AFRICAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACTION FORUM
(ALGAF)
Paper Presented by Shingirayi Mushamba
For the
African Local Government Action Forum (ALGAF)
Session 10: Gender - Building Strength Through
Inclusive Governance
June 1 2001
1
Gender:
Building Strength Through Inclusive Governance
‘We only have to look at the proportion of women in parliament and in local
government to realize that something is wrong. When women form just over half the
population, how can we explain only 5% women amongst members of parliament, and
only 2% amongst local government councilors.
What are the reasons or this tiny proportion of women in local government? Are
women not interested in local government issues? On the contrary, subjects such as
water supply, sanitation, health care and housing are of special concern to women.
Very often women are more knowledgeable about such matters than men, and
therefore better qualified to take decisions’ [Eva Sanderson, Chairperson Caucus of
Women Councilors in Zambia, 1995 p ii]
Summary
This paper examines the subject of gender in urban. In part 1, the paper seeks to establish the link
between gender and municipal challenges, demonstrating that gender is infact a solution to urban
challenges, and not as is often thought, an addition to urban problems. In Part 2, important concepts are
defined for the benefit of the reader. The section is followed by a cursory look at the global initiatives
to promote women in development. The conclusion arrived at in this section is that there are
tremendous efforts at the global level, which, unfortunately are not complimented at the local level,
especially in municipal governments. The paper argues that local governments are at a loss as to what
needs to be done to achieve inclusive governance through women’s participation. In other words at the
level of practical strategies, serious gaps exist. By way of conclusion, the paper proffers some ideas
and interventions to achieve inclusive governance and women’s participation. The paper ends with a
2
call for a gender approach as a sustainable strategy for increasing women’s participation in urban
governance.
3
Part 1. The Relevance of Inclusive Governance through Mainstreaming Gender
Often, we have to ask ourselves, in the face of the real challenges facing municipal governments, how
relevant is the issue of gender to the discussion and to finding solutions to these challenges?. The
Urban Management Programme [UMP] highlights the following as the key challenges facing
municipal governments;
 Increasing poverty
 Higher levels of environmental degradation
 Unemployment reinforcing criminal informality
 Social violence
 Corruption
 Undue strain on already overextended infrastructure and service delivery capacity
 Fiscal austerity – fewer resources and un-funded responsibilities
[Pieterse E. 2000.]
There is therefore need to establish the clear connection between the challenges of municipal
governments and the subject of gender. And beyond, one has to demonstrate that by addressing gender
issues, strength is built to deal with the challenges of municipal governments. We have to show just
what difference a gender sensitive municipal government can make in altering the fortunes of our cities
and towns. Otherwise, mainstreaming gender will be a sideline issue for a long time to come.
In order for municipal governments to address the urban management challenges highlighted above, a
lot has to happen. There is need for, among other things, bold leadership, an enabling environment at
central government and municipal government levels, and most important of all, a radical
transformation in the way municipal governments conduct their business, in terms of institutions and
systems. However, success will only be achieved if municipal governments catch up with what new
urbanization and development processes mean for their territories and reinvent their institutions to be
geared for a more networked mode of governance – i.e. with central government, organized civil
society actors, the business community, other municipalities and citizens. [Ibid., 2000. P.p. 11]
If we recognize that the only viable path open to municipalities is to find new ways of working that
draw on the resources, experience and capacity of various actors in the city to complement the capacity
of the municipality1, we have to accept that women are important for the sustainability of cities.
‘To fight these problems [of poverty, discrimination, environmental degradation and
insecurity] and to meet the challenges of sustainable human development, it is crucial that
women be empowered and be involved in local government as decision-makers, planners and
managers’. [Habitat 2000. P.p. 9]
Unfortunately, women’s contribution to the sustainability of our cities and to that of human
development has, until recently, not been recognized.
It is in the conceptual framework of decentralization and good governance, that we discuss the topic:
Gender: Building Strength Through Inclusive Governance. In relation to decentralization, Matovu G.
