1
1
1.1
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Language and culture are interdependent and interactional. Culture affects the way
language is used and language may reflect many factors of culture in turn. In addition,
what is right in one culture may not be accepted in another culture. As people move from
one country to another, cultural differences become apparent to them. For instance,
American society values simple and direct communication. Being open and direct in
expressing desires, preferences, and feelings or in discussing issues is highly appreciated in
the United States. Americans are likely to be, to various degrees, honest in delivering
negative evaluations. However, in Vietnamese culture, where positive face saving is
important, directness may be perceived as being blunt, rude and impolite, especially when
complaining and criticizing someone or something (face-damaging acts). Therefore, most
Vietnamese are at first shocked at the American direct way of communicating in general
and criticizing in particular.
In addition, with the popularity of Internet and online magazines in English language,
people have more chances to interact and know more about other countries. As a reporter
of a Vietnamese e-newspaper, the thesis author would like to find out the differences in
article-writing style among countries and how culture affects it.
For the limitation of time and resources, she only focuses on expressions of criticizing in
American and Vietnamese e-newspapers in the light of Directness/Indirectness to see if
they cause culture shock. Such is her hope that this paper will have some contributions to
the study of cross-cultural communication between America and Vietnam.
1.2
Aims of the study
The aims of this paper are:
+ To study cultural aspects which affect criticism in American and Vietnamese online
newspapers
+ To compare the use of directness and indirectness in criticism between American and
Vietnamese online newspapers
2
+ To study ways to express criticism in American and Vietnamese online newspapers
1.3
Scope of the study
This research only analyzes the degree of directness and indirectness in criticism of some
selected American and Vietnamese newspapers.
1.4
Methods of the study
The analysis uses inductive and deductive methods with the following techniques:
+ Selecting some online newspapers with great readership and popularity
+ Collecting and analyzing articles with criticism
+ Consulting reference books
+ Discussing with teachers and friends
+ Conducting surveying
1.5
Designs of the study
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter 3: Criticism in American and Vietnamese e-newspapers
Chapter 4: Data analysis
Chapter 5: Conclusion
3
2
2.1
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Culture
2.1.1 Definition of culture
Culture is one of the most complicated concepts to define. This is partly because of its
long historical development, but mainly because it now has been used in important
background for a lot of distinct intellectual systems.
The word “culture” comes from the Latin root - “colere” which means “to inhabit,
cultivate, or honor”. In other words, it refers to human activities.
In 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn compiled a list of over 200 different definitions of culture
in their book “Culture: A critical review of Concepts and Definitions”. One of these is:
“Culture consists of pattern, explicit and implicit, of and for, behavior acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the other
hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand as conditioning elements of
further actions” (1952:181)
Because the thesis focuses on the communication aspect of culture, the definition by
Levine and Adelman (cited in Nguyen Quang, 1998) is believed to be the most relevant:
“Culture is a shared background (for example, national, ethnic, religious) resulting from a
common language and communication style, customs, beliefs, attitudes and values. Culture
refers to the informal and often hidden interactions, expressions and viewpoints that
people in one culture share. The hidden nature of culture has been compared to an
iceberg, most of which is hidden under water. Like the iceberg, much of the influence of
culture on an individual cannot be seen. The part of culture that is exposed is not always
that which creates cross-cultural difficulties: the hidden aspects of culture have significant
effects on behaviors and on interactions with other.”
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2.1.2 Culture shock
Culture shock can be described as the physical and emotional discomfort one suffers when
coming to another country or a place different from the place of origin. Often, the way that
one lived before is not accepted or considered as normal in the new place. Everything is
different, for example, not speaking the language, not knowing how to use some
mechanical systems and so forth.
The symptoms of culture shock can appear at different times. Although one can experience
real pain from culture shock, it is also an opportunity for redefining one’s life objectives. It
is a great opportunity for learning to acquire new perspectives.
In these days, due to the development of technology, people can update information
through media system such as television, newspapers, internet, etc. Another expression of
culture shock occurs when one cannot explain what he/she is viewing. In this case, “culture
shock” may be equivalent to the term “confusion”. For instance, when a foreigner reads
this sentence in a Vietnamese newspaper:
He is considered a Chi in the Vietnamese Literature.
(Ông được coi là anh Chí của nền văn học Việt Nam)
The foreigner is sure to be confused if he does not know Chi and his personality.
In general, culture shock can be described as below:
“A mismatch between the neuro - perceptual - cognitive map and the physical and sociocultural environments can cause considerable uncertainty, confusion, insecurity and
anxiety. The complex of thought, emotion and behavior caused by this mismatch is called
culture shock.”
(freedictionary.com/encycopedia/culture-shock)
2.2
Criticism
2.2.1 Definition of criticism
First the definition of critic should be taken into account. A critic (derived from the
ancient Greek word krites meaning a judge) is a person who offers a value judgment or an
interpretation.
5
The term is used in particular for a professional who regularly judges or interprets
performances or other work of other people and publishes these judgments or
interpretations in a periodical (often a newspaper, a magazine, or an academic journal).
Critics often specialize in one field and are usually well educated in that field.
According to Wikipedia online dictionary, “Criticism is the activity of judgment or
informed interpretation and, in many cases, can be synonymous with “analysis”. There are
constructive and destructive criticisms. Constructive criticism is the process of offering
valid and well-reasoned opinions about someone or something, usually involving both
positive and negative comments, in a friendly manner rather than an opposite one. In
collaborative work, this kind of criticism is often a valuable tool in raising and
maintaining performance standards. Destructive criticism is intended to harm someone,
derogate and destroy someone’s creation, prestige, reputation and self-esteem”.
Although there can be both positive and negative aspects to criticism, one sense of the term
emphasizes negative comments. A phrase such as "critics of Einstein argue that..."
generally refers to people who are skeptical of the value of Einstein's position. In a
different context, though, the use of critics in a similar phrase like "critics of Romantic
poetry argue that..." simply means the neutral activity of interpretation.
Written criticism is called a critique - an article or essay that gives a critical evaluation,
serious examination and judgment of something.
Criticism helps to clarify and define the theoretical basis of public address. It also
contributes to setting up a standard of society. In particular, criticism interprets the
function of communication and indicates the limits of present knowledge in society.
