The Use of Energy in Transport
- Past and Future Trends and Implications -
by
Achim Diekmann
Universität zu Köln
Draft: 21 July 2002
This paper has been prepared for presentation to the
14th Input-Output Conference
to be held at
Montreal, Canada, 10-15 October 2002
Contact Author: Professor Dr. Achim Diekmann, D–61 250 Usingen, Hardtstr. 1
Tele: +49 (0)6081 2799; Fax: +49 (0)6081 68 63 23; E-mail: a.dkm@t-online-de
The Use of Energy in Transport – Past and Future
Trends and Implications
Introductory remarks
Transport is a major user of energy. If we include the upstream energy input transport
depends upon and the energy required for the provision of infrastructure and transport
equipment, the share of energy that keeps us mobile can be put at a quarter and even
more of total final energy consumption for most industrialised countries. When taking
into account transport-related exports, such as transport services, transport equipment
and goods used in their production, the energy bill transport accounts for can easily
move up to one-third of the total. Energy conservation in transport therefore ranks high in
the drive towards a more sustainable development and is not only concerned with the
current energy input of the transport system but with its total energy requirements.
Transport is closely integrated into society. Supply chains throughout the industry
depend on it. The interactions that exist between transport and the economy therefore
make any investigation as to the role it plays as a consumer of energy a classical case
for input-output analysis. The present paper analyses the use of energy for transport
purposes in Germany. It views the trends this use has undergone in the context of interindustry relations and looks at the road ahead.
The paper is divided into four chapters.
The first chapter focuses on transport as an intermediate product. It looks at the different
modes of transport, their role in the production process and the energy input they
depend upon. It shows that the classifications by groups of products or industries inputoutput tables use are not very conclusive as to the role transport plays in the economy.
The actually ‘hide’ a major part of the transport services industry uses. Leaving the
corresponding share of transport-related energy consumption unaccounted for. The
paper therefore sets out to rearrange the input-output tables it uses in a way that
conveys greater transparency and gives a full picture transport’s role in the production
system.
The second chapter is concerned with the changes the use of energy by transport has
undergone in the past. It covers a period of almost five decades. Based on a set of 14
input-output tables available for intermittent years over this period, it examines how
economic growth and technological change have shaped the transport system and how
they have affected the use of energy related to it.
Taking a demand-side approach, chapter three reviews the transport system as an
entity. It adds the energy requirements of transport-related investments and exports to
the original requirements of the providers of transport services and, by avoiding doublecounting, identifies the total amount of energy transport uses as a system.
The final chapter looks to the future. The outlook it gives seems quite promising as far as
the specific use of transport energy is concerned. Seen over a longer period, the amount
of energy consumed by physical transport is set to fall in absolute terms. New and
improved engine technologies, a more intelligent management of traffic and a flattening
2
out in the development of vehicle ownership open up positive perspectives, but progress
towards a more sustainable development is nevertheless likely to be slow, because the
use of transport-related energy in industry is bound to move side by side with output.
(1) Transport as an intermediate product
As an intermediate product, transport services are provided in a great variety. Only a
fraction of their total volume is shown by statistics focusing on the traditional transport
industries. This is because, transport services are widely produced by non-transport
industries and even individuals on own account. Input-output tables usually ‘hide’ these
services and the use of energy they require. In order to identify the total amount of
energy uses attributable to the provision of transport services, table 1, as a first step,
includes own-account transport services provided by non-transport industries as a
separate activity to be added to those offered for hire by the traditional for-hire transport
industries.
Table 1
Transport Industries - Intermediate and Primary Inputs 1995
(million €)
Railway
services
Intermediate and primary inputs
DOMESTIC GOODS AND SERVICES
Imports
Taxes on products less subsidies on products
TOTAL INTERMEDIATES/FINAL DEMAND
Taxes linked to production less subsidies
Gross wages and salaries, employers social contributions
Consumption of fixed capital
Net operating surplus
GROSS VALUE ADDED AT MARKET PRICES
OUTPUT
Employment (1000)
Final energy uses less energy uses for transport (TJ)
Final energy uses for transport (TJ)
Transport units (Pkm+ tkm; billions)
4.932
260
405
7.904
-1.010
10.425
5.927
-6.957
10.215
13.982
287
8.146
67.000
132
Public
transport
services,
taxis
6.023
135
396
6.553
-2.224
6.015
307
1.013
5.111
11.664
322
3.000
90.854
89
Road
haulage
9.721
483
2.039
12.243
-243
11.519
565
3.055
14.896
27.139
419
5.082
116.000
150
Pipelines
211
27
49
287
0
25
1
9
35
323
1
6.406
0
17
Inland
Air
watertransport
ways,
services
maritime
transport
services
1.593
4.298
2.996
3.126
4
44
8.031
8.497
18
67
766
1.841
1.307
1.465
236
2.490
4.472
6.754
6.920
13.331
25
45
5.526
53.752
94.000
235.000
132
33
Travel & Business Business
forwarding
own
own
agents;
account
account
auxiliary transport transport
services
services
services
(P)
(G)
33.435
8.930
6.752
549
1.547
2.526
822
4.902
2.442
67.432
15.378
11.721
306
497
102
10.781
37.414
16.811
4.696
13.713
4.421
212
24.845
7.805
30.537
76.469
29.140
50.801
91.847
40.861
432
1.433
609
30.311
4.973
3.200
68.500
354.000
254.000
78
139
72
Source: Destatis
No all services provided by the transport sector are directly concerned with physical
transport. These auxiliary services are usually shared by more than one mode of
transport. Rail transport e.g. relies for part of its activities on forwarding agents. Railways
uses road haulage as a feeder service and water transport depends even more on ‘being
fed’ by other modes of transport. There is a considerable amount of cooperation
between modes. Travel agents and travel organisers are for their most part ‘multimodal’.