[forthcoming, P.p. 4] argues that for decentralization programmes to be successful, participatory,
effective and specific measures need to be taken to ensure that women effectively participate in the
1
MDP is working on various initiatives to enable the capacity of municipal governments to harness the resources
from civil society [Civic Participation in Municipal Governance], private sector [Joint Action programmes, other
municipalities [municipal cooperation] under its Decentralized Cooperation Programme.
4
local governance process and maximize opportunities created by the local government reforms in subSaharan Africa.
Good governance is qualified as participatory governance. The qualities of participatory governance
provide us with a template of the characteristics of municipal governments if they are to become
proactive and successful agents in dealing with the many challenges that confront them. These qualities
include trust, reciprocity, accountability, and integrity, transparency, responsiveness and responsibility,
coordination, citizenry and citizen engagement. Participatory urban governance as a conceptual
framework provides us a basis to think about stakeholders, in particular women and the poor, who
should take part in decision making, programme design and implementation in the process of urban
development.
The issues that are of concern therefore are, among others, the following;
 The small and unequal representation of women in the processes of urban development and
governance which threatens sustainability of cities in particular and human development in
general.
 The performance of women in public office [women tend to be less assertive and less vocal]
 Local government, in its policies and administration, tends to overlook the special needs of women
and issues of gender inequality.
Until recently, discussions on urban development worldwide assumed that urban development
processes were gender-neutral in their impact. The inherent problems of operating within the
parameters of the gender neutral development approach have been documented elsewhere [ Moser
1989]. Many other sectors have recognized the shortcomings of a gender neutral development
approach and have taken strides to become more gender sensitive. Consider for example, in the
transport-planning sector, a gender approach to transport planning has been developed. The approach
recognizes that there exists significant differences between men and women in needs and interests,
travel patterns, trip purposes, trip frequencies. As such, institutions such as ESAMI have offered
courses on mainstreaming gender in transport planning.
When it comes to the sector of local government, there is one major assumption that underlies
municipal development and policies that they make, and that is that the provision [or non-provision] of
social services [water, sewer, drainage, fuel, housing, street lighting] affects men and women equally.
Yet, as we have com to realize now, the lack of basic services and infrastructure affects women most
fundamentally in cities because they, more than men, deal with water, sanitation, fuel and waste
management due to their domestic responsibilities. Substandard or non-existent services with all their
attendant health and hygiene risks therefore affect women more than men. [Moser, 1992].
What is really disturbing is the fact that, most municipal governments still subscribe to the gender
neutral development approach, and do not exhibit any signs of shifting to a gender sensitive urban
development paradigm. Herein lies the major problem.
Part 2. Conceptual Issues
Some concepts require definition in order for the reader to understand the paper. The concepts and
related concepts that will be defined in this section are gender, mainstreaming gender, urban
governance and participatory urban governance.
Gender is defined as socially constructed and culturally variable roles that women and men play in
their daily lives. In this paper, it refers to both men and women, It is used as a variable based on
analysis of the differences between men’s and women’s conditions, constraints, roles and
5
responsibilities, and access to resources and services. It refers to a structural relationship of inequality
between men and women as manifested in the household, labour markets and in political structures. It
is reinforced by custom, law and specific development policies.
A distinction is made between sex and gender. Whereas sex is biological, gender is acquired and
constructed by society. Meena R, 1992, p.p. 1. The focus of the paper however is women
Most of us are aware of the controversy and debate that about the subject of gender. Indeed, the
concept of gender is not without controversy. For academics in gender and development, it is everyday
currency. However outside of academia, within policy and activist arenas, the utility and relevance of
gender has been highly contested. There are those that have attacked the concept of gender on the
grounds that it is an over-radical and unrepresentative approach to thinking about social relations.
The effect of these controversies on the concept of gender is that conservatives, especially those in
local government, have found a scapegoat for not taking action. This need not be so.
