. However most of the camps were established in remote, isolated and upland
areas, and the land provided to them was not sufficient to fully utilize their existing labour
force and no other employment opportunities were available in the surrounding villages as
well. The Kamaiyas who were recognized as skilled and hardworking agriculturalist were
turned into nonproductive category. They were settling down in the camp as birds. They
were also left with no alternative livelihood earning option. In this way, most Kamaiyas
5
had no place to go nor did they have any roof to protect themselves from heavy monsoon
rain, wind and heat. They had no food to feed their family. They lacked alternate sources
of income. They had neither excellent skill to get job else-where, nor the landlords were
ready to employ them on official wages (RRN/ILO, 2002) Unskilled laborers were
employed on priority basis in income generating activities. In such a situation, an
economically active male Ex-Kamaiya had no other option except migrating to urban
center for seeking employment opportunities.
In this context, present study explores the livelihood condition of Ex-Kamaiyas living in
settlement of Dang. The first part of this paper introduces the problem, study area and
methods used during the research. Middle part of the paper deals their socio-economic
condition, livelihood assets and vulnerability context experienced by Kamaiya families.
Final part of the paper presents the conclusion.
2. Research objectives
Originally, Kamaiyas were involved in agriculture. Culturally, they share common value
system and practices. They speak the same dialect known as tharu language. Their
adaptation in the new area is very difficult due to marginal and low productivity land.
Therefore, they diversified their economy in multiple sectors to cope with hardships.
Livelihood is an active process because neither the organism nor its environment remains
constant. New problems and new solution to the old problem arise. Each community has
its own survival pattern. Such pattern is partly determined by environmental condition and
partly by socio-economic and cultural system (Subedi and Pandey, 2002). Livelihood is
also a living mechanism of the human being in a particular environment. By nature,
human beings try to cope up in different environments by developing new socio-economic
values but sometimes they may not succeed. For instance, in the new situation, Kamaiyas
tried to get sustained in various ways, but some families were not able to manage to do
and were displaced from their settlement camp. The general objectives of this study are to
examine the way of earning livelihood of Ex-Kamaiyas. And the specific objectives of this
study are:

To find out the Socio-economic condition of Kamaiyas.

To find out the livelihood option of Ex- Kamaiyas.
6
3. Research methodology
34 Kamaiya camps are located at Dang district, which lies in Mid Western terai region of
Nepal. Geographically it lies in 270 26' 00" to 200 29' 00" north latitude and 820 02' 00" to
820 05' 00" east longitude which covers an area of 2955 square kilometers. Geographical
distribution of Kamaiyas households are uneven into settlement camp. In this particular
Kamaiya camp, different type of NGO/INGOs are working for the development of
Kamaiyas Socio-economic status. However, no positive change could be found towards
Kamaiyas Socio-economic status. For this study, two Ex-Kamaiyas settlement have been
selected as a study area. One of them is Syani Ambapur, it is located in the south western
part of Tribhuvan municipality. The settlement is linear pattern along the TulsipurGhorahi link road, 3 km far from Ghorahi bazaar. This area has service facility in terms of
road transportaion and market facility.Another is Manikapur settlement camp, which is
located in the southern part of Gadhawa VDC, near the forest. Basic infrastructure like
road transportation, market, school and health services in Manikapur is almost no-existent
in this area.
Development, in service sector may significantly help to improve the marginal economy
of the people by diversifying them to gainful remunerative activities of nontraditional
sectors. Generally it can be pointed out that how people cope with their hardships, varies
by peoples location in terms of geography caste and ethnicity (Subedi and Pandey, 2002).
The findings of the study are primarily based on the information collected from 36
respondents ( 18 from Syani Ambapur and 18 from Manikapur). Primary information for
this study was collected from the field survey conducted during September to October
2007. A total of 17 key informants were selected and interviewed to obtain qualitative
information. 8 comprised from the Manikapur camp and 9 from Syani Ambapur camp.
The required primary data includes demographic information, educational attainment and
sources of household income. In addition to the primary information, other relevant
secondary information was compiled from various published and unpublished sources.
During the research work, more emphasis was given to collect accurate information and
tried to get the reality of the respondent as possible. Most of the information’s of this study
are based on the primary information collected during fieldwork of the study area. Based
on the nature of respondents work activities, data was collected at the respondents working
7
place. During the field investigation, most of the respondents were not found in residence.
As a result, all the tools were administered with consideration to disturbance that they may
create in their regular work. All techniques were not employed at once. They were
employed step by step for different respondents and different purposes. It has been
summarized into table.
Table
Steps
Research tools
Respondents location
Purpose
1.
Field visit
Settlement camp
To prepare inventory, To study behaviors of respondent
2.
Questionnaire pretest
Selected respondent
To retesting of questionnaire
prepared to conduct a detailed survey of Kamaiyas
To find out the repeated and missing terms
To get an idea of rapport building with respondents.
3a.