One should therefore look at transport chains and the combination of different services
rather than at individual modes when trying to identify the amount of energy that is used
in moving goods or people.
Based on estimates concerning the combination of different services, table 2 looks at
supply chains built around the traditional modes of transport and specifies the amount of
energy used at the different stages of the production process of the services they
provide. It even goes one step further by attributing the amount of energy used in the
provision of transport infrastructure and equipment to each modal chain.
3
Seen from this angle, road transport requires twice the amount of energy per physical
unit of output transport by water would use and 1 ½ times as much as railways including
feeder services by road would require on average. But related to output in terms of value
its energy requirements are only half as high. It actually beats the other modes in terms
of energy productivity. This explains why shifts between modes which are frequently
demanded as part of an energy-saving strategy in general are no realistic option. They
usually imply a loss of productivity. The present pattern of modal split for the most part
reflects a situation where the individual modes are performing the tasks for which they
are best qualified.
Table 2
Commercial Transport Services
Total Energy Requirements by Modal Transport Chains (1995)
Output and energy requirements
Provision of tranport services (TJ)
Supply chain (TJ)
Purchases of transport equipment (TJ)
Share in expenditure on infrastructure (TJ)
Total (TJ)
Output (m €)
Physical transport units (Pkm+tkm)
Output per transport unit (€/(pkm+tkm)
Energy requirements per unit of output (kJ/ €)
Energy requirements per transport unit (kJ/(pkm+tkm)
1)
2)
Rail1)
Road
91.580
873.050
14.131
161.599
13.002
76.665
40.946
28.899
159.659 1.140.213
Water2)
Air
Pipelines
113.926
7.229
1.423
6.763
129.341
307.714
12.916
1.654
6.669
328.952
6.406
252
.
670
7.328
16.340
144,7
0,11
198.516
724,9
0,27
13.453
145,6
0,09
25.298
.
.
323
16,6
0,02
9.771
1.103
5.744
1.573
9.614
888
13.003
.
22.689
441
Railways, trams, metro
Inland waterways and sea
The figures quoted above were calculated by using a modified input-output table (see
annex, table 1) which identifies transport services provided by non-transport industries,
isolates them from the rest of their activities, adds them up and introduces them as an
industry its own right represented by two separate rows and two separate columns, one
of which reflects the services provided by the use of passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles, while the other one represents an aggregate of the services
provided by the use of heavy goods vehicles. The rearrangements which have been
made in the table lead to greater transparency and enable us to better link intermediate
transactions to the transport activities they involve and to the amount of energy they
require. But although this clarifies the situation between industries, it does not yet show
the full extent of industry’s dependence on transport and the use of transport-related
energy, because it ignores the contribution private households make to the production
process by providing transport services ‘free of charge’.
Table 3
4
Germany - Use of Energy for Personal Mobility
Produced or Purchased by Private Households in 1995
(total requirements, TJ)
Contributing sectors
Visiting friends, other
social activities,
recreation, holidays
Commuting,
education, shopping
Private car
Total
Public
Public
Private car
transport
transport
Agriculture, forestry and fishery products
Power and mining products
Fuel, rubber & plastic products, metals, other basic materials
Machinery, transport equipment, electrical goods
Textiles, leather, paper and printing products
Food, beverages, tobacco
Building and construction
Repair services, wholesale & retail
Railway services (P)
Railway services (G)
Road haulage (for hire)
Light rail, metro
Bus services
Taxi services, car rentals
Transport by pipelines
Transport by inland waterways
Transport by sea
Transport by air (P)
Transport by air (G)
Miscellaneous transport-related services(1)
Services of travel agents
Freight forwarding & warehousing
Business - transport on own account (P)
Business - transport on own account (G)
107
17.995
146.573
2.673
1.521
46
300
5.741
16
479
820
1
1
48
0
205
42
711
151
58
17.075
7.235
186
245
35
145
246
14.873
47
52
6.076
22.445
6
0
168
7
180
30
126
21.124
172.064
3.138
1.785
54
352
6.740
19
563
963
1
2
56
0
240
49
835
177
105
20.038
25.866
309
552
97
271
552
16.665
88
308
3.942
14.534
35.581
0
3.210
2.982
114.882
276
396
76.231
351.738
6.306
4.104
231
1.069
13.280
31.574
1.176
2.144
10.019
36.982
35.690
0
3.822
3.081
116.607
634
4
9
346
5.009
3.164
31
525
149
1.702
1.392
5
10
406
5.881
3.715
708
6.564
947
3.565
2.592
749
7.108
1.849
16.157
10.863
Private households - transport on own account
Communication and postal services
Services of credit and insurance institutions
Other market services
Non-market services
Total
589.380
245
2.155
681
233
778.656
2)
699.881
287
2.530
799
274
922.075
2)
1.289.261
925
5.079
1.950
655
2.029.683
(1)
Transport-related services, parking etc.