2.2.2 Types of criticism
2.2.2.1 Practice of analyzing and evaluating literary or other artistic works
This type of criticism is based on the rules and principles that regulate the practice of the
critic, the art of judging with knowledge and propriety of the beauties and faults of a
literature performance, or of a production in the fine art.
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As Brande & C. (1913) says the elements of criticism depend on the two principles of
Beauty and Truth, one of which is the final end or object of study it pursuits: Beauty - in
letters and the arts; Truth – in history and sciences.
2.2.2.2 Unfavorable judgment of other social aspects
Unfavorable judgment is called fault - finding or disposal expressed by pointing out faults
or shortcomings. Anyone who does not follow the standard way of doing will be criticized.
This type of criticism covers all aspects of life ranging from politics, economy to social
behaviors.
E.g. The senator received severe criticism from his opponent.
Most people attach a negative connotation to the word criticism because it brings to mind
of something uncomfortable. However, criticism comes into two flavors: constructive and
destructive. Destructive criticism aims to hurt an individual’s self-esteem by causing
psychological damage. In contrast, constructive one is handled with positive attitude that
will receive improved results and give feeling of satisfaction.
Literature criticism requires a certain ability of evaluating literary or artistic works. Also, it
has limited and selected number of readers. Hence, literature criticism is not popular
among people. In contrast, the second type of criticism reflects all the aspects of life and
has direct impact on readers. Thus, the second is the type of criticism the author will focus
on in the next parts.
2.3
Directness vs. Indirectness
2.3.1 An overview of Directness vs. Indirectness
Directness and Indirectness is one of the major categorical dimensions of cross-cultural
communication. This dimension has been seriously studied by many pragmatists, sociolinguist, etc.
G. Yule (1996) states “whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a
function, we have a direct speech act; whenever there is an indirect relationship between a
structure and a function, we have an indirect speech act.”
This statement shows that in direct speech, the speaker/writer says what he means while in
indirect speech, he means more than what he says. In other words, it is easy and clear to
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understand a direct speech; in contrast, there remain some hints in indirect speech and one
has to know the rules to interpret the meaning.
Americans generally consider themselves to be frank, open and direct in dealing with each
other. They often exhibit strong emotional response to something.
However, according to Althen (2003:18), Americans are often less direct than they realize.
Latins and Arabs are generally inclined to display their emotions more openly than
Americans do and to view Americans as unemotional and cold. Meanwhile, it is believed
that Americans are much more direct than Asians, particularly Vietnamese. As a result,
Vietnamese who appreciate and consider indirectness as politeness will see Americans
insensitive, rude, forceful and sometimes aggressive.
2.3.2 Directness and Indirectness in criticism
A good example of direct criticism would be if the boss told his employee something like:
“How could you make such a stupid mistake? What are you thinking? I don’t know why I
hire you in the first place.”
An American boss tends to criticize this way because it may motivate his employee to
work harder and smarter. This is because being open and direct in expressing opinions,
desires, preferences, and feelings, or in discussing issues, events, and most ideas is
considered proper in the United States.
However, to a Vietnamese worker, it will make him resent and want to quit. It is more
acceptable to say something like:
“Thank you for the report. I can see you put a lot of effort into it. However, I was hoping
you could touch it up a little by summarizing it more carefully and adding some graphs.
This content is solid, but if you could make those small changes, I would really appreciate
it.”
The Vietnamese often use hedges before informing bad news or criticizing. Giving some
compliments before showing weak points of others is preferable among them.
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2.4
Newspapers
2.4.1 Definition of newspapers
According to Oxford English Dictionary (1990):
A newspaper is a sheet of paper printed and distributed, at stated intervals for conveying
intelligence of passing events, advocating opinions, etc.; a public print that circulates
news, advertisements, proceeding of legislative bodies, public announcements, etc.
Another definition that the Levi E. Coe Library presented in their website should be taken
into consideration:
A newspaper is a lightweight and disposable periodical usually printed on low-cost paper
called newsprint containing a journal of current news in a variety of topics. These topics
can include political events, crime, sports, opinion, and weather.
Newspapers are also developed around very narrow topic areas, such as news for
merchants in a specific industry, fans of particular sports, fans of the arts or of specific
artists, and participants in the same sorts of activities or lifestyles.
Most nations have at least one newspaper that circulates throughout the whole country, but
in the United States there are few truly national newspapers, with the exception of USA
Today and The Wall Street Journal; large metropolitan newspapers with expanded
distribution networks such as The New York Times.
Nowadays, newspapers are not only printed on sheets of paper. With the development of
Internet, another kind of newspaper that, in recent years, has been popular to everyone has
appeared: e-newspaper (newspaper in Internet).
2.4.2 E-newspapers
Of all the changes of newspapers, the most significant recent development is obviously the
emergence of the Internet as a second national and global stage for news and entertainment
that can challenge the dominant television. Among other things, it is giving us a growing
industry of journalism and a new tradition of media criticism. This change is taking place
because Internet is the television for print, in the sense that it is allowing writing from
many sources to appear together in the same virtual “space”. That means all the journalism
and media criticism that print makes possible is now available to anyone who can access a
9
computer, vastly expanding choice and creating all kinds of opportunities, for role
modeling, competition, dialogue, and mutual critique of writers. Now, when there is
something wrong, many of the severe stories and the subsequent critiques are immediately
available to millions of readers, and not merely to a limited audience.
Reading e-newspapers obviously has many advantages. First, it is becoming easier and
easier to approach because Internet is so popular today. Second, information is updated
everyday, even every hour. For example, process of football matches is uploaded each
minute in Internet. In addition, people have more chances to choose any kind of
newspapers to read due to their interest and their needs. Furthermore, with the appliance of
World Wide Web (www), people have great opportunities to know and read foreign
newspapers. Therefore, the number of e-newspaper readers has been increasing with high
speed.
2.4.3 Language of newspapers
2.4.3.1 Accuracy
Accuracy is required in any written style of language. However, it is particularly important
and significant to newspaper language because newspaper has the function of directing
public opinion. Just a trivial mistake of using wrong words or expressions can make it hard
for readers to understand; and misunderstanding may cause unpredictable serious
consequences.
2.4.3.2 Specification
Another typical feature of newspaper language is specification. Newspapers’ articles
provide specific, concrete details to make readers feel as if they were the insiders,
witnessing the event. As a matter of fact, each event must be fixed at certain time, in
certain place, relating to certain people. This is the basic persuasion because it helps
readers check the information easily.