In-depth interview
selected respondents
To generate information about their personal feeling and reality
3b.
Observation
Selected HH
To obtain individual and household information such as household
size, education and to livestock etc mainly to collect quantitative
information
4.
Observation of settlement
Selected 2 settlement
To find out their lifestyle, surrounding physical environment, and
camp
camp
their livelihood activities
5.
Key informant interview
Selected respondents
To get more information about occupation and NGO/INGO attempt
6.
Focus group discussions
Selected respondents
To know about the impact of NGO/INGOs programme
and to know about livelihood activities
Source: (Adopted and modified Subedi, 1993)
Dang
9
0
9 Kilom eter s
Syani am bapur
Manika pur
Dang Distr ict
By: S ure sh cha udh ary
So urce: Su rv e y Dep artm ent , K at hm and u,2 007
8
4. Socio-economic condition of Ex-Kamaiya
Kamaiyas were made free by the government 7 years ago.. After making them free,
government as well several NGO/INGOS furthered/launched the programme in the
Kamaiyas settlement. While investigating about their socio-economic condition, it seems
that some got the facilities provided to them and made use of it. Some made only the
slums but some did not get even the chance of building their slums. The study on
Kamaiyas shows that social customs and problem of employment had made them difficult
to settle from one place to another. It becomes difficult to get the daily wage labour in the
new place. It is easier to perform share- cropping in the old settled place.
Similarly, the government and NGO/INGOs have provided the training of vegetable
farming, livestock, electricity maintenance, Bee farming, haircutting
etc for the
betterment of Ex- Kamaiyas, but they are not in the condition of utilizing their skills due
to lack of investment. Owing to the lack of agricultural market the Ex-Kamaiyas are
discouraged to grown the vegetables with their hard labour. They have also suffered
infertile land without irrigation.
It will be ensured the freedom of the question what Ex-Kamaiyas gained from their
movement, but their problems are usual. Some NGOs have paid special attention to
reestablishment of Ex-Kamaiyas. But their programs have not succed. NGO/INGOs have
been found active basically in the periphery of urban area. They have conducted various
programme against the wish and intention of Ex- Kamaiyas. Ex-Kamaiyas said that
trainings provided by them are inadequate and it is hard to utilize it in the real life.
4.1 Spatial Distribution of Ex – Kamaiya in Dang District.
The government has classified the Ex-Kamaiyas into four groups based on the possession
of land and shelters, and hence issued four different identity cards. A family with
homeless and landless is categorized A and provided red Card ID. And, a family with a
house or a parcel of land is categorized as B and provided Blue card ID. Similarly, a
family with a house and with upto 2 kattha of land is grouped a C and provided Green
card, and more than 2 Kattha of land grouped as category D and provided white card. In
Dang District, more than thousand household Ex–Kamaiya families are living in different
VDC naming different settlement camp .Among them, some Kamaiya families have got
small piece of land. It has been shown in table 4.1.
9
Table 4.1: Spatial Distribution of Ex – Kamaiya in Dang District and their received land
S.N. V.D.C
1.
Tribhuvan
Municipality
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Lalmatia
Rajpur
Bela
Gadhawa
Ganga Paraspur
Red
Blue
Yellow
No.
Area
(HH)
13
0-1840
18
4-0-0
133
30-1-0
1
0-3-10
3
0-15-0
3
0-15-0
No.
Area
(HH)
17
1-16-13
-
No.
Area No.
(HH)
(HH)
21
23
-
74
40
24
-
20
-
1
2
4
38
41
28
3
4
13
36
-
14
1
4
11
49
-
176
7
15
62
129
14
1
2
9
8
1
21
15
0-2-9
0-10-0
0-18-13
6-15-11
6-8-12
White
Total
Non
identify
Area Number Red Blue
½
7.
8.
9.
Gobardeha
Sisahania
Sonpur
3
1
3
4
4
11
0-16-16
0-18-3
0-15-4
11
47
41
-
13
14
9
-
31
66
64
10
1
35
9
3
9
9
9
0-13-8
0-5-0
0-1218
0-5-0
0-14-4
0-4-1
0-5-0
0-7-9
-
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Chailahi
Satbaria
Rampur
Laxmipur
Dharna
Saudiyar
Hapur
Narayan pur
Dhikpur
Durwa
Manpur
Bijauri
Halwar
Tulsipur
Municipality
Targawn
Urhari
Phulbari
Hekuli
Shanti nagar
Pawan Nagar
Shree gawn
Dhanauri
Panchakule
Bagmare
6
2
18
7
2
5
4
2
11
5
8
6
3
3
0-19-16
0-6-18
3-3-17
1-14-10
0-5-10
1-0-3
0-7-18
0-8-9
1-10-17
0-18-18
1-7-14
0-11-4
0-13-9
0-12-16
38
15
8
4
6
4
9
16
20
23
5
2
1
-
10
8
3
9
2
6
4
9
23
17
33
5
8
2
-
55
28
30
21
4
20
12
20
50
42
62
16
13
6
3
1
8
2
3
1
1
1
3
2
4
2
10
12
2
9
1
4
11
1
9
2
2
1
9
9
9
9
-
0-1-16
0-5-0
0-3-13
0-8-1
0-2-17
-
5
4
1
1
8
2
2
2
1
1-4-0
0-14-9
0-5-2
0-2-0
1-2-1 ½
0-7-3
0-9-0
0-10-0
0-1-3
6
5
1
6
1
3
17
3
-
-
6
8
3
8
3
10
4
7
1
-
-
18
18
5
17
4
21
23
13
3
1
2
-
9
1
-
34.