‘Mainstreaming’ has become a dominant theme in the gender and development policy circles. The
concept ‘mainstreaming’ evolved from the earlier call for the integration of women in development,
dating back to the 1970s. It arose following the Nairobi UN Women’s Conference in 1985, in-part
reflecting the perceived failure of national women’s machineries. Mainstreaming therefore signifies a
push towards systematic procedures and mechanisms within organizations – particularly governments
and public institutions – for explicitly taking account of gender issues at all stages of policy making
and program design and implementation. It also represents a call for the diffusion of responsibility for
gender issues beyond small and under-funded women’s units to the range of sectoral and technical
departments within institutions. [Baden and Goetz in Staudt 1997. P.p. 38]
The theoretical underpinnings of the subject of gender and urban governance, in my view, are found
within the participatory urban governance framework. For this reason, I take time and space to define
some related concepts. Governance. According to Suleiman Ngware, 1999, [quoting Mohammed,
1988:441-446] definitions of governance vary. The World Bank takes a power perspective, defining
governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's economy and
resources for development. More broadly, however, governance represents how things get done, i.e.
the way in which any social unit – from an entire society to the smallest association organizes itself to
make collective decisions, promote shared interests and to solve common problems. In this context
therefore, good governance relates to effective problem solving, decision making and efficient
management of public resources in a democratic and participatory manner.
The UNDP defines governance as the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to
manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes, and institutions through
which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations
and mediate differences. Good governance is, amongst other things, participatory, transparent and
accountable. [Pieterse E. 2000. P.p. 4]. Good governance ensures that political, social and economic
priorities are based on a broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most
vulnerable [and women! 2] are heard in decision making over the allocations of development resources.
Urban governance is defined in this paper as an efficient and effective response to urban problems by
democratically elected and accountable local governments working in partnership with civil society.
2
Authors own-emphasis
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Inclusive governance is a form of governance, which is not corporatism3, not prebendalism4, and not
kleptocracy5. Instead, it is of the conciliarity type. This is a style of governance that is inclusive. This
is achieved by inviting wide participation both in the decision making process and in the distribution of
benefits. Ngware, 1999, points out that these types of governance may exist to a varying extents in
municipalities. In relation to gender therefore inclusive governance denotes governance characterized
by wide participation of women and men at all stages in the process of policy and decision making,
programme design and implementation.
The subject of gender and inclusive governance should be understood in the framework of
decentralization and good governance paradigms.
Part 3. The status of Women in Urban Governance at the Global Level.
The status of women in cities is cause for concern given that women are in a much more vulnerable
position than are men [OECD, 1995]. According to the State of the World Cities [1999], women head
23 percent of the households in cities. Many of these women are poor. UNIFEM [2000] argues that, in
both the north and the south, women remain unequal to men in terms of employment opportunities,
access to resources and representation.
Habitat [2000] notes that despite an obvious presence as citizens, women stay under-represented in
governing structures.
‘With only a few exceptions, there is a marked absence of women in local decision making
processes. Although women are key players at the local level in household livelihood
strategies, they are subject to exclusion from critical decision making forums’ p.p. 3.
Stacey and Price [1981] [in Matovu and Paradza, forthcoming] put it that ‘where power is, women are
not. And if at all they are present, they are likely to be found in the less important and less influential
positions. The higher the position, the less likely for the occupant to be a woman’.
Over the period of the decade of women, there were many dialogues, lobbying activities, legislative
and policy mandates. Yet still, as Staudt [1997] argues, barely a dent was made in the redistribution of
resources and values from men to women. What this points out to, in relation to women in local
government, is that focus has to be on action.
Why Women in Municipal Local Government
The focus on local governments is based on three main reasons. One, local authorities are closest to
their citizens and hence in the best position to involve women in the decision making process and in
consultation [IULA, 1998]. Secondly local authorities also have capacity to address gender imbalances
within themselves as organizations. If they do this, municipal governments will act as role models for
other private and public institutions. And thirdly, municipal governments render services which impact
on men and women with differential impacts.
Corporatism – style of governance designed to reserve the lion’s share of benefits for members of the
corporation.