(2)
Omitted because of double-counting.
90
124
107
61
73.291
303
270
364
87
255.661
By convention, travel by private households is counted as private consumption. But
actually half the distance which individuals travel is caused by their involvement in
production, distribution and even administration:



Driving to work e.g. is a need rather than an act of private consumption. If we look
for a functional relationship, the amount of energy required for this purpose
should be treated as an input to industry to be charged to the individual branch of
industry on a pro rata basis depending on the workforce it employs. This would
have to include commuting by public transport as well.
Schools and universities benefit society at large. Personal mobility linked to
attending them requires energy which again, put in a functional context, would
have to be charged to the education system.
Even the physical movement of goods from shops to peoples’ homes is an activity
imposed on the consumer by retailers who save a considerable amount of
distribution costs by concentrating their sales outlets in shopping malls. For the
5

consumer this compares unfavourably with the good old days when the grocer
was around the corner and forces him to travel longer distances.
The same applies to local administrations, which have centralised their offices, so
that visitors have to employ cars or public transport to reach them. Again, the
burden bears the citizen.
In all these cases, the use of energy is a function not of private consumption but of
changes in land-use and production patterns and demand by the production system that
do not lie in the responsibility of the individual consumer. The use of energy linked to
these non-consumption activities should therefore be considered as an intermediate
input to the sectors concerned.
In practical terms, this means that for the purpose of linking the use of energy in
transport to the activities to which it is related the purchases of goods and services made
by private households for transport services required in this context would have to be
removed from the final demand side of the input-output table to be added to its
intermediate section as the input of an industry in its own right.
Table 3 illustrates the split in households’ transport activities between the two kinds of
mobility they practise and the implications it has in terms of the use of transport-related
energy. The figures quoted are total energy requirements including indirect uses along
the supply chain. The table also shows where these uses take place in the production
process that underlies the mobility of private households. The difference the table makes
is between transport activities private households have to perform because they have no
choice and acts of private consumption. The first category of personal travel absorbs
about 40 per cent of the energy private households require for their mobility. The
implications this differentiation has for the input-output table are shown in the annex
which contains a consolidated and modified version of the 1995 Destatis table.
Table 4 selects the transport columns from this table. It completes the additions of
‘hidden’ transport elements to the transport sector. Their inclusion together with the
insertion of a corresponding output row allows to quantify the individual sectors’
dependence on transport and transport-related energy.
As can be seen from the table, the ‘hidden’ elements of the transport sector outweigh
their visible counterpart by 6:4 in terms of production value and by 7:3 in terms of value
added. Not accounting for them would grossly under-estimated the amount of transportrelated energy required by industry.
It should be remembered that, practically speaking, transport services provided by
private households as an intermediate product are free of charge. National accounts do
not attribute any value to them. They add value to GDP only indirectly by the input of
goods and services they require. What cannot be ignored however is the energy
consumption that goes with them. This difference in treatment leads to distortion, when it
comes to calculate energy productivity by relating energy input to an industry’s output or
value added.
6
Table 4
GERMANY - 1995 Consolidated and Modified Input-Output Table
Transport Sector
TRADITIONAL TRANSPORT INDUSTRIES
Railway
services
Transport by
water
Other for-hire
transport
services
At producers' prices (net of all VAT) Mio. €
Agriculture, forestry and fishery products
Power and mining products
Fuel, rubber & plastic products, metals, other basic materials
Machinery, transport equipment, electrical goods
Textiles, leather, paper and printing products
Food, beverages, tobacco
Building and construction
Repair services, wholesale & retail
Railway services
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account transport services (P)
Business own-account transport services (G)
Private households (PrHH) intermediate transport services
Intermediate railway services purchased by PrHH
Intermediate public transport services purchased by PrHH
Communication services
Services of credit and insurance institutions
Other market services
Non-market services
DOMESTIC GOODS AND SERVICES
Imports
Non-deductible taxes/taxes on products
TOTAL INTERMEDIATES/FINAL DEMAND
Consumption of fixed capital
Taxes linked to production less subsidies
Gross wages and salaries, employers social contributions
Net operating surplus
GROSS VALUE ADDED AT MARKET PRICES
Adjustments, statistical discrepancies
OUTPUT
Employment (1000)
Primary Energy (TJ)
Final energy less transport (TJ)
Final energy uses for transport (TJ)
Transport units (Pkm, tkm) (Billions)
9
648
206
240
70
0
102
126
573
2
603
203
133
155
18
15
36
102
424
100
3.764
187
280
4.232
3.733
-436
6.619
-3.325
6.591
-188
10.635
186
2.127
6.210
51.073
101
7
3
178
7
6
31
2
81
2
323
841
20
14
18
1
1
12
16
46
5
1.614
2.996
4
4.614
1.307
18
766
236
2.327
-21
6.920
25
0
5.526
94.000
132
59
417
1.635
931
634
74
682
2.786
29
104
29.224
2.442
936
776
67
57
1.361
1.725
6.796
516
51.253
4.252
3.200
58.705
6.943
-544
27.080
6.835
40.314
-901
98.117
1.033
3.398
93.862
486.072
349
HIDDEN' ELEMENTS OF THE TRANSPORT SECTOR
Business ownaccount
transport
services (P)
0
0
2.002
278
374
0
61
838
0
0
0
807
413
0
77
66
124
1.911
1.700
421
9.072
1.547
4.902
15.521
13.713
497
37.414
27.746
79.369
-3.043
91.847
1.433
0
4.973
354.000
139
Business ownaccount
transport
services (G)
9
3
554
111
119
13
138
1.592
0
0
0
970
507
0
34
29
370
477
1.447
443
6.815
2.526
2.442
11.783
4.421
102
16.811
7.921
29.255
-178
40.861
609
0
3.200
254.000
72
Private
households
(PrHH)
intermediate
transport
services
0
0
3.130
2.829
699
0
0
8.458
21
0
101
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.226
4.527
140
24.133
1.823
15.869
41.825
0
0
0
0
0
0
41.825
0
0
0
589.000
244
Intermediate
railway services
purchased by
PrHH
Intermediate
public transport
services
purchased by
PrHH
8
271
70
88
39
0
44
40
210
0
207
79
52
84
3
192
117
145
55
10
101
194
5
6
544
241
122
134
8
36
164
39
1.439
73
125
1.636
2.194
-574
3.806
-4.058
1.368
-84
2.921
101
663
1.936
15.927
30
81
151
756
113
2.969
68
150
3.188
91
-1.068
3.101
-538
1.586
-134
4.640
186
170
4.689
24.282
42
Source: Destatis; own estimates
In 1995, total consumption of final energy by industry, 9,424 PJ. Out of this amount
2,623 PJ or 28 per cent were used directly or indirectly to cover the needs of the
transport industries as defined in this paper.