Purandhara
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
35.
Total
295
41-1-
230
37-10-9
397
-
324
-
1166
87
173
15
Source: Land Reform Office Dang Ghorahi, 2007
10
4.2 Sex and age Structure of Ex – Kamaiyas
Every type of occupation depend on sex and age structure. Wage labour is mostly
dominated by male occupation throughout the world, except some cases of female’s
involvement. Though females are involved in somewhere as wage laborers especially in
lower status of people. As wage labor is a hard work, which needs enough strength, males
mostly dominate it.
Table 4.2 :Age and sex structure of Ex-Kamaiya
Syani Ambapur settlement camp
Age Group
Male
%
Female
%
Total
%
0-4
7
18
5
11
12
13
5-9
0
0
10
22
10
19
10-14
5
13
4
9
9
10
15-59
28
69
24
54
52
56
60 above
-
-
2
4
2
2
Total
40
100
45
100
93
100
Manikapur settlement camp
Age Group
Male
%
Female
%
Total
%
0-4
4
7
8
13
12
10
5-9
4
7
6
10
10
8
10-14
12
20
10
16
22
19
15-59
35
59
31
50
66
55
60 above
4
7
6
10
10
8
Total
59
100
62
100
120
100
Source: Field Survey, 2007
Out of a total population, 93 persons in Syani Ambapur camp. 69 percent of the population
is between the age group of 15-59 years. These are the economically active population.
The remaining 31 percent are economically inactive as they depend on active population
for their livelihood. In the same way, in Manikapur settlement camp, 55 percent of the
total population is between the age group of 15-59 years and remaining 45 percent are
economically mature. The comparison between sexes indicates males are more than
female in both settlement camp. Economically active male population constitutes 58
11
percent in Ambapur and 59 percent in Manikapur. So, it proves that male have major role
to improve their livelihood condition because each family members depend on them.
4.3 Family Structure
One of the demographic aspects is family structure. It shows the status of the family, the
way of living livelihood strategies, and living condition of each family depend upon its
income level of household size. Generally, the Tharus in Nepal noted for the large and
extended families, However, with the decline in the size of land holdings, large and
extended families are also decreasing in Nepal.
Table 4.3 Family Structure of Ex- kamaiya
Household size
Syani-Ambapur
%
Manikapur
%
Total
%
Less than 5
7
39
4
22
11
31
5-7
9
50
7
39
16
44
8-10
2
11
6
33
8
22
Above 10
-
-
1
6
1
3
Total
10
100
18
100
36
100
Source: Field Survey,2007
Among the total respondents, 39 percent of Syani Ambapur and 32 percent of Manikapur
households have less than 5 members in each family which is considered small family in
Nepalese society. While 50 percent of Syani Ambapur and 44 percent of Manikapur
households have relatively high in between 5 to 7 Number in their family. Households
having small family size are normally those who are either newly married or they are still
in the reproductive age. Large average size may also be an indication that Kamaiya family
could be economically very poor.
Adult members migrate for wage labour. All members contribute for main house and to
improve household condition. For example an informant of Manikapur has two sons; one
of them lives in India (Madras), and another son of respondent is working as a carpenter in
Butwal. Having a number of children helps to expand the economy of the households.
They think that if someone has more siblings they can extend their economy within the
village or beyond the village. According to Sita Chaudhary (Ambapur), who have more
adult people they can earn money more and domestics economy can boost up but we have
not. It means the population growth at family level created the economic opportunity for
the family is questioned.
12
4.4 Livestock
Animal husbandry, is an essential and integral part of subsistence farming. Farmers keep
livestock for different purposes, e.g. manure, milk meat, wool and plough etc. Some times
they also get cash income by selling their livestock. Therefore, most of the families keep at
least one livestock. The number of livestock’s of the study households is shown in Table
4.4.
Table 4.4:Livestock Pattern of Ex- kamaiya
Syani – Ambapur
Manikapur
Animal Size
cow
Goat
Chicken
Pig
Cow
Goat
Chicken
Pig
<2
3
1
-
1
6
9
5
8
3-4
-
2
-
-
4
3
2
-
5-6
-
-
1
-
3
1
1
-
>
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
No.of HH
3
4
1
1
13
13
12
8
Source: Field survey, 2007
Above table shows the keeping of livestock between two settlements. Here, most of
Kamaiyas have at least 1 or 2 livestocks. Manikapur Kamaiyas have kept higher number
of livestock’s than Syani Ambapur Kamaiyas. These animals have become alternative
earning income sources. They sell their goats, chickens, pigs and cows milk near the
markets.