2.4.3.3 Publicity
Newspaper is a kind of mass media. Every one, regardless of education level, is objectively
served by newspapers where they can both get the information and express their opinion.
Therefore newspapers should use the general standard language to meet the needs of
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various readers, so that a scientist with wide knowledge does not feel bored, and a child
with low qualification can easily understand.
2.4.3.4 Conciseness
Language in newspapers should be short and brief. Long expression can make the
information dilute, which causes bad effect on the reception of information. Moreover, it
wastes time for both the writers and readers because in this era of information explosion, it
is better to get as much information as possible in the shortest time.
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3
3.1
Chapter 3: CRITICISM IN AMERICAN AND VIETNAMESE NEWSPAPERS
Major factors affecting direct/indirect criticism
3.1.1 Communication styles
It has been proved that American society values simple, direct verbal and written
communication while the Vietnamese consider directness as lack of subtlety and
sophistication.
Gary M. Wederspahn, a leader in the field of intercultural relations and communications,
has characterized the American style of communication as strongly oriented towards
content (facts, numbers, dates, and precise, explicit meanings). Their speech reflects the
high value they place on words and the need for clarity. Wederspahn (2000) states:
“Americans focus may be compared to a spotlight intensively illuminating a narrow band
of the communication spectrum. In contrast, the communication style in Asia is more like a
floodlight that takes in the context in which the communications occur.” This means the
situation and the relationship of the people involved plus the time and place all carry a
large part of the meaning in the conversation of the Vietnamese. The actual words tend to
be less important and need to be understood in terms of the contextual factors.
3.1.2 Individualism vs. Collectivism
One of the most distinctive characteristics of the American is their devotion to
individualism. They have been trained since very early in their lives to consider themselves
as separate individuals who are responsible for their own situations in life and their own
destinies. They are not socially obliged to see themselves as members of a close-knit,
toughly interdependent family, religious group, tribe, and nation. They have strong belief
that all people are of equal value according to some philosophical or spiritual standard.
Their tendencies to use their boss’s first name, to challenge authority easily, and to expect
equal treatment reveal a low power distance value.
However, such cultures with high power distance as Vietnam frequently take American
individualism and egalitarianism as an unwillingness to show proper deference and respect
to those who deserve it. The Vietnamese always consider themselves as a member of
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community. They think that people not only live with nature but also live with each other
to establish a society. They are sunk in the relationship with family, morals, laws, politics,
etc. While the American appreciate role of individuals, the Vietnamese value role of
community. The Vietnamese are observed treating people around as kin, as those who
come from the same source, the same origin. This, for thousand years, has been an
immutable principle - individuals are dissolved in community, they are nothing when
isolated.
This explains why the Vietnamese pay much attention to the “how” of their
communication so that they do not leave any mistake which damages the relationship
between them and others. Indirectness, especially in criticism, is an effective way to avoid
making others feel unpleasant.
Generally, collectivism vs. individualism leads to two ways of communication. While the
Americans find it comfortable to express their ideas, feelings freely, the Vietnamese have
to take notice of others’ reaction before speaking and writing.
3.1.3 Attitudes towards criticism
According to Wederspahn (2000), the American consider criticism itself a neutral thing
when one starts to use it in order to create a certain experience and feeling. And no one
needs defense against something that is neutral. Additionally, they tend to think of
themselves before taking notice of others’ reactions because of their individualism. For this
reason, the American are not resistant to express their critical opinions.
For the Vietnamese, regardless of how 'true' the criticism is, it seems, for a moment, there
is something wrong with those who are criticized, and seen from the perspective of one’s
personality this is never a pleasant experience. What is not pleasant should be avoided,
diverted, hidden or otherwise be experienced as little as possible. Hence, many of the
activities aim at prevention from being criticized.
3.2
Criticism in American newspapers
As discussed in Chapter 2, the American are generally open and straightforward in
communication. They often speak or write directly about things they dislike. They are not
taught that they should mask their emotional responses. They do not think it improper to
display their feelings.
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Hence, in American media in general and in American e-newspapers in particular, voice of
criticism is usually strong, straight and direct. Some critical articles even sound aggressive,
severe and sharp.
Most articles of criticism in the US e-newspapers have a very clear style. They give the
main points and state the criticism at the top in the headline and the lead paragraph(s). The
body of the articles then adds details, statements, and comments from people involved in
the articles, plus any background the writer feels necessary to support the criticism more
strongly. This means one gets at least three chances to understand the main points of the
article. It is said “at least” because many articles have accompanying picture and captions
(text explaining the pictures) as well which produce much stronger impact on readers.
The content of the next part is collected and classified through an investigation into three
most popular American online newspapers: USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com), The
New
York
Times
(http://www.nytimes.com),
and
The
Washington
Post
(http://www.washingtonpost.com).
3.3
Criticism in Vietnamese newspapers
As regards culture, “Indirectness” is believed to be common in Vietnamese
communication. It is hard for somebody to find a conversation without indirectness or
hedges. For instance:
“Tớ biết là cậu rất bận, nhưng khi cậu đi ra ngoài, cậu có thể tiện thể gửi lá thư này cho
mình được không?”
(I know you are busy, but when you go out, will you send this letter for me by the way?)
The phrases as “Tôi đoán là...” (I guess), “Tôi không biết nói ra điều này có phải không,
nhưng...” (I’m not sure if this is right, but...), “Những gì tôi sắp nói có thể sẽ xúc phạm
cậu...” (What I am going to say may offend you...) are examples of hedges and
indirectness.
Newspapers reflect the daily life, and are influenced by it. In the essay “Cultural elements
in newspapers” published in “Sai Gon Giai phong” newspaper (The Saigon Liberation) on
February 20, 1999, it is indicated that each article contains many cultural factors such as
ways of thinking, observing, evaluating and writing, which is different from culture to
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culture. Therefore, indirectness in Vietnamese newspapers is a matter of course, and the
frequency of indirectness is much higher in case of criticizing.
It is well-known that the first and foremost function of newspapers is providing
information. However, if in newspapers, writers only use stereotypes of words and ways of
expressing to report events, or to give out problems, the articles will be so much dull.