4
Means that the institution or organization is used as prebend that can be appropriated by office holders who use
them to generate material benefits for themselves, kin and their surrogates.
5
The essence of this type of governance is hat whosoever has the power to appropriate resources, does so and
keeps most, if not all.
3
7
The often much asked question is why women in local government? IULA provides the most practical
answer, which is because women have important and unique contributions to make to development and
appropriation of local government services [1998]. In their roles as mothers, family managers and
entrepreneurs in the informal sector, women spend more time inside their communities than their male
counterparts. On behalf of their families, women consume services such as sewerage, health care,
electricity, sanitation and transport. Therefore any planning focused on addressing the fundamental
needs of women will benefit the entire family [Gender Advocacy Programme, 1998]. Equal
representation of women is one way of ensuring that the needs of women, and men too, will be
addressed in municipal planning and management.
There are important goals and values why it is imperative for local governments to address gender.
These are summarized in splendid fashion by the Habitat [2000] p.p. 19-21. Sustainability. Women
play a critical role in urban life with extensive responsibilities for their families’ welfare. Sustainability
is a cornerstone of future cities’ planning and consultations with all stakeholders have been identified
my urban development institutions, including MDP, UNCHS and many others, as a prerequisite for
sustainability. [UNCHS: 2000]. Equity. Equity in the city implies representation as well as access to
resources. Equity of access to decision making and the basic necessities of urban life are basic to good
urban governance. Efficiency. The role of women in the urban economy is often not recognized
because much of it takes place in the informal sector. Cities need to be more efficient in finance and
administration. This means regulating and coordinating local authorities’ management, targeting
finances for effective performance. To ensure this happens, women and men have to be able to
contribute optimally to their own survival and the economy. There is therefore need to make visible
and to appreciate the value of the contribution of women as well as men to the efficient operation of
cities. Efficiency is compromised when women and the poor are not involved in decision making and
policy choices. Transparency. A World Bank study cited by the Habitat [2000] demonstrates that the
more women participate in public life, the less public sector corruption there is. This can happen when
women have access, can interpret and comment upon local government performance. Civic
Engagement and Citizenship. There is increasing appreciation of the importance of women’s
grassroots organisations. The crucial role played by women organised on the ground – in advocating
for services and also demonstrating [peacefully or violently] for non-delivery of services and providing
infrastructure and basic services themselves in the absence of provision from other sources – can not be
overemphasized. For this reason therefore, it is important for municipal governments to encourage the
full engagement of women citizens.
Recognizing Global Efforts at Achieving Inclusive Governance through promoting women’s
participation
At the international/ global level efforts to achieve inclusive governance have been tremendous. These
efforts began way back in 1975 with the UN Conference on Women, leading to the declaration of the
UN Decade for Women 1975-1985. Then came the World Summit for Social Development in
Copenhagen in 1995, Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China in September 1995, then
the IULA World-wide Declaration on Women in 1998. Policies to facilitate the involvement of women
in decision making at the global level are therefore abundant. Examples include international
agreements such as CEDAW, the Beijing Platform for Action and the Habitat Agenda.
The International agreements such as the Convention on All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
[CEDAW] and Beijing Platform for Action [PFA] [1995] speak specifically on the importance of
creating a gender balance in decision making. The PFA suggests governments set specific gender
targets to achieve gender balance in government and administrative positions. Governments are also
encouraged to track the gender balance in decision-making processes in the public and private sectors.
8
IULA is pursuing a strategy of increasing women’s role in urban governance through its continental
structures.
UNCHS [Habitat] is also pursuing an increased role for women in urban governance through various
strategies. One of the strategies is a system of awards for municipalities on gender sensitive urban
planning and management.
The impact of these global initiatives has been, and still remains a subject of debate. Matovu G. and
Paradza G. 1998, quoting Matembe, 1973:3 acknowledge that although the number of women in
decision making positions are still low, there has been an increase over the past three decades.