5. Livelihood Assets
People require a range of assets to sustain their life. No single asset is sufficient to gain
varied livelihood outcomes that people seek. Livelihood asset includes productive
activities, investment strategies and reproductive choice which yield a flow of benefits
overtime (DFID, 2002). Such choice mainly depends upon the human and natural capital.
To some extent, the choice is also shaped by the social norms and values may not be
constraint. All people want to their way of living form sustainable perspective. A
livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and
maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future (DFID, 2002:1).
People have adjusted their way of earning livelihood to the changing environment since
13
ancient time and their livelihood strategies to adopt the changing environment condition
differ over space and time (Subedi and Pandey, 2002).
Human capital, Natural Capital, Physical capital, financial capital and social capital are the
major livelihood assets to achieve positive livelihood outcomes. These numerous assets
upon which livelihoods are built through their interrelated assets. Accessibility of their
livelihood assets are not equal for all but they are carrying out the some activities in the
new place. These livelihood assets differ from place to place. Those Kamaiya people who
are far from development activities, are living in the settlement camp. Their livelihood
assets are determined by the nature of work and working place. There is wide difference
between settlement camp and the type of Kamaiya group in terms of access of livelihood
assets. Such diversity of assets among them results in the variation of daily working and
last also for livelihood outcomes.
5.1 Human capital
Human capital comprises skill, knowledge, ability to labor, life expectancy, good health
that together enable people to pursue different livelihood strategies and achieve their
livelihood objectives. Human capital depends upon the quantity and quality of time
available. It is useful to think about how different social groups allocate their time for
example domestic purposes, leisure and the opportunity cost of this time.
At a household level human capital is a factor of the amount and quality of labor available.
This varies according to household size, skill levels, leadership, potential health status etc.
Many people regard ill- health or lack of education as core element of poverty and, thus,
over coming these conditions may be one of their primary livelihood objectives. Literacy
and their skill to do particular work have been discussed in terms of human capital.
5.1.1 Literacy Status of Ex- Kamaiyas
Education is the main backbone for the development of a country. The Socio-economic
characteristics of the people helps them to achieve upward mobility for education. As the
Kamaiya represent the class socially exploited by the landlords who in turn did not see the
need of educating them and they never realized the need of opening school. Due to poor
economic background and ignorance, the literacy status of this community is very low.
Education is a process in transmission of inheritance, but the people who belong to low –
14
income category, are deprived of normal education. Moreover, there has not been
sufficient effort from NGO/ INGOs programme in promoting education among the
Kamaiya settlements. As a result, Kamaiyas also lag behind in the field of education
because their economic conditions do not support all the children to be educated. Most of
these respondents said that they could not educate their children. As they are also involved
in various labor activities to contribute some money to the family by involving as laborers.
They contribute in solving hand to mouth problem to a greater extent.
Table:5.1.1: Literacy Status of Ex- Kamaiya
Syani-Ambapur
Literacy Status
Male
%
Female
%
Total
%
Literate only
4
8
20
45
24
26
Primary
22
46
15
33
37
4
Lower Secondary
4
8
-
-
4
4
Secondary
1
2
2
4
3
3
Illiterate
17
36
8
18
25
27
Total
48
100
45
100
93
100
Literacy Status
Male
%
Female
%
Total
%
Literate only
4
7
2
3
6
5
Primary
10
17
19
31
29
24
Lower Secondary
7
12
5
8
12
10
Secondary
-
-
-
-
-
-
Illeterate
38
64
35
58
73
61
Total
59
100
61
100
120
100
Manikapur
Source: Field Survey, 2007
The table indicates that the people are marginal in terms of educational status.
Development of non-traditional activities may create awareness about the need of
education. Number of NGO/INGOs has played major role in educating them, however,
because of unsustainable 2 or 3 months of adult literacy programme, Kamaiya member
could not improve their education. Of the total surveyed households, only 40 percent got
primary education, 4 percent got lower secondary, 3 percent secondary education, 26
percent are literate only and 27 percent are illiterate in Syani Ambapur settlement camp.
But in Manikpur settlement camp only 5 percent are literate and 61 percent illiterate. It
means only in the facilated areas like urban periphery; NGO/INGOs conducted their
15
literacy programmes. It also proves that illiterate people are mostly older people like
Kamaiyas of Manikpur camp and young generation of Kamaiyas are comparatively
literate. Given the fact that the social and economic conditions of Kamaiyas have not
changed much in the recent years and it could be assumed that their literacy level also may
have hardly registered any significant change. On the basis of above data analysis it can be
concluded that Family members who can read and write could handle any type of
occupation easily within their villages. And, the major priority of them is related to
meeting food and clothing needs rather than getting education.