In addition, critical articles mention sensitive aspects that may cause unforeseeable
reactions from readers. In daily communication, the Vietnamese tend to avoid straight
talks, so do they in written communication. Therefore, we do not often see direct criticism
in Vietnamese newspapers.
In the most popular websites of e-newspapers such as VnExpress (http://vnexpress.net),
Vietnamnet (http://vietnamnet.vn), Dân Trí Online (http://dantri.com.vn), etc., critical
articles occupy an important position. However, criticism, in comparison with American
newspapers, is still general, light, indirect and not strict, but it is acceptable to Vietnamese
readers.
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4
4.1
Chapter 4: RESEARCH AND DATA ANALYSIS
Methodology
4.1.1 Research questions
This research aims at answering the following questions:
- What are the ways that American and Vietnamese online newspapers use to express
criticism?
- How different are the degrees of directness and indirectness of criticizing between
American and Vietnamese online newspapers?
4.1.2 Sources of linguistic input
- 3 of most popular American online newspapers: USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com),
The
New
York
Times
(http://www.nytimes.com),
and
The
Washington
Post
(http://www.washingtonpost.com).
- 3 of most popular Vietnamese online newspapers: VnExpress (http://vnexpress.net),
Vietnamnet (http://vietnamnet.vn), Dân Trí Online (http://dantri.com.vn).
4.1.3 Data collection procedure
- Investigation of “Nation” column in American e-newspapers and “Xã hội” column in
Vietnamese e-newspapers from November 26th to December 2nd 2008 to find out the
number of critical articles and compare the percentages of direct/indirect criticism between
American and Vietnamese online newspapers through the layout and illustrations of
articles as well as the language used.
4.2
Data analysis and findings
4.2.1 Structure of the articles
Each of the three main part of an article (the headline, the lead and the body) has its own
distinctive style and content.
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4.2.1.1 The headline
The headline is the extra large opening statement used as the title of an article or press
release. With the large, bold words, headline is the most eye-catching part of an article.
Besides giving the main idea of the article, it has the function of drawing readers’
attention. Headlines are incredibly important as they make the scanning process easier.
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15
Direct
Indirect
10
5
0
US
Vietnam
Figure 1: Comparison of Directness and Indirectness in the Headlines.
Of all 33 critical articles collected from November 26th to December 2nd in three
Vietnamese online newspapers, there are 17 articles using indirect titles as the following:
Xăng giảm giá, xe ôm Hà thành vẫn “chém đẹp” (Vietnamnet)
(Hired motor-bike keeps fee high despite of gas’s lower price)
9x, 10x “khoe mình” trên mạng (Vietnamnet)
(Teens post nude photos on blogs)
Việt Nam thu nhận nhiều ngành công nghiệp 'bẩn' (VnExpress)
(Many polluted industries shipped into Vietnam)
The titles above makes foreign readers confused for not understanding the phrase “chém
đẹp” means “unreasonably raising the price” while 9x, 10x “khoe mình” points out the
trend of teenagers self-posting unclothing photos on their personal websites (blogs).
17
Whereas, the quotation mark in the third headlines reduces the negative impression of the
word “bẩn” (dirty).
In contrast, more than 75% (19/25) of headlines in the American e-newspapers are direct to
the point:
Mr. Bush and the pardon power (The New York Times)
Forgotten lessons from 9/11 (The Washington Post)
Stop asking for money, Obama (The Washington Post)
As can be seen from the three examples above, the titles concentrate on the main point (the
‘what’) and the language is simple, specific and clear. Headlines of critical articles in
American online newspapers from November 26th to December 2nd have no slang with
quotation mark (which is so popular in Vietnamese newspapers), although they are
sometimes troublesome. For example, the writers try to catch the readers’ attention and
some of the methods used like humor, question mark, word plays, or idioms can be
difficult for non-native readers to figure out:
Expert or Shill? (The New York Times)
Black Friday: Is your cashier cranky? (USA Today)
Nevertheless, this way of writing headline is so rare (2 in all 25 headlines in the US enewspapers) because Americans prefer direct titles so that they will immediately know
what the article is going to mention to save their time.
4.2.1.2 The lead
The lead refers to the first (and occasionally the second) paragraph of an article. It is
usually one information-packed sentence which expands on the story’s main point as
introduced in the headline. The lead gives enough information to allow readers to make an
important decision whether they want to read the story or to skip it and move on to another
more interesting story:
“We have "only one President at a time," Obama said in his debut press conference as
President-elect. By mid-November, with the financial crisis growing worse by the day, it
18
had become obvious that one President was no longer enough (at least not the President
we had)”.
Just reading the lead of the article “Bush's Last Days: The Lamest Duck”, readers can
immediately know that the article is about to look down the role of US President George
Bush in helping America overcome the current economic depression through some strong
words and phrases as “obvious”, “no longer enough”, “not the President we had”. In
addition, the writer hopes the president-elect Obama take action even though he will not
move to the White House until next spring.
In the American e-newspapers, readers can generally find out what happened and one or
two prominent details through the headline and the lead. Their critical opinions are shown
in each sentence with strong comments and recommendation like:
With the Bush administration drawing to a close, it is presidential pardon season.
Presidents have become increasingly shameless about issuing pardons to insulate
political cronies from prosecution, even to protect themselves. We hope President Bush
will not abuse the pardon power by putting his appointees, political supporters or friends
above the law. (The New York Times)
Congress must remove unjustified subsidies to inefficient private health insurance plans
that have added to the cost and complexity of the Medicare program. (The New York
Times)
30
25
20
Direct
15
Indirect
10
5
0
US
Vietnam
Figure 2: Comparison of Directness and Indirectness in the Leads.
19
As can be seen in the graph from the previous page, there still exist 4 leads of hesitance
and hedge when expressing criticism. For example:
This is not easy to write, because I consider the election of Barack Obama to be one of the
most inspiring political and social developments of my lifetime. I truly mean no disrespect
when I say: Stop asking for money. (The Washington Post)
Or the author uses a long letter to explain his point before writing the lead:
"But most of all I feel terrified even now when I leave the house. I pause for a moment
before I go out the door and say a prayer before I leave. I know that not all the people in
the world are bad; it's just the ones that do bad to others.
Living is a good thing, going to work has been ok so far, but when I think about what the
defendant did to me with the gun pointed at my stomach I thought . . . 'This is it. No one
around to see this.