‘Since the UN decade for women [1975-1985], there have been some efforts to involve women
in all aspects of public life’ p.p. 11.
Straudt [1997], less concerned about the numbers game and focusing on resource distribution is of the
opinion that the global initiatives have come too naught.
“Over the international decade for women, 1975-1985, there were many dialogues. Lobbying
activities, legislative and policy mandates, yet barely a dent was made in the redistribution of
resources and values from men to women.’ [P.p. 3]
In my view, the significance of these global initiatives is that gender in politics, the public arena and
decision making has gained significant importance. National governments and to some extent local
governments in most parts of the world are increasingly taking up the issue.
Part 4. The Status of Women in Urban Governance in Eastern and Southern Africa.
Studies have been conducted by many organizations on women in local government in sub-Saharan
Africa. In an effort to understand better the status of women in urban governance in eastern and
southern Africa, The Municipal Development Programme for Eastern and Southern Africa [MDP]
commissioned studies in twelve countries and conducted a regional workshop on Supporting Women
in Local Government in Eastern and Southern Africa in 1998. The studies and the regional workshop
that followed were intended to provide an opportunity to policy makers, local government practitioners
and academicians and experts in gender to reflect on the issues that influence women’s participation in
local government and share notes on the way forward. [Matovu G. and Paradza G. p.p. 4 forthcoming
publication]
The twelve countries that participated were namely Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique,
Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Researchers undertook
in-depth analysis of the situation of women in local government in the respective countries.
The study focused on, among other things, the following;
 the statistics on women in local government
 the positioning of women in local government
 the perceived barriers to gender in local government
 initiatives that have been taken to promote women in local government
 what needs to be done in order to create greater opportunities for women to be elected and /or
appointed to council positions and senior management positions in local governments
9
Some of the researchers for this work were as follows;
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Country
Ethiopia
Kenya
Lesotho
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
Tanzania
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Name of researcher
Tiruk Liyew
Sarah Kisare
Tankiso Makara
Sophie Kalimba
Anna Chichava
Rose Namoya-Jacobs
Mirijam Van Donk
Lolo Mkabela
Lydia Joachim & Shella Mziray
Maude Mugisha
Vivian Chikoti
Winifred Goromonzi
The studies revealed that in all countries in the region, without exception, the number of women in
local government is pyramidal in that it tapers off significantly as it is very thin at the top and has a
wide base. The result is that there are few, if any, women heads of committees. In the few cases that
there are women, the study revealed that the women feel very powerless, as they do not constitute a
critical mass needed to move a motion or make suggestions which council can take seriously. In the
case of appointed officials, women employees are substantially concentrated in the lower hierarchy of
clerical posts. And even then they are concentrated in the stereotypical departments of cleansing,
nursery schools and health.
From the studies, it was concluded that:
‘ To date, it is noticeable that there is still huge inequality in terms of gender balance in all
local authorities in Eastern and Southern Africa, both at political and management levels. Men
occupy over 90% of both political and senior management positions. Yet in some local
authorities the majority of the inhabitants are women.’ Ibid. p.p. 4
While the findings might be taken as an over generalization, a cursory look at some of the individual
countries might provide more insight into the gender imbalances that exist in municipal governments
and substantiate the statement.
Representation of Women in Local Government in the region, some statistical evidence as at
1998.
Uganda: Number of Women Local Authority Personnel
Years
1994
1995
1996
1997
W
M W
M W
M W
RDC’s
5
34 4
34
4
35
7
LC V
0
39 0
39
0
39
0
CAO
9
30 5
TOTAL
14
103 4
73
4
74
12
Source: Ministry of Gender and Community Development Resource Center
M
32
39
12
105
10
The table shows the picture in Uganda, may be contrary to expectations given the strides that Uganda
has taken in the past to decentralize its local governance system and to fight for the rights of women.