5.1.2 Informal/ Formal education by NGOS/INGOs
In the study area, some NGO/INGOs had started to give informal education such as
Proudh Shiksha Karyakaram (Adult literacy programme) to Kamaiya communities. Some
Kamaiyas have become literate under the programme. However this type of programme is
more concentrated in the facilitated area. The organization (INSEC) has given many
facilities to Kamaiya children such as school bag, dress, book, pencil, shoes in Syani
Ambapur camp. However FNC has provided these types of facilities in these both
settlement camps. The female and their children are most interested to gain education. The
girls are more involved in getting education. BASE, BCD, youth club, INSEC, FNC have
brought a significant change in creating awareness among the Kamaiyas.
5.1.3 Life Skill of Ex-Kamaiyas.
Many NGOs and other agencies have started to provide training in Ex-Kamaiya
communities. Although considerable number of participants has been trained, The
effectiveness of life-skill training imparted to Ex-kamiyas are generally not satisfactorily.
For the whole day they work in the fields and receive their small wages. The table shows
life skill training of Ex-Kamaiyas.
16
Table :5.1.3 Life-Skill of Ex-Kamaiyas
Skill
Syani
Ambapur(No
of
Manikapur(No of Respondent)
Respondent)
Carpentry
13
8
Masonry
5
5
Bi-Cycle Repairing
6
3
Driving
4
1
Hair-cutting
7
4
Vegetable Farming and vending
14
8
Paper bag making
9
-
Goat and pig raising
13
11
Fisheries
7
2
Daal moth making
6
-
Making Saal Plates
10
-
Sewing and cutting
5
3
Source: Field Survey, 2007
The Table shows the number of skills of Ex-Kamaiyas which is important for livelihood
activities to enhance their economic life. There are two types of life skill training e.g.
masonry, carpentry, driving are those types of skills conducted by the employer firm. Such
type of skills- by-cycle repairing, hair cutting, vegetable farming and vending , paper bag
making, Daal-moth making, making saal plates are self employed. An informant of
Ambapur told me that these trainings are not effective to address immediate needs of the
community and do not solve hand to mouth problem of Kamaiyas. So, participants were
interested only on daily allowances entitled during the training. Above table also shows,
these types of skills are less related to develop their indigenous knowledge. Furthermore,
adequate training was not imparted to women except for sewing and cutting which has
been found virtually failure training in the study area. None of the participants were found
adopting their skill as profession except at her own households or serving their neighbors.
5.2 Natural Resource and Utilization
Natural resources are fundamental to life and are the basis of livelihood for human beings.
Land water and forest play important role for survival. For the livelihood activities, all
kind of sources are important. These sources come in different forms and have multiple
uses. The multiple sources and multiple uses mean the competition between various
stakeholders with various interests. Dang district is rich in natural resources. Dang and
17
Deukhury valleys both comprise forest, grassland, shrub land and agricultural land. Large
proportion of agriculture land is occupied by schools, colleges or temples (Guthi) for e.g.
Nepal Sanskrit university has more than 500 hectors land in Dang. Kakrahwa Khola in
Manikapur and Sewar khola in Syani Ambapur drained near the settlement camp. There is
also topographical variation.
Kamaiya people have neither agricultural land nor access to forest. The right of occupency
in a land are one kattha in Syani- Ambapur and 5 Kattha in Manikapur. Public lands
(school, college, temple) were being cultivated by other people. Permission for these land
utilization are generally granted after payment to the guthi or college.
Free Kamaiyas living in the camp of Manikapur are farming the land or owner of the same
village in a tenant. According to them, "Before being freed all the production by us went
in the hand of owners but now we get equal production”. They further said, we do farming
in monsoon season and in leisure time; we do labor and get money from it. As living in
Syani Ambapur have not a land for farming. They are unable to get land for farming as
tenant. They have difficulty to get even 8/10 kattha land though they do labour without
wage. Therefore, they do share cropping farming in very small numbers. However, the
production is not good. They have not sheds for cattle. The jungle is too far. The forests
are being protected/ conservated by the indigeneous people. The things obtained from the
forest are being consumed by them. On the other hand, due to lack of irrigation, they are
unable to, do farming in their own land, and due to lack of grass they feel difficulty for
animal husbandry. There are so many problems in their lives. This is a way of surviving
for them So, how can we say that they are free Kamaiyas? "They are not free rather the
owners have been freed." Said Sabita Chaudhary of Ambapur.
5.2.1 Agriculture
Agriculture is the main source of national and rural economy. This sector provides
employment opportunities for the rural people. The country has the highest rate of
employment in agriculture (CBS, 2001). More than 87 percent of people live in rural area
and primarily depend on agriculture. The agriculture is a way of life and strong livelihood
base for rural people in Nepal. The economies of Kamaiyas have traditionally been
dominated by subsistence agriculture. However, after freedom, Kamaiyas people are not
highly dependent on agriculture although these are very important parts of their economy.