We shall now move on to a historical analysis by exploring the major trends that have
influenced transport-related energy use over the past five decades. This analysis uses a
set of 14 input-output tables available for intermittent years over the period under
consideration.
Figure 1
7
Final Energy Use for Physical Transport
Petajoules
2.500
2.000
including
East
Germany
1.500
Collective transport
Individual transport
1.000
500
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
(2) Long-term Trends
From 1994 to 1995, intermediate purchases of transport services as defined above have
increased to more then five times their initial level in terms of value, measured in
constant prices (see table 5). They have in fact expanded faster than GDP. However, the
direct energy content of these services has only trebled, which indicates that energy
productivity has risen by annual average of about 1.5 per cent (taking into account that
the transport services provided by private households use energy but do not add value
to GDP).
As can be seen from table 5, improvements in energy efficiency of commercial transport
– as opposed to private consumption - have actually taken place rather early because
energy has always been a cost factor to be reduced to the extent possible. But the
character of transport has changed as well. While physical transport has lost weight in
shaping the profile of the transport industries, services of all kinds have contributed to
the value added of the transport industry. While the use of advanced electronics and
telecommunication has turned truck operators and freight forwarders into providers of
complex logistics services, enabling them to run entire supply chains and making
transport more valuable, the use of transport equipment has become much more
diversified, leading to a greater number of medium-sized transport units carrying smaller
loads. This diversification has largely compensated the gains in fuel economy that were
achieved on a specific basis, but the greater flexibility it provided has added value to the
output of the industry. The gains in energy productivity are largely due to this
phenomenon.
Table 5
8
Intermediate Purchases of Transport Services
1954
1962
1972
1978
1984
1988
1991
1993
1995
6.214
2.178
4.919
17.764
2.692
1.430
2.780
1.189
39.166
7.636
4.171
13.790
29.243
8.420
6.357
1.308
1.994
72.919
9.301
3.449
27.512
58.646
19.231
19.237
-1.607
1.770
137.538
5.342
1.755
23.322
62.172
21.740
27.350
-2.065
1.361
140.977
4.533
1.466
31.481
69.256
26.631
26.495
-1.582
1.343
159.623
3.931
2.449
32.945
71.719
30.372
27.085
-1.837
1.188
167.852
5.553
3.681
39.025
70.834
35.955
31.353
-2.279
2.326
186.447
3.848
3.496
39.847
79.688
39.656
30.096
-1.543
2.382
197.469
4.874
1.271
48.572
80.048
35.249
34.465
2.655
4.217
211.352
13.311
25.855
25.596
47.323
40.262
97.276
30.419
110.558
37.480
122.143
39.325
128.527
48.259
138.188
47.191
150.278
54.717
156.634
203
73
35
82
13
13
83
16
518
134
128
79
157
44
91
23
17
672
49
93
146
255
108
309
6
25
989
26
46
142
288
135
417
9
23
1.086
24
26
160
287
137
451
7
27
1.119
22
34
183
298
140
532
7
23
1.239
29
58
248
383
201
625
12
34
1.590
23
48
261
375
222
672
13
32
1.646
26
19
269
354
254
589
16
24
1.551
312
207
340
331
287
702
214
872
210
909
239
1.001
335
1.255
332
1.314
314
1.237
23.409
7.988
13.299
7.002
7.139
7.216
7.048
7.883
5.611
7.442
6.070
7.786
6.935
9.084
7.035
8.747
5.734
7.899
Value (m €; 1991 prices)
Rail transport
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account P
Business own-account G
Private households own account
Pr. households rail
Pr. housholds public transport
of which
apparent
hidden
Energy content (Petajoules)
Rail transport
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account P
Business own-account G
Private households own account
Pr. households rail
Pr. housholds public transport
of which
apparent
hidden
KJ per Euro
apparent
hidden
Table 5, which covers only direct energy consumption by the transport sector, gives a
more detailed account of the major trends that have accompanied this development. It
shows that even as far back as in the fifties of the past century the ‘hidden’ portion of
transport services industry used was twice as high as the services performed by the
traditional for-hire transport industries. By 1995, these purchases accounted for three
quarters of industry’s intermediate input of transport services. The share provided by
private households even quadrupled, revealing a clear trend towards ‘do-it-yourself
transport’. The main reason behind this shift from collective to individual transport was
the growth in the ownership of motor vehicles, but part of it is also to be ascribed to the
reduced dependence of the economy on heavy loads. As a consequence modes which
had specialised in this kind of transport, such as rail and inland waterways, lost ground.