Dear Judge Richter. I hope and I wish you will give him everything you can give him by
law and that it will give him time to think about what he did to me, and possibly someone
else he may have hurt." - A handwritten victim-impact statement, Oct. 2
It's easy to overlook a crime victim if there's no body or blood on the floor -- or if the
victim lives to tell about what happened. Just another case of someone someplace at the
wrong time. One more sad example of life in a city where the bad are bolder than the good
and the victim is an afterthought. (The Washington Post)
Similarly, indirect writing style is chosen in only 7 leads in Vietnamese e-newspaper. It
seems the writers have made use of all the limited space and number of words in the lead
to draw a whole picture for the readers:
Cho dù giá xăng liên tục giảm trong thời gian gần đây, nhưng những người thường phải di
chuyển bằng xe ôm thì vẫn phải trả mức giá cao ngất ngưởng. (Xăng giảm giá, xe ôm Hà
thành vẫn “chém đẹp” – Vietnamnet)
20
(Although gas price is continuously reduced, passengers still have to pay a lot of money
for the hired motorbike’s owner).
4.2.1.3 The body
American journalists are concerned with “the 5Ws and the H” (who did what, when, where,
why, and how). Any good article will provide information to all of these. Meanwhile,
Vietnamese writers do not answer every question if they think it is not necessary,
especially they answer the question ‘who’ in a very indirect way.
“It's 2 a.m. (when) in a jam-packed New York City nightclub (where), and Britney Spears
(who) is giving what may be her wildest, rawest, sweatiest (how) performance (what) yet.
It sure is a far cry from the girl in braids the world first met just years ago. She exactly did
go from good Britney to bad Britney. Probably, she is just a young girl growing up.
However, it is more like a down and dirty marketing master plan (why)”. (The New York
Times)
“Chiều 17/11 vừa qua, tôi có mặt tại một sân chơi ca nhạc và tôi đã phải "hết hồn" khi
các ca sĩ nam xuất hiện. Đầu tiên là ca sĩ B.T, khi B.T xuất hiện thì những tiếng cười cợt
từ dưới sân khấu bắt đầu nổi lên. B.T mặc bộ trang phục màu trắng làm cho khán giả liên
tưởng đến một vị đại hiệp trong phim Hồng Kông. Ca sĩ này hát xong thì nam ca sĩ V.H
bước ra với giọng cười thật ấn tượng, nhưng "ấn tượng" hơn hết là trang phục anh
mặc…”. (Dân Trí Online)
(In the afternoon of November 17, I went to a live show and was amazed when I saw the
male singers. First is B.T; he wore white clothes like a Hong Kong great hero. When he
finished his performance, V.H continued with an impressive smile, but his clothes are even
more impressive…)
The first example answers clearly all the question a reader may require, whereas, in the
second the questions “who” and “where” are mentioned vaguely and ambiguously. The
names of singers are abbreviated and the place of the live show is unknown.
4.2.2 Illustration of the articles
Photographs, pictures, maps, graphs, and drawings are an important supplement to an
article in general, and to a critical article in particular. In paying attention to different
21
photographs, noticing the size and placement of each is necessary. Photographs that
accompany stories contribute to the reader’s understanding, or possibly supply any
additional information they would like to have. Some critical photographs and cut-lines
stand alone and give readers a glimpse of what is going on in other parts of the world.
They are called human-interest photos.
In both Vietnamese and American newspapers, photographs used for criticism are usually
real and lively. They tell the readers what has really happened.
The above photograph illustrates the article “Phung Hung temporary market unable to
attract customers” (Vietnamnet). It shows the tiredness of kiosk owners for not selling
anything in 3 days.
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Meanwhile, “He’s not black” in The Washington Post criticizes racial discrimination via
the picture of their new president Barack Obama and the confirmation that “we’ve moved
beyond race”.
Also, graphs and maps are used to clarify data presented in a critical story and to clarify
where certain events are happening. They are especially helpful because readers do not
have chances to witness them. Drawings appear on the majority of the pages in every
newspaper. From cartoons, advertisements to critical stories where photographs are
inappropriate or unavailable, drawings are a helpful tool in any section.
This above drawing is an illustration for the dishonesty in implementing state-owned
projects.
23
25
20
15
Direct
Indirect
10
5
0
US
Vietnam
Figure 3: Comparison of Directness and Indirectness in the Illustrations
In American newspapers, there still exist 4 indirect images while this appears 9 times in
Vietnamese ones, such as blurred pictures or with the caption “Hình ảnh trên chỉ mang
tính minh hoạ” (this photograph above is just for illustration):
24
Here is the image of the article 9x, 10x “khoe mình” trên mạng (Teens post nude photos on
blogs) revealing an issue that even 7-9 year old girls show off the body in the Internet, but
their faces have been blurred by the reporter. Whereas, the below does not look like a
critical picture, it seems to be used for decoration only.
The comparison of illustration shows that both feel free and daring to express what they
think but the Vietnamese tend to avoid things which are considered sensitive. Especially,
when mentioning about sex, Vietnamese writers only post the pictures that will not cause
embarrassment or strain for readers. On the contrary, sexual pictures are usual images in
American newspapers.
4.2.3 Six major ways to express indirect criticism
Writers make great effort to find different methods of indirect criticism when expressing
their point of view. This, on one hand, reduces negative reactions; and, on the other hand,
the information becomes more vivid and interesting to readers.
Ways of expressing criticism indirectly in e- newspapers can be: using literature materials,
proverbs and precepts, punctuations, metaphors, abbreviation, and playing on words.
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4.2.3.1 Metaphors
Metaphor is a rhetorical trope or a figure of speech, where a comparison is made between
two seemingly unrelated objects without using “like” or “as”. It is transference on one
object’s characteristics onto another.
Metaphor also appears frequently in American newspapers. They use the phrase “star to
steer by” (The Washington Post) when complaining about a lack of strategic vision from
government; or “full-speed ahead” (USA Today) when 92 local banks committed
wholeheartedly to a project.