18
Smaller landholdings have contributed to the food insecurity in the families. Subsistence
agriculture does no longer guarantee livelihood security for them. Majority of households
are there with high risk on food security for their own production. The food and nonfood
needs have been met by remittances from wage labour. The wage labour and seasonal
migration is major income sources for Kamaiya families.
Land provided by government is not more than 2 or 5 kattha to the identified Kamaiyas.
The area is not suitable for agriculture due to lack of irrigation and fertility. Usually,
during summer the main crops is potato and wheat is adopted as secondary means for
livelihood. The dependence of agriculture is on monsoon rain. Whatever is grown in the
field can not support for two months. Thus, from yearly agriculture activities they can not
fulfill their daily needs. In this respect, agriculture is not a matter of priority for them. It
seems that they have also not sufficient land to cultivate needed food grain for their
survival. On the other hand, rain is a source of both food and wage opportunity. The
planting season starts after the rain. Rain is also a sign of hope.
They dig the land with a hoe-instead of a plough. Very few of them keep oxen for
ploughing. They use both family and hired labor in agriculture. There is no gender based
activities in agriculture within or surrounding area. Both male and female are involved in
all types of agricultural activities. The Kamaiyas require labour opportunities near
settlement camp. They told me that they would prefer to work at agriculture field because
they get better foods in two times and liquor. Some of Manikapur Kamaiyas have
agricultural field. They have to pay rent 600 Rs per kattha for upper land (Barri) and 100
Rs. per kattha for lowland (khet) to Bahun, Chhetris and Tharu landowners.
5.3 Social organization
Settlement camp is identified with social composition comprising various castes and
ethnic groups. It seems, apart from Tharu, other castes have also been involved in
Kamaiya system. But the number of these people in this system is neglected. About 96%
kamaiyas are from Tharu community (Sharma and Thakurathi, 1998). In AD 2000, the
government had declared the end of this system and had rehabilitated them in various
camps. After that, all the families of free Kamaiyas including Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri,
Magar, Dalits etc are living in the same society. The settlers have formed an executive
committee consisting of all households. All of them solve the problems appearing in the
19
camp. Not only that they cooperate with each other in the case of individual problems such
as fooding, lodging, treatment etc. While doing so, they do not care about caste system.
However they quarrel each other at times. In this case, all the Kamaiyas discuss about it
and solve this problem. They also make guilty person pay fine as a punishment. They
obtain their daily works from their near neighbors. They allocate the help of NGO/INGOs.
All of them obtain/provide various notices, information through each other.
Daya Ram chaudhary, president of Syani Ambapur Mukta Kamaiya Samaj told me “When
the government declared the end of the bonded Kamaiya, we all sixty four families had
lived and eaten under a single tent, we were there like the children of same parents. After
sometime we separated and made separate houses. Till Now, we all are living co-operating
each other. He further adds. “I don't know what will happen in future.”
5.4 Financial resources.
Financial assets include stocks as well as flows, which contribute production as well as
consumption. In the case study of area the main sources of financial capital are
remittances. It ranges from 2000 to 8000 NRS in a season. Remittances are first used to
cover daily expenses like food and clothing. The remaining portion of remittances is used
to repay debts, to educate their children and to buy kitchen material’s. For many
households in the Syani Ambapur, according to respondent, remittances were just enough
to cover daily expense and they had a trouble of paying their debts. Occasionally
remittances are used for festival expenses particularly Dashain and Tihar and Magh.
Immediate food and clothing needs of the households are there in top priority. Investment
in education seems to be very low. They also spend their earning for paying off their debt.
Owing to these facts, wage labour and seasonal migration is a crucial component of
household economies to sustain their livelihood.
5.4.1 Wage labour
Traditionally, Kamaiyas are farmers. Now, the economy of the Kamaiyas is in highly
diversified. They are found engaged in multiple occupations. After freedom, the main
occupation of Kamaiyas is selling their labour to sustain their livelihood. There is no
gender discrimination in wage labour as both men and women are seen engaged in same
labour activities. They either go out to earn for wage labour into the market in work in the
20
household activities. However, it is hard to find out wage labour for female members. The
wage rate for male and female is 120 and 100 respectively, without two times meals and
snacks during the day. It shows wage discrimination. Some friends or relatives have
already been working in the destination places accompany them. According to respondents
of Syani Ambapur, finding a job is not difficult because they often seek unskilled job.
Friend and relatives have already seen the possibilities of getting job. In Manikapur camp,
Most of them sell their wage labour by working in the agriculture field such as ploughing,
cultivating, harvesting etc. Those with skill in masonary and carpenter earn a good
livelihood. Their wage labour has helped them to sustain their life.