Tanzania
Tanzania- Arusha Municipal Council Data
Administration/ Finance/ Legal
#
Designation
1
Health
2
Economics
3
Town Planning
4
Education
5
Works
6
Administration
No. of Women
255
16
10
631
7
56
No of Men
151
9
21
153
64
101
The figures in the table above show that there is a high concentration of women in the so-called stereotypical departments and section such as health and education, and less in what are regarded as man’s
fields such as works in Tanzania.
Swaziland
Women in Local Government
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Total
Local Authority
Manzini
Mbabane
Nhlangano
Pigg’s Peak
Siteki
Mankayane
Ezulwini
Hlathikhulu
Lavumisa
Women
2
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
6
Men
12
15
8
6
8
5
4
4
5
67
Total
13
16
8
7
8
5
5
5
5
72
The figures above show that women are still under-represented, at least in figure terms in local
government in Swaziland.
The studies identified a number of reasons for the small number of women in local government in the
region. The reasons were outlined for poor representation among councilors, as well as appointed
officials.
Elected representatives
 religious and cultural beliefs
 low esteem and lack of confidence and courage by women themselves
 political parties’ bias towards male candidates
 practical limitations such as time to attend meetings and campaigns
 lack of institutional support
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Appointed Officials
 Unequal opportunities in career training and hence inability to compete with male counterparts
 Religion and culture
 Institutional constraints
Some measures that were identified as advancing the position of women in local government.
The studies acknowledged that indeed, a number of initiatives were being undertaken, mostly at the
national level, to enhance the position of women in local government in the region. Notable among
these national initiatives are the following;
 Constitutional and legislative reviews and or amendments, which guarantee the principle of
equality of sexes and take into account gender sensitivity, examples of Ethiopia, Kenya, South
Africa and Uganda.
 Instituting affirmative action policies, for example quota systems [Uganda], zebra placements
[Namibia],
 Signing of conventions e.g. CEDAW.
In-spite of all these good initiatives and good intentions, almost all the researchers observe, there is no
automatic guarantee for equal opportunities. What is actually needed is action at the local level if the
provisions made at the national level are to become reality and to benefit women.
The point to emphasize is that whatever happens at national level, if action is not taken at local level,
and in our case at local government level, not much can be achieved by way of becoming gender
sensitive. Why then, have municipal governments lagged behind in achieving inclusive governance?
Why has it taken time for municipal governments to become gender sensitive in their approaches to
planning, programme design and implementation?
According to Matovu and Paradza, the principal reason for this state of affairs is that municipal
governments are at a loss on the practical strategies to address gender imbalances.
‘One of the main problems is that governments are not sure where to begin and how to go
about redressing gender imbalance in their local governments, neither do local governments
themselves have a clue as to what to do’.6 [G. Matovu and G. Paradza. Forthcoming. P.p. 11]
Van Donk 1997 [Edited] supports this view,
‘These findings [on South Africa] indicate that, as yet, most municipalities lack an
understanding of the structural nature of gender inequalities and how they play themselves out
in the workplace. As a result, they are unable to develop appropriate strategies to enhance the
representation of women' [P.p. 63]
From the assertion above, it therefore becomes imperative that we male municipal governments aware
of some of the innovations and possible strategies available to them. These innovations and strategies
will need to be supported by national level policies and programmes, some of which we highlight in
the sections that follow.
6
In italics are the authors additions
12
Decentralization
Decentralization presents the opportunity for greater involvement of women in planning and
consultation processes, and also has the potential for a more gender conscious allocation of local
resources. [Habitat 2000. P.p. 19]. The decentralization of authority and resources is an important
means of improving stakeholder participation. Therefore in lobbying for decentralization, local
authorities should learn that decentralization is not fuller without them also transferring power and
resources to even lower level organisations, including women’s groups and associations.
Making constitutional provisions for women’s participation in development.
At the national level, a constitutional provision for women’s participation in governance is vital.
Constitutional provisions such as found in Ethiopia, South Africa and Ugandan constitution that
provide for women’s participation have provided a powerful tool for advocacy for policies and
legislation that contributes to the enhancement of women’s participation in urban governance.
Policy on Women in Local Government
Governments express their intentions about preferred development choices through policy statements.