The following example is also considered a typical kind of metaphor:
“Đáng buồn thay, trong cuộc sống cũng hay gặp những căn bệnh nhờn thuốc như thế. Nói
ngay như trong thế giới học đường, trí thức vốn thanh bạch xưa nay, vậy mà bệnh nhờn
thuốc có tha đâu. Nguy hiểm hơn, những con người ấy sớm được “làm quen” với tiêu cực,
khi ra đời hẳn dễ “tiếp thu” và ứng xử hòa vào “dòng đục” mà không ngỡ ngàng.”
(Vietnamnet)
(It’s so sad as “medicine’s ineffectiveness” can also be found in our society. Even the
intellectual world which used to be pure and upright is still interfered. More dangerously,
those who early get familiar with bad habits and tricks will be easily adaptive with the
“dirty trend” without any abashment)
In this case, “nhờn thuốc” is a metaphorical symptom of those who are dishonest and
deceptive in examinations; copy others’ works, etc. The writer continues his metaphorical
method, claiming that they will get on well with “dirty trend”. “Dòng đục” - “dirty trend”
- refers to negative and passive lifestyles. Here the writer combines metaphor, innuendo
and quotation mark to criticize a painful phenomenon of society. From the very beginning,
he uses hedge as a softening – up process:
“So sánh chuyện nhờn thuốc của vi khuẩn với chuyện con người, xã hội có điều “bất
kính”, nhưng trong thiên nhiên vốn có những hiện tượng bất tương đồng.”
(Comparing the medicine’s ineffectiveness towards bacteria to a social phenomenon of
human beings seems to be “disrespectful” but there are many phenomena that are unpaired
in nature.)
26
This sentence of hedge makes the critical article less stressful and intensive.
Using metaphors shows the creativeness of the writer; therefore, it bears the stamp of
individuals. It can be said that using metaphors as a means of contrast may make the
readers get lost but bring great impressions.
4.2.3.2 Literature materials
Newspapers and Literature have a close relationship because literature is a precious source
for newspapers’ creativeness.
Literature materials are used widely in almost all kinds of articles with variable forms such
as borrowing plots, images, words and expressions in literature works. Nevertheless, they
appear more frequently in critical articles.
The usage of literature materials in newspapers are usually realized through the following
methods:
4.2.3.2.1 Borrowing plots or episodes
The most popular way of this method is to summarize the content of a literature work or
just take one part of it and use as a bridge for the writers to get to the point.
Example 1:
“Trong một cuốn tiểu thuyết của nhà văn Soviet Solokhov miêu tả ông chủ tịch không chịu
được tiếng gà gáy của mụ hàng xóm. Không chịu nổi, ông dùng quyền hành tìm đến nhà
bóp chết con gà. Thói đời vẫn vậy, con gà tức nhau tiếng gáy tất sinh lắm chuyện. Trước
hết là chuyện thể diện, sau đến hao tiền tốn của...” (VnExpress)
(In one of his novel, Solokhov - a Soviet writer - described a chairman who could not stand
the noise of a neighbor’s cock. So he used his power to kill the cock. As a matter of fact,
envy causes chaos. It results in losing face and wasting money...)
Even the readers have never heard about that story, they still know what the writer means
through the way he summarizes the story. Hence, with this writing style, the articles are
usually easy to be understood by both Vietnamese and foreign readers. This way makes the
articles highly artistic. The transfer from the past to the present with its color of contrast
interests the readers. They are not only reminded of the old tales, but also receive the new
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information related to a hot issue in society. However, it sometimes wastes of space and of
time, especially for impatient readers.
4.2.3.2.2 Borrowing characters and images
“Cảng Sài Sòn: đâu là Gót chân Asin?” (VnExpress)
(Saigon port football team: where is Asin’s heel?)
“Bản quyền âm nhạc: cuộc chiến của chàng Don Kihote chống lại cối xay gió” (Dân Trí)
(Music copyrights: the fight of Don Kihote against windmills.)
For the two examples above, the character Don Kihote or the image of Asin’s heel have
become so familiar, famous among the public that writers can take them without any
explanation.
Nevertheless, if writers use characters in Vietnamese works, it will be a great problem for
foreigners to define what types of people those characters symbolize:
“Hoạn Thư thời @” (VnExpress)
(Modern Hoan Thu with the help of advanded gadgets)
Many other characters are brought into newspapers: So Khanh embodies the unfaithful
man; Chi Pheo is the image of ruffians or villains; Hoan Thu is the common name of
jealous and cruel women, etc.
These borrowings help writers save their words at maximum but still describe someone or
something correctly and adequately.
4.2.3.3 Punctuations
One effective way to expressing indirectly in written form is using punctuations. In this
paper, the author only mentions question mark, quotation mark and three-dot mark as three
typical representatives of this type.
4.2.3.3.1 Quotation mark
Quotation mark has high value of expressive style to indicate that words or expressions are
not used with their normal and denotative meanings. It brings the shade of meaning of
being humorous and witty or ironical and satirical.
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Obama's “team of rivals” share big-picture views (The Washington Post)
“5 sinh viên ‘góp vui’ trong động lắc” (Dân Trí Online)
(Five students caught in the act in illegal discotheque)
4.2.3.3.2 Three-dot mark
Three-dot mark remarkably increases the expressiveness when it carries out its function of
dilating the rhythm of the sentence to mark that there is going to be a surprise or to suggest
the readers some other ways of thoughts.
“Các nam ca sỹ ngày càng... đẹp gái” (Dân Trí Online)
(The male singers are becoming more and more... beautiful.)
“Lời hứa cũng... ô nhiễm” (Dân Trí Online)
(Evens promises are... polluted.)
4.2.3.3.3. Question mark
The question mark, also known as an interrogation point, question point, is a punctuation
mark that replaces the period at the end of an interrogative sentence. In newspapers, it
often used in rhetorical questions (a figure of speech in the form of a question posed for its
persuasive effect without the expectation of a reply).
Expert or Shill? (The New York Time)
Black Friday: Is your cashier cranky? (USA Today)
4.2.3.4 Abbreviations
It is common to see the full names of famous people in American newspapers whereas in
Vietnamese critical articles, names of famous and prestigious persons being criticized are
abbreviated. This, in the first place, will partly reduce unfavorable rumor which is sure to
cause bad effect on their fame and career. Moreover, those famous ones have contributed
so much to the society, therefore they deserve special favor of not being criticized directly
in newspapers.