As Ambapur is nearest to the Ghorahi bazaar, wage labour has become main occupation
for Ex-Kamaiyas. Urban expansion of Ghorahi bazaar provided them to labour
opportunities. The males work in the building construction and the females in carrying
bricks and cement. Breaking of stone, loading truck are also carried out, but in lesser
quantity of employment opportunities to the Kamaiyas. Thus, increasing wage labour has
drastically reduced their dependency in agriculture for Ambapur Ex-Kamaiyas.
Seasonally, young and literate Kamaiyas migrate to India or big cities like, Butwal,
Kathmandu. They work in different field such road construction, masonary, carpenters,
factories or as porters. They argued that the daily wages in India is higher. Similarly the
job in India is available throughout the year which is not the case in the village. There is
fixed time for seasonal migration but generally they move from the month of February and
come back in Dashain festival. Sometimes the duration of migration is determined by the
family type. In some cases the period of migration is longer and they come back after two/
three years. Now the destination of migration is diverse. Because of hard working and
honesty the Kamaiyas are preferred by lords.
5.4.2 Saving Group as a Cooperative Agency
NGO/INGOs have started to form saving group in a camp. Kamaiyas, money getting and
wage labourers accumulate in saving group. There are various saving groups in a single
camp. Such as labourers saving group, women saving group, rural women upliftment
saving group etc. Each Kamaiya saves 25rupees every month in their own account.
Kamaiyas of Syani-Ambapur also saves money on rural women upliftment center in the
name of education, individual health and fund surplus.
21
These Kamaiyas can get loan easily from these saving group for poultry, animal
husbandry, Goat keeping, horticulture and business etc. But in practical it is not found
according to objective. Usually people use loan in lodging, fooding etc. They pay their
debt if they get labour wage and if not borrow debt.
5.5 Lifeline Services
The government has provided land, woods, money etc. to the Kamaiyas on the basis of
their groups. However some have got and some have not yet. The programmes of
NGO/INGOs are also varying according to their access and camp. Many Kamaiyas have
not built their houses and many have small houses. Transportation, school, hospital
facilities are far from settlement camp. Their children are not interested to go to school.
Keeping this problem in attention, Plan Nepal managed wells and toilets for sixteen
Kamaiya families in Manikapur, However now these are in useless condition. Though
Kamaiyas, living in Syani Ambapur, which is situated on the side of Ghorahi Tulsipur
road feel this place suitable for them. They feel difficulty to live there for not having
certificate of ownership of land. They complain for not being able to use electricity. There
are three wells for 59 families. These wells have too little water in spring season. They do
unpaid labour for water.
5.5.1 Living Arrangement of Ex-Kamaiyas
Almost all of the camps are far away from their villages. They are unable to use
electricity, etc. They have to go in search of work early in the morning. It takes 2-3 hours
to reach market .Cycles are predominant medium of their income. Some have also
rickshaw, Thelagadi etc. Due to the lack of education, they are unable to pay attention in
sanitation. Kamaiyas also keep oxen, goat, pig; hens live in their small cottage. As a result,
each and every year, they inflicted with diseases like, inseflytes, typhoid, diarrohea,
headache etc.
Women living in Ambapur camp have conducted sanitation campaign programme to
sanitate their settlement camp. As there are facilities of transport and market, this camp is
comfortable for living.
22
6. Livelihood Outcomes
All of the Kamaiyas have fully adopted such occupation. They depend on seasonal wage
labour. Some of them have been involving in agricultural occupation due to the
availability of agri-land. Most of Kamaiyas have started new occupation by investing their
seed money and they do not have any excellent skills. So they have not achieved any
drastic livelihood outcomes. They have poor economic condition. Their main causes for
adopting wage labour are to mitigate the deficient of food shelter and cloths. And they are
struggling to achieve them. Their expectation from this occupation is not so ambitious.
They express their expectation from wage labour as "Din Bhar Kam Karke fen Pariwar Ke
Pet Palna Garo Ba."
Adopting such type of occupation, it was found that, most of the Kamaiyas have achieved
some notable livelihood outcomes. Livelihood outcomes achieved by them are not only in
economic value but also it appears in the form of social value. The outcomes of economic
value are easily seen, if it is invested to increase other livelihood assets (bicycle,
Thelagadi, Rickshaw). They earn daily wage and spend daily on food. They express that
"Din Dinai Kamaina, Din Dinai Khaina". This indicates that they have to fulfill the basic
needs of family. To do hard work they are able to survive in the settlement camp by
fulfilling the basic needs. All of them are not able to save same amount. Such savings vary
from individual to individual and household to household. They have become familiar
with urban environment. And are able to increase social interaction with the person of
different sectors and different prestigious people and feel proud from such linkage, by
using such linkage, they also earn some direct or indirect benefit.
7. Vulnerability Context
People livelihoods and the wider availability of assets are fundamentally affected by
trends, shocks as well as seasonality factors over which people have no, or limited control.
Trends comprise national, international, economic, political and technological trends.