The widespread use of private cars and light commercials which a major element in the
development towards individualised, lightweight transport has raised the energy content
of transport. Today, almost two-thirds of industry’s direct input of transport-related
energy is accounted for by light vehicles, leaving only one-third of the total to the
movement of heavy loads – a share which used to be almost 60 per cent in the fifties.
Table 6
9
Transport - Input Coefficients by Industry 1954/1995
Commodities and services
Agricul- Electrici- Basic
Investtural
ty, gas, matement
products water,
rials, fuel goods
mining
products
Consumer
goods
Food,
ConDistridrink,
struction bution
tobacco
Banking, BusiGoverninsuness
ment/
rance
services nonmarket
services
1954
Railway services
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account P
Business own-account G
Private households intermediate
Total requirements
Direct input
0,0102
0,0030
0,0069
0,0271
0,0046
0,0016
0,0533
0,0277
0,0393
0,0127
0,0114
0,0295
0,0051
0,0025
0,1005
0,0579
0,0408
0,0129
0,0249
0,0458
0,0062
0,0027
0,1333
0,0746
0,0232
0,0066
0,0161
0,0575
0,0073
0,0029
0,1135
0,0539
0,0172
0,0052
0,0149
0,0493
0,0059
0,0036
0,0961
0,0477
0,0146
0,0065
0,0129
0,0601
0,0071
0,0019
0,1032
0,0612
0,0180
0,0061
0,0167
0,0531
0,0071
0,0025
0,1035
0,0542
0,0247
0,0093
0,0222
0,0735
0,0089
0,0069
0,1455
0,1153
0,0088
0,0030
0,0056
0,0406
0,0052
0,0029
0,0661
0,0385
0,0096
0,0026
0,0069
0,0567
0,0098
0,0024
0,0879
0,0474
0,0225
0,0041
0,0200
0,0647
0,0123
0,0054
0,1289
0,1013
1995
Railway services
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account P
Business own-account G
Private households intermediate
Total requirements
Direct input
0,0026
0,0022
0,0226
0,0668
0,0289
0,0182
0,1413
0,0890
0,0077
0,0021
0,0110
0,0502
0,0370
0,0118
0,1197
0,0733
0,0057
0,0018
0,0276
0,0443
0,0245
0,0135
0,1173
0,0612
0,0025
0,0007
0,0292
0,0535
0,0230
0,0145
0,1233
0,0654
0,0027
0,0006
0,0291
0,0535
0,0271
0,0166
0,1296
0,0722
0,0021
0,0012
0,0439
0,0784
0,0392
0,0175
0,1824
0,0950
0,0023
0,0008
0,0192
0,0594
0,0233
0,0185
0,1235
0,0696
0,0019
0,0004
0,0132
0,0490
0,0203
0,0594
0,1442
0,1110
0,0018
0,0001
0,0110
0,0771
0,0302
0,0231
0,1434
0,0379
0,0007
0,0001
0,0064
0,0485
0,0207
0,0098
0,0862
0,0589
0,0036
0,0002
0,0115
0,0372
0,0162
0,0278
0,0966
0,0778
On an industry-by-industry basis, table 6 shows how this shift has affected total
requirements coefficients. The table compares the years 1954 and 1995. There are only
few cases in which the use of transport services has stagnated or even shrunk in terms
of value. One of them is the production of basic materials, such as coal, metals, fuel and
chemicals. Agricultural products, consumer goods, food and drink have moved in the
opposite direction.
Table 7
Transport Energy per Unit of Output (Total requirements)
kJ/€ 1991 prices
3.000
2.500
Agriculture
Fuel, mining, powerproducts
Basic materials
Investment goods
Consumer/intermediate products
Food, beverages
Construction
Retail & wholesale
Market services
Non-market services
2.000
1.500
1.000
500
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
The case of retailing is interesting. While retailers purchased less transport services in
1995 than they did in 1954 and reduced even the input of own-account transport, this
has largely been compensated by the input of transport services provided by private
households. This actually confirms the assumption made earlier that retailers have
10
shifted the burden of transport to the consumer. Table 3 in the annex gives a more
detailed account of this development.
Table 8 reviews the total energy requirements of the transport sector over the past 20
years. These requirements include the energy used for supplies to final demand. As
opposed to table 5, the figures given also include upstream uses of energy and are not
confined to intermediate inputs of transport-related energy purchases.
As can be seen, again, the energy requirements of the transport sector have been on
the rise for the last 20 years. They have, in fact, moved in step with GDP growth. Drivers
of this growth were road and air transport. The table also shows that energy
consumption by transports on rail or by water has become negligible.