Let compare two following articles:
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“It's 2 a.m. in a jam-packed New York City nightclub, and Britney Spears is giving what
may be her wildest, rawest, sweatiest performance yet. It sure is a far cry from the girl in
braids the world first met just five years ago. She exactly did go from good Britney to bad
Britney. Probably, she is just a young girl growing up. However, it is more like a down and
dirty marketing master plan. She may look like she’s just letting loose here, but is this
Britney Spears out of control – or in total control?” (The New York Time)
“Bên cạnh đó, các ông bầu của ĐT, QV... còn thuê một đội ngũ fan giả đông đảo cho “gà”
của mình. Các fan này có nhiệm vụ chạy lên tặng hoa, gấu bông cho ca sỹ trong các
liveshow... Thậm chí, trong một liveshow gần đây của UHP, người ta thấy chàng ca sỹ này
được tặng một con gấu bông đã xuất hiện trong liveshow trước đó của anh.” (Dân Trí
Online)
(In addition, manager of D.T, Q.V... also hired a group of fans for them. The duty of these
fans was to present flowers, dolls... for the singers in their live shows. Even, in a recent
live show of UHP, he was given the doll which had been seen in his previous live show.)
Through the first article, readers clearly know what exactly happened, who is criticized and
why she is criticized, but in the second one, even a Vietnamese can get confused. Many
issues are raised, but names are still hidden. Only a small number of readers can guess
from those abbreviated names D.T, L.T, Q.V, and UHP... Good advantage of abbreviation
is to protect one’s prestige. However, a clear disadvantage of this is reducing the influence,
even receiving no expecting results for the half-criticism.
4.2.3.5 Word – play/pun
Word - play is to use homonym, poly-semantic words, etc. in language to receive a certain
effect or result (such as innuendo, evasion, humor). This is an effective method to create
expressive value for language. The text will be more interesting, attractive, and exciting,
leaving a deep impression for readers.
“Can Sun also rise?” (USA Today)
“Sun” here is the famous tech corporation Sun Microsystems. Scott McNearly, its director,
is making a plan of selling their new product to improve the terrible condition of the
company. The writer plays on word “sunrise” to wonder whether the company will
overcome its situation.
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The most common method of word - play is word inversion. Only by rearranging some of
the elements of syllables can create new words. In many cases, these new words are similar
to the old ones not only in sound but also in meaning:
“...Cái gọi là tình yêu hiện đại có khi hiện đại quá hóa ra hại điện, biến thành bi kịch
tình yêu.” (Dân Trí Online)
(The so-called modern love is sometimes so modern that it causes damages and turn love
into tragedy.)
In addition, using homonym or poly-semantic words as a method of indirectness can be
seen widely:
“Làm thế nào cho lạc thêm vui?”
“Những kẻ sống... lạc”
In the first case, the appearance of word “happy” makes the word “lạc” have two
meanings: “peanut” and “pleasure”. The “lạc” in the second one is both understood as
“lost” and “hedonism” because the content of the article is about the youth who earn
money by sexual activities but lack of love.
4.2.3.6 Proverbs and precepts
These means of language have their own strengths. They are clear, understandable and
appear with high frequency in daily communication of life. Therefore, using them is
convenient to both writers and readers.
Proverbs and precepts are usually used as following:
4.2.3.6.1 Using the original form
Here, the proverbs are used with it original form without adding or changing any element.
“Chỉ những kẻ bẻ cong chân lý mới cố đấm ăn xôi dựng lên những trò bịp bợm”
(Only those, who break the law, are ready to create dishonest tricks inspire of suffering
from any corporal punishments to get benefits.)
“Chính vì vậy mà hàng loạt ca sỹ Hà nội đã khăn gói quả mướp vào Nam lập nghiệp với lý
do “đất lành chim đậu” để mong kiếm danh lợi.”
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(That is the reason why many Hanoi singers pack their luggage to settle in the South
because of the thought that it is a promising land to enhance their career)
4.2.3.6.2 Using proverb with changes
Besides keeping all the basic elements of the proverb, the writer adds some new elements
to the structure so as to emphasize the theme of the article or the opinion that he would like
to express:
“Thuốc đắng liệu có dã tật.”
 Whether bitter pills will have blessed effects? (Original version: Bitter pills may have
blessed effects)
“Trống đã đánh xuôi mà kèn lại cứ thổi ngược”
 The drums have been beaten forwards but the horn is still blown backward. (Original
version: To beat the drums forward and blow the horn backward)
Another way is that writers, with their creativity, change some elements of a proverb in
order to make it suitable with their idea.
“Phép nước thua ... lệ trường.”
 School laws rule the state laws (Original version: Custom rules the laws)
“Con sâu làm rầu… rừng thông.”
 A worm injures… the whole pine forest (Original version: A rotten apple injures its
neighbors)
In addition, writers can split the proverbs so that each element becomes a separate part:
“Người ta cứ thấy “của rẻ” là ham mà không biết rằng nhiều khi đó còn là “của ôi” nữa”
 People are attracted by “the cheapest” and do not realize that it sometimes costs “the
dearest” (Original version: Cheapest is dearest, best is cheapest)
“Sở dĩ có tình trạng “béo cò” hết sức phi lý như trên là bởi thời gian qua, các cơ quan
chức năng đã thường xuyên làm “đục nước” bằng việc buông lỏng quản lý hoặc phối hợp
không đồng bộ.”
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 The fact of “fishing” unreasonably is because recently, the authorities have frequently
“troubled the water” by relaxing disciplines and not co-operated synchronously. (Original
version: To fish in troubled water)
4.2.3.6.3 Omitting proverb elements
In this case, writers do not add any new element. They, on the contrary, leave a part of the
proverb out:
“Vẫn biết “thương cho roi cho vọt” nhưng khi nó làm tổn hại cả về vật chất và tinh thần
thì nó thành mối quan tâm của toàn xã hội.”
(Despite the fact that “sparing the rod will spoil the child”, it should become the social
interest when it causes physical and mental damages.)
“Miệng nam mô...”
 A honey tongue… (Original version: A honey tongue, heart of gall)
There are many cases the writer combine all the methods of using proverbs:
“Nghĩ về thực trạng nền bóng đá Việt Nam hiện nay, chúng ta không khỏi lo lắng: tre thì
đã già mà măng dưòng như lại chết yểu vì bệnh ngôi sao.”