Shocks comprise, among other things, human health shocks, economic shocks and
conflicts. The seasonality may include prices, production and health and employment
opportunities. Some how livelihood can be made more or less vulnerable by these factors
(DFID, 2002). As Kamaiyas living in less fertile land and for from market center, their
economic conditions are going to be more vulnerable. They could not sustain their
23
livelihood from agriculture. They have to depend on other activities. Specially they have
to work as low wage labour.
In order to extract employment, a large number of Manikapur Kamaiya, families were
dislocated from their land. Local communities provided them some employment
opportunity. In order to sustain their livelihood they cultivate their land as a share
cropping they had to work hard to make their livelihood for survival. Both men and
women have to work hard to earn a living. Most of the women live in the house without
any occupation. They were exploited and suppressed by the local communities and this
sort of exploitation exists to a certain extent even today.
The most difficult months are those when people do not get the job. Food is most readily
available during planting and harvesting time. The period of food availability in the
settlement also coincides with those times when wage employment is available.
However, these days Kamaiya’s lifestyles have undergone drastic changes along with the
change in the environment. They are forced to search for other alternative means of
livelihood for their survival. Looking for alternatives on their own is also a very difficult
task because of illiteracy, lack of excellent skill manpower, their health condition and
unproductive land resources and its legal rights.
Conclusion
Freedom movement launched by the Kamaiyas, they got freedom in principle, which came
in the form of Government Issue. However, a genuine freedom from the servitude and
exploitation is yet to be a reality. They are not able to stand on their own and become self
sufficient. They forced to depend upon others for survival.
The above discussion on socio economic condition shows that there have been a number
of changes in these communities. Socio- economic transformation is likely related to the
change in livelihood systems. In order to sustain in the new area, they profess multiple
economic activities. Family structure and education level also compelled the Kamaiyas to
24
boost up economic activities. They efficiently exploit multiple areas( Local, regional,
international) for their survival.
Settlement camp of Kamaiyas lies in marginal and disaster prone areas. Moreover
environment degradation has further made the lives of the Kamaiyas even harder. Lack of
ownership of house, in accessibility to forest and insufficient land has limited their wish to
keep a large number of cattle. This results in the loss of manure to put in the field. This, in
turn, leads to the loss of soil fertility. The Kamaiyas say that they own low quality and rain
fed land. Respondents also say that it is difficult to accumulate property. The agricultural
occupation in these families is very low. They do not have enough food for themselves
and no have access to clean drinking water. They also lack control over the market price
or their product. More or less seasonally vegetables are grown for cash. But the price is
determined by the buyer. Lack of access of irrigation also affects on Kamaiyas both
directly and indirectly. They now start to give little emphasis on agriculture and put more
focus on wage labour.
Because they have no land since the time of parents. Body is the main source of income,
and survive by daily wage labour. When there is no employment, they go to India. they
spend the life of landless since an early age. They have to become servants and work in
the houses of others.
Landlessness results in dependency of Kamaiyas on landowners. The problem of
Kamaiyas is thus not only limited economic matters, but have to endure the rich people’s
scolding, threats and harassment. They can not acquire work opportunities. Living under
the social domination of others, they have to endure not just a derivative effective of being
Ex-Kamaiyas. But also that they do not get respect and credit for whatever they do.
Kamaiya families do not have access to bank loans. Because it is not easy to get a loan.
They have felt banks are not meant for them, just accessible for the rich. Had loans been
accessible for them too, they could have acquired goats and oxen and would begun to earn
money. Women explain that for 100 RS of loan from a rural upliftment centre, they have
to pay RS 50 after 2 months.
25
The need for loan taking is linked to fluctuation in demand in the local wage labour
market. Respondents of Manikapur says, “Local employment is available only during the
peak agricultural seasons, and rest of the time, we have to stay hungry”. Young male
members of the house go to India and when they come back, pay back the loan. The
season with relatively high demand for agricultural labor are listed as Asar, Saun, and
Kartik, Mangsir. When they do not get to work, they have to take loan from local people at
high interest rate in order to buy food. Almost all the Kamaiyas state that it would improve
their situation if loans were more easily available and on fairer terms.
Lack of school education and inability to send their children or to attend school are
recurrent themes of discussion for Kamaiyas livelihood. Those who have extremely low
income and because they do not understand the importance of education since they do not
have time to think beyond the daily need of food. They tend to think that education is for
rich people.
Being uneducated means to work as servants and labourers for other. Knowledge does not
grow by itself, one could not get Jaagir. The statement “Budhi Bibek Ke Kami, Akkal ke
kami” illustrates the character of being Kamaiyas and reasons for their inability to acquire
profitable employment. Kamaiyas say lack of opportunity to study, having been poor
generations, having many children and not even being able to understand the causes of
being poor, has also increased their poverty.
However, they realize how it is to be free. They have not any obligation to wake up, to do
work upon another’s will and force. Social aspects have been changed. And their coping
strategies have included indebt ness, out migration, engaging in wage labour within the
village and moving to India for livelihood.
26
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