Table 8
Energy Requirements of the Transport Sector (PJ)
Year
Railways,
Inland
trams, metro waterway,
maritime
transport
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
74
71
68
68
68
70
70
69
67
65
66
170
177
160
145
144
131
133
95
99
94
129
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
89
90
89
84
82
82
100
82
71
71
73
82
Air transport Commercial Intermediate Upstream
Total
road
transport
energy
transport
services by requirements
private
households
110
590
430
488
118
571
411
517
113
564
431
607
118
566
437
631
130
576
446
680
135
579
434
703
149
590
448
655
166
587
451
660
188
595
492
641
206
598
494
658
226
619
503
576
including East Germany
289
856
589
701
302
869
576
697
316
859
584
645
325
879
600
642
348
932
608
677
370
925
615
700
1.862
1.865
1.944
1.964
2.044
2.053
2.045
2.028
2.082
2.115
2.118
2.623
2.616
2.565
2.600
2.721
2.773
(3) Final demand
When trying to identify the energy needs of transport, the services it provides should not
be dealt with in an isolated way. They are to be considered as the output of a system
which includes an infrastructure shaped and controlled by the state, an administration
engaged in managing this infrastructure and a whole industry which supplies the
transport equipment on which the system depends. In other words, an additional amount
of energy is required to maintain and manage the system and to make the necessary
investments.
11
It should also be realised that satisfying the needs of mobility is not only a matter of
domestic demand. With national economies becoming more and more globally
integrated, there is a need to look at the share of transport in exports and imports as
well.
Calculating the full amount of energy whose consumption is driven by transport therefore
requires a two-pronged approach. The analysis of energy consumption by the providers
of transport services described in the preceding chapters has to be complemented by a
look at the input of energy required in order satisfy transport-related final.
There are for major elements that drive transport-related final demand :




the production and purchase of transport services by private households for their
own use forming a part of private consumption,
the purchase of transport equipment and relevant machinery,
investments in infrastructure and other structures including the maintenance and
management of the transport network, and
exports of transport-related goods and services to other countries.
In 1995, these four components accounted for almost one-sixth of total final demand in
Germany in 1995 - share which may even have risen in the meantime.
Figure 2
Transport-Related Final Demand (1991 prices)
€ (billions)
250
200
Private households current
expenditure
Transport equipment
150
Infrastructure
100
Exports
50
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Well into the nineties transport-related final demand led the overall growth of the
economy. Table 9 which compares its growth rates with those of GDP signals two
distinct trends. While transport-related domestic demand lost much of its impetus over
the past two decades and has even shrunk slightly in recent years, transport-related
exports have continued to be a highly dynamic element. Today, transport-related exports
account for more than half of total transport-related final demand with private
12
consumption ranking second. The demand for transport equipment accounts for about
one-fifth of the total, while investments in transport infrastructure, which held a rather
prominent position in the beginning, have levelled off (see figure 2).
Table 9
Average Annual Growth of GDP and Transport-Related Final Demand (%)
1950-1960 1960-1970 1970-1980 1980-1990 1991-2000
GDP
Transport-related exports
Transport-related gross domestic demand
7,9
21,9
12,4
4,4
12,0
8,1
2,7
5,5
2,3
2,2
5,0
3,1
1,6
6,6
-0,5
Table 10
Energy Requirements of Transport-Related Final Demand (PJ)
1.980
1.981
1.982
1.983
1.984
1.985
1.986
1.987
1.988
1.989
1.990
Private
consumption
of ownaccount
transport
services
588
560
619
644
711
712
769
852
853
865
897
1.995
1.996
1.997
1.998
1.999
2.000
948
942
952
951
978
969
Year
Private
Transport
consumption equipment
of purchased
transport
Infrastructure Transportrelated
exports
47
148
51
156
51
133
52
150
50
138
54
149
65
182
59
178
76
189
80
185
82
183
including East Germany
172
220
169
220
164
206
156
227
167
235
169
219
Total final
demand
100
96
84
83
79
84
85
83
80
84
76
680
789
765
745
769
803
749
693
724
818
811
1.562
1.652
1.653
1.673
1.747
1.803
1.851
1.865
1.921
2.031
2.049
99
97
91
91
100
91
932
1.000
960
1.058
1.131
1.259
2.371
2.428
2.373
2.484
2.612
2.706
Table 10 gives the energy requirements of transport-related final demand calculated by
means of the Leontief-inverse linked to the energy data provided by the German
Statistical Office. It shows that the amount of energy absorbed by its components has
moved from 1,562 PJ to 2,706 PJ between 1980 and 2000. The energy requirements of
transport-related final demand have actually grown faster than energy consumption by
transport as an industry. The cause for this lies in the disproportionate growth of
transport-related exports.1
1
At this point it would be desirable to be more explicit about the roles of transport-related imports. Unfortunately,
detailed the import needs of the transport system, and more particularly on the energy input these imports require are
13
Energy productivity in providing goods and services to satisfy transport-related final
demand has improved, be it but slightly. Over the twenty years period, energy input per
unit of output (at constant prices) has dropped by an annual average of 0.7 per cent.
Interestingly enough, the economies made in providing transport-related goods and
services for export have been greatest.
We can now take a closer look at the total demand for energy attributable to transport
and transport-related activities.