It is therefore vital for governments to come up with gender policies, which are clear and precise.
Municipal governments should localize national level policies by spelling out, through council
resolutions, what hey seek to do and achieve after a situational analysis of their respective
environments. What should a policy on women in urban governance address.
A policy on women and urban governance should address two specific aspects. One is women’s
increased representation in local decision making. The second is greater attention to issues of concern
to women. [UNCHS – Habitat 2000. P.p. 3]. Among these issues of concern are water, crèches, waste
management, power, and street lighting.
Increasing Women’s Representation in Local Government
The UN 1995 observed that although most women participate in the electoral process as voters, very
few of them offer themselves as candidates. So, it is the women who mainly vote for the local authority
councilors. Yet women are not fairly represented in decision-making positions in the council and
senior management positions.
In our work as MDP in Kabwe Municipal council in Zambia, we observed that women cast 80% of the
votes in local elections in to council or civic leadership, yet, Kabwe Municipal Council 1998 to 2000
did not have a single woman councilor. This is inspite of the fact that the Local Government Act
provided room for co-option of women councilors. I am happy to advise that now there is one duly
elected councilor among the 26-member council.
Affirmative Action Programmes for Women in Local Government
There is therefore need, in the short to medium term, to introduce affirmative action programmes,
through the quota system [Tanzania and Uganda] or the zebra placements [Namibia] or setting targets
[South Africa] so that women can be significantly represented in municipal councils. The studies
conducted by MDP revealed that countries, which introduced the quota system, among them Uganda
and Tanzania managed to significantly, increase the number of women in local government. Other
countries were found to be skeptical about affirmative action programmes because of concerns about
13
the social acceptability of affirmative action, the vulnerability of the system to abuse by men, while
other felt it degraded women. In my view, the affirmative action programmes are useful in the short to
medium term, and should be buttressed with other mechanisms to retain women in local government,
improve their performance in their work in order for them to be effective. On their own, and as a longterm strategy, affirmative action programmes may not work well.
At the same time, we need to ask whether women will infuse a new sort of politics into male-oriented
local governments. Will women’s presence on the inside help women on the outside, will women
encourage the municipal governments as bureaucracies to operate according to the Weberian ‘ideal’
fashion, that is in a neutral or gender neutral fashion? [And is that a good idea?’ Staudt p.p. 4
Paradza 1998 P.p. 9 [forthcoming] observed that the women that have made it into the decision making
posts have not necessarily managed to address all the concern of the women in their constituency. It
has become increasingly clear therefore that the issue of women’s participation in public life is more
than just a numbers game.
Recognizing and Supporting Urban Women’s Activities
Often, urban women carry out income generating work in or near heir homes to contribute to
household funds while caring for the home and children. Yet, many of these activities contravene
urban by-laws and are harrased by municipal councils. An example is the popular pace in Harare called
kwaMereki, where women prepare and sell food at a shopping centre. The place was shut down by
Harare Municipal Council until and was only re-opened after a public outcry. Firewood collection is
often banned, and urban agriculture, until recently has been proscribed, informal trading and businesses
in homes restricted unnecessarily. Municipal councils should always evaluate the impact of their
policies on women and households.
Enhancing Citizen Participation in Municipal Governance Especially Women.
Urban policy needs to be derived from bottom-up process that involves citizens, men and women, and
recognize community-based organizations, including women’s organizations as legitimate stakeholders
in urban governance.
Improving Delivery of Social Services
Delivery of social services is the mandate of municipal governments. By ensuring that social services
are available, such as housing, water, street lighting, health and waste management, local authorities
have a big role to play in freeing up time for women to participate in many other activities. By
rendering poor services, municipal governments increase the burden of women. The women hence do
no find space and time to participate in urban governance, as their household chores take up most of
their time.
Eliminating Urban Violence on Women
Gender violence is a problem in most cities. Here the focus is on violence perpetrated on women in
public spaces. This constitutes a serious threat to women’s equality and empowerment. Local
authorities should eliminate the potential for violence to be perpetrated on women as well as man.