(Thinking of the worse situation of Vietnamese football nowadays, we feel so worried
since the bamboo is already old but the bamboo shoots seem to be dying young for being
proud of early fame abuse.)
Here, the write not only changes the word “mọc” (grow) into “chết yểu” (die young) but
also adds two new elements: “thì đã” (already) and “dường như lại đang...” (seem to be).
It can easily be seen that the changed proverbs usually have negative color through which
the writers show their critical attitude (sometimes they hide their feeling behind the shell of
humorous or satirical tone.) towards a social event. This is the result of creativity and
requires a deep knowledge about proverbs.
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4.3
Implications
4.3.1 Readers’ problems when reading Vietnamese and American newspapers
The above part shows many differences between Vietnamese and American newspapers.
However, there are two main areas that might cause serious problems: language and
cultural differences.
4.3.1.1 Language difference
Language itself causes problems. Each country has its own language system of vocabulary,
structure, and grammar that is different from that of other countries. It is hard for an
American to understand deeply a Vietnamese article and vice verse. The problem for
readers usually begins when they cannot realize the subject and the main verb because of
separation or delay from each other.
A Vietnamese student might have trouble understanding the following sentence:
A woman said to be despondent over her husband’s heavy drinking jumped into
a canal Friday night with her three children.
She might interpret it into:
A woman confessed that she and her three children pushed her husband into a
canal Friday night because he was a heavy drinker.
The source of her problem is the first three words: "A woman said". The student may think
the main verb is "said" instead of "jumped". One reason she make this mistake was
because the writer omitted "who was" from the sentence. The long form would have
begun:
A woman who was said (by a witness) to be despondent..."
Correspondingly, to understand written American language in common and American
articles in particular, one must be able to find out the subject and the main verb. In this
case, subject and main verb are together at the beginning of the sentence, but in other case,
they are separated or the writer delays the appearance of the verb. Thus, one of the reason
people sometimes misunderstand the information is that they find the wrong subject or,
more commonly, the wrong main verb.
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Another problem that should be taken into consideration is language using. This is also a
great matter because words and phrases are not always used with their meaning of
denotation.
For example, the sentence "Đừng vì thấy người ta ăn khoai…" (Just because of seeing
others eating potatoes/Don’t try to imitate others) makes the readers bewildered. The word
"khoai" in Vietnamese language is not only used as a noun, meaning "a kind of potato" but
also has the meaning of "difficulty, hard-to-solve problem". The second meaning has just
appeared for 5-7 years and is not updated in any dictionary.
4.3.1.2 Culture difference
Understanding culture is integral to learning and understanding a language. Culture may be
defined as "what" a society does and thinks, and language is "a particular how" of thought.
The common misconception is that language’s knowledge is enough for communication’s
success. One should be aware of the fact that language and culture are inseparable. Thus,
reading a foreign newspaper requires not only the knowledge of foreign language but also
the understanding of culture.
The Vietnamese see a struggle between traditions and the free information. The biggest
thing that causes culture shock for them is sex. Sex is considered taboo and thus not to be
explicitly discussed in public. In an effort to respect traditional norms, indirectness and
metaphors are used at the cost of accuracy and clarity. The way it is mentioned is often
discreet and extremely delicate as the below in VnExpress online newspaper:
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Meanwhile, in the American newspapers, sex is always potentially a topic of interest
because it is an eternal and fundamental part of life. Illustrations of sexual women or men
are popular in American newspapers. Some newspapers even use this as a means of
attracting more readers. That, obviously, causes shock for Vietnamese readers, who are too
sensitive with this matter.
Another matter is the attitude towards authorities. The American feel free to express their
opinions, even criticizing leaders, presidents or chairman, etc. They consider their country
is the land of freedom and individualism. In contrast, the Vietnamese think people should
show respect to higher positional persons.
4.3.2 Solutions
Following are suggested solutions to problems in reading critiques in e-newspapers:
1. Improving knowledge of language and culture: Language plays the first and foremost
role of communication. Thus, people should prepare for themselves a sufficient
knowledge of language.
Additionally, differences between cultures cause culture
shock. Therefore, the only way to avoid is to understanding the target culture.
2. Guessing based on the context: Readers can clarify the problems by themselves when
scanning the whole articles. For examples, even though they do not know who “Hoan
Thu” is at the headline, they can understand that she is a very jealous woman through
some scenes of jealousy described in the article.
3. Finding help from online search engines: In the Internet, search results from Google,
Yahoo, Ask.com give users many articles with the same content. With the various
sources of information, readers are no longer confused because they can compare and
understand the story more deeply.
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5
Chapter 5: CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary
The media in general and newspapers in particular largely shape our views on the issues
that we care most. Opinions are mostly formed by information. In chapter 4, a comparison
of criticism in American and Vietnamese e-newspapers has been conducted. Following is
the summary of major similarities and differences in criticism between American and
Vietnamese e-newspapers:
Critiques
American criticism
Vietnamese criticism
Direct
Indirect
Direct
Indirect
Headline
85%
15%
48%
52%
Lead
84%
16%
79%
21%
Illustration
88%
12%
73%
27%
Table 1: Summary of Directness and Indirectness in American and Vietnamese enewspapers
It is observed that criticism in the American newspapers is usually expressed clearly,
orderly and a little more straightforward than it is in Vietnamese newspapers which are
sometimes ambiguous. The most distinctive difference is found in the headlines where
over a half of Vietnamese critiques’ titles are indirect. There is not much difference in the
leads and illustrations.
Percentages of “body of the critical articles” are absent in the above table because some
articles do not answer all the questions (who did what, where, when and how) but it does
not mean they appear indirect.
Many ways are actually resorted to in American and Vietnamese online newspapers to
make writers’ points of view less strict or more vivid such as using punctuations,
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metaphor, etc. This causes difficulties for people when reading newspapers in another
language. To solve these problems requires great effort and depends on numerous factors
which the most decisive is good knowledge of language and cross-cultural diversity.
5.2. Suggestions for further research
It is suggested that further research extend to:
-
Criticism in American and Vietnamese visual media
-
Cultural aspects in American and Vietnamese newspapers
The thesis has been completed with its author’s best efforts. Hopefully, it can contribute to
true knowledge of those who wish to be successful and effective readers. Due to limited
time and ability, mistakes and limitations are unavoidable. Any comments and
contributions are most welcome.