This demand covers the energy needs of intermediate transport as well as those
induced by transport-related final demand. The problem in adding them up is that the
two overlap. Supplies to final demand include intermediate transport services. Not all of
them of course, but those required for the supplies final demand absorbs. This portion of
transport services must not be counted twice. Figure 5 clarifies this problem. It also
indicates the total resulting from the combination of the two measures we have used
which is equivalent to 4,189 PJ - 35 per cent of final energy used in Germany in 1995.
Figure 3
Energy Requirements of the
Transport System 1995 (PJ)
2623
4189
Transport
w/o
double-counting
Energy required by the transport sector
Energy required by transport-related FD
Overlap
805
Energy to be attributed to both
2371
Transport-related FD
The Leontief-inverse allows us to trace back this use of energy to its origins. Table 4 in
the annex reviews the entire supply chain, identifying suppliers and purchasers of
transport-related energy. To the figures quoted in the table, the equivalent of 700 PJ has
to be added for that part of transport-related energy which is used by private households
for the production of transport services for their own consumptive use.
If we look at the trends identified so far, the impression is that, after a long period of
growth, we seem to be moving towards a point where the consumption of transportrelated energy might drop in absolute terms. This is not merely the merit of advances in
fuel economy, better organisation and logistics or more careful driving but results to a
great deal from the flattening out of the growth of private production and consumption of
less readily available. It can however be estimated that in 1995 imports related to transport have reached
approximately 80 per cent of the level of transport-related exports.
14
transport services. Starting from the hypothesis that this trend is going to continue, we
shall now try to look 15 years ahead.
(4) Future trends
Given the close integration of social, economic and transport activities, it makes little
sense to try to make an isolated forecast of future energy use by transport. Any forecast
of transport-related uses of energy must be consistent with the development of the
economy and society at large. Therefore, the forecast we venture will be put in the
context of an estimated input-output table for the year 2015.
The assumptions underlying this table are as follows.

Population: practically unchanged compared to 1995, but ageing.

Employment: shrinking by 0.2 per cent per year on average

Average annual GDP growth: 1.5 per cent over the period 1995 to 2015, with growth
well below average in agriculture, energy, mining, basic material and construction in
the non-transport sector, but higher than average in the services industries (2.6 per
cent).

Average annual growth of final demand in per cent:
 Private consumption:
1.8; (transport-related 1.6)
 Government expenditure: 1.3; (transport-related 1.3)
 GFCF equipment:
2.1; (transport-related 1.8)
 GFCF construction:
0.7; (transport-related 1.0)
 Exports:
2.1; (transport-related 2.3)
Some of these assumptions may look moderate. It should not be overlooked, however,
that they mirror stagnation in population growth and an ageing society.
Societal changes affecting the structure of the economy basically point to a move from a
mobility-based society towards a knowledge-based society. However, the next 10 to 15
years will be too short a period to show the full impact of this development. And even
beyond, mobility will continue to be firmly integrated into society. But its potential as a
source of economic growth will shrink in the long term. Even now there are signs that
transport in its physical dimension tends to lag overall economic development (see figure
6). This follows a long period during which its elasticity with regard to GDP was close to
1.
As an intermediate input, however, and in terms of value, the role of transport will not
(yet) change visibly in the period up to 2015, but modal shares will. Railways are
expected to continue to lose ground. They will fail to beat the truck. Even with a higher
tax burden to bear road transport will continue to be the preferred mode in industry. The
role of transport by inland waterways will continue to be marginal and maritime transport
will fail to grow substantially. This contrasts with the use of air transport which may lose
15
some of its impetus but is likely to continue to grow more dynamically than the other
modes.
Figure 4
Transport Intensity in Passenger and Goods Transport per 1000 € of GDP (1995 prices)
Transport Intensity (Passenger-km per 1000 € of GDP)
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Transport Intensity (Tonne-km per 1000 € of GDP)
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
With stagnation or even a fall in the workforce, commuting is unlikely to grow, although
the expenditure by private households for this purpose may do so because less
subsidies will be available to public transport operators, while road vehicles will become
more sophisticated to meet stricter environmental legislation and fuel economy
requirements. Working from home and teleshopping will become more important but
their impact will be limited during the period under consideration. Own-account transport
by business firms is almost certain to expand further, particularly in the service
industries, but its growth will be limited to the use of light commercials and passenger
cars.
These trends are reflected by the projected growth rates below:

Average annual growth in per cent in the transport sector:
Railways: 1
Transport by water: 0.9
Other for-hire transport services: 2
16
Business own-account P: 1.6
Business own-account G: 1.7
Private households C: 1.1
Private households R: 0.4
Private households PT: 0.5
For obvious reasons, transport as an intermediate product is likely to remain closely
linked to the physical production of goods and services, disengagements because of
shifts to ‘virtual’ forms of production will be rare. Still, growth in this sector is more likely
to be measured in digits than in passenger-km or tonne-km in the future. This will help to
harness transport-related energy consumption, particularly in the use of passenger cars
and light commercial vehicles which offer a greater potential than trucks.
Figure 5
Changes in Transport-Related Energy Consumption
1995-2015
%
16,0
11,0
12,5
Upstream
Other for-hire
5,0
6,0
Private households
purchased transport
intermediate
7,2
1,0
-4,0
-9,0
-14,0
-2,0
-6,5
Rail
-6,5
Water
Business
ownaccount
(P)
Business
own-account
(G)
-4,0
-6,5
Average
-19,0
-19,5
-24,0
-29,0
Private households own-account intermediate
-28,3
Private households
own-account
consumption
-34,0
The outlook given by the 2015 table in the annex specifies the impact of technology on
the amount of energy used by the commercial transport sector and by private
households. The savings it shows result from the combined effect of advances in engine
technology, the use of more lightweight materials, and of improvements in traffic
management. They are distributed unevenly between modes and transport activities, as
shown in figure 5.