Building the Capacity of Women and Civic Groups
There is need for he building of capacity of women, and of community based organisations, to
facilitate their links to local government. The trends towards decentralization poses enormous
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challenges for elected leaders and appointed municipal officials, particularly women, many of whom
lack the requisite skills for local level decision making. The Habitat [2000, p.p. 32] notes that
developing stronger community based leadership programmes will generate a body of women
equipped for political responsibility
In most cases municipal councils lack the necessary organizational structure, knowledge and skills to
work effectively with civic groups/ organisations, including those of women. MDP, through its civic
participation in municipal governance programme is specifically addressing these problems in
Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.
Participatory and Gender Budgeting
Participatory budgeting and gender budgeting should be included in urban policy and programme
planning at all levels. The budget is a key tool for the implementation of social, political and economic
policies and priorities. Technocrats oblivious to women’s needs do budgeting in most municipal
councils. There is need to take budgeting as a process that is informed by stakeholders, especially
women.
Women should have say in how money is collected and how it should be spent. Gender budgeting at
the municipal council level means adequate finance will be made available for basic services, transport
and the informal sector development. This requires that municipal governments generate data that will
assist them in consistently focusing resources in a gender conscious way. MDP’s and Entebbe
Municipal Council pilot projects in Entebbe Municipal Council are geared to enhance citizen
participation, especially women, in municipal budgeting. By taking the budget to sub-municipal
council levels, and enabling the council to conduct budget meetings with all 26 wards will go a long
way in ensuring a gender sensitive budget for the municipal council will be developed for the year
2001/2002.
Municipal Council Meetings Should be Conducted at Convenient Times
Gender sensitive meeting times that ensure women participate and are not excluded from meetings. In
most municipal governments, council meetings are convened late afternoon, and they drag on for
records hours, at times five, at times seven. The longer a meeting takes, the more satisfied are
councilors that they have worked hard. This need not be so. If council meetings were sweet and short,
and conveniently made to start and finish during suitable times, women would find it easy to
participate.
Challenge for Women Themselves to Organize.
Women in local government themselves need to organize for their effective participation in local
governance, and should develop strategies that facilitate the broader participation of other women in
municipal governance. These organizations of women, such as exists already in Zimbabwe [the Urban
Councils Association, Women’s Action Group] and Ethiopia [Women’s Democratic Association of the
Addis Ababa City Administration], should concentrate on sensitizing the community on the importance
of their participation.
Municipal councils should also prepare themselves for organizational transformation to change
prevalent values, perceptions, attitudes and practices which are discriminatory, and to foster racial and
gender sensitivity within them.
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Constraints to Achieving Gender Inclusiveness in Urban Governance
There are obvious intentions, in some countries, by governments and municipal councils to make key
positions available to women and to adopt measures to keep these women in place. This is being done
through the provision of user friendly working environments, which allow women to juggle their
domestic roles with work. However, these efforts require resource inputs, time, manpower and
financial resources, which are not always readily available to governments and municipal councils in
he region, less so o municipal governments that are very dependent on the centre.
Municipal governments should take advantage of opportunities that institutions such as MDP provide
under he decentralized cooperation programme to share best practices and learn from each other on
addressing gender in local government.
Part 5: Conclusions
Strategies for addressing gender issues have been evolving in eastern and southern Africa. However, it
should be noted that past activities tended to establish segregated women’s entities. While these
programmes have created awareness of the issues that affect women differently from men, they have
failed to establish ongoing institutional capacity for identifying gender differences and strategies to
effectively address inequities, especially in urban governance. There is therefore need to move to a
more systematic approach of using gender as a variable in analyses, policy making and planning,
which is what we call a gender approach. Through adoption and application of a gender approach, it is
possible to institutionalize the women’s participation in urban governance. Further, there is need for
local governments to build capacity to address gender issues in the delivery of social services. Creating
small units that solely work on problems that affect women will not work.
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