Given further advances in technology, the overall result for the transport system as a
whole may look disappointing. The calculations suggest a 4 per cent drop in total
transport-related energy consumption compared to the 1995 level. However, it has to be
borne in mind that the upstream potential for energy savings is smaller than in transport
itself and that the transport sector will not yet cease to grow altogether. There is still a
potential in terms of physical growth for some transport activities, such as for-hire heavy
17
goods transport by road, which will offset savings made in other uses of transport
equipment.
In conclusion it can be said that, in spite of further substantial advances in fuel economy,
there is no quick solution to the energy issue as far as the total energy consumption by
the transport sector and related activities is concerned. This makes it even more urgent
to find ways to move away from the traditional fossil fuels it uses. However, the
alternatives to be found are likely to leave deep traces in the economic structures the
industrialised world has been used to so far.
18
Annex
Table 1
Modified and Consolidated 1995 Input-Output Table
GERMANY 1995
Domestic production
At producers' prices (net of all VAT)
Mio. €
Agriculture, forestry and fishery products
Power and mining products
Fuel, rubber & plastic products, metals, other basic materials
Machinery, transport equipment, electrical goods
Textiles, leather, paper and printing products
Food, beverages, tobacco
Building and construction
Repair services, wholesale & retail
Railway services
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account transport services (P)
Business own-account transport services (G)
Private households (PrHH) intermediate transport services
Intermediate railway services purchased by PrHH
Intermediate public transport services purchased by PrHH
Communication services
Services of credit and insurance institutions
Other market services
Non-market services
DOMESTIC GOODS AND SERVICES
Imports
Non-deductible taxes/taxes on products
TOTAL INTERMEDIATES/FINAL DEMAND
Consumption of fixed capital
Taxes linked to production less subsidies
Gross wages and salaries, employers social contributions
Net operating surplus
GROSS VALUE ADDED AT MARKET PRICES
Adjustments, statistical discrepancies
OUTPUT
Employment (1000)
Primary Energy (TJ)
Final energy less transport (TJ)
Final energy uses for transport (TJ)
Transport units (Pkm, tkm) (Billions)
Agriculture,
Power and
Fuel, rubber
forestry and
mining products &plastic
fishere products
products,
metals, other
basic materials
1.016
1.109
2.184
758
141
2.953
270
2.171
62
70
420
1.871
766
419
29
25
49
120
2.896
489
17.817
2.800
815
21.431
7.330
-1.883
8.684
6.043
20.174
-472
41.133
1.041
10.303
133.682
0
0
41
9.883
2.445
2.949
330
4
1.347
1.341
449
123
267
2.332
2.029
420
29
25
444
680
6.974
2.318
34.429
3.393
1.783
39.605
12.178
-3.601
20.827
8.863
38.267
-474
77.398
475
3.869.494
2.147.217
0
0
61
13.577
65.533
6.125
4.273
1.349
1.597
10.561
1.193
380
4.254
7.451
4.379
1.926
137
118
1.880
1.472
25.404
2.663
154.333
57.790
1.305
213.428
16.214
2.372
84.504
9.660
112.750
-2.181
323.997
2.331
5.740.776
3.072.603
0
0
Machinery,
transport
equipment,
electrical goods
2
3.727
43.721
65.730
4.662
44
882
13.656
408
120
5.182
11.714
4.712
2.511
175
150
2.157
936
26.637
1.098
188.225
57.295
1.149
246.669
18.574
1.047
117.933
561
138.115
-2.835
381.949
2.913
108.572
207.089
0
0
Textiles,
leather, paper
and printing
products
1.031
3.060
7.539
1.130
26.230
32
511
5.733
213
42
2.144
4.600
2.392
1.222
86
73
1.471
565
12.588
1.967
72.630
22.587
599
95.816
8.163
970
39.238
6.369
54.739
-1.381
149.175
1.486
177.813
216.027
0
0
Food,
beverages,
tobacco
21.876
2.104
3.674
752
2.746
14.450
408
6.352
84
50
2.612
5.118
2.709
705
48
41
312
290
10.211
1.229
75.773
14.393
26
90.192
4.858
667
18.522
6.223
30.270
-795
119.667
875
102.638
146.763
0
0
Building and
construction
1
2.492
41.321
9.687
7.236
5
2.486
8.330
157
80
1.638
8.457
2.829
2.431
159
136
639
1.182
24.483
1.134
114.883
12.824
655
128.362
5.207
856
70.033
26.640
102.735
-2.726
228.371
2.902
7.711
186.176
0
0
Repair services, Railway
wholesale &
services
retail
70
2.958
3.904
3.965
6.283
35
1.632
14.056
342
72
1.797
9.375
3.721
15.143
357
1.366
5.448
2.427
39.459
4.492
116.901
7.805
766
125.471
12.633
5.244
123.900
39.061
180.838
-16.338
289.971
5.730
72.051
229.236
0
0
9
648
206
240
70
0
102
126
573
2
603
203
133
155
18
15
36
102
424
100
3.764
187
280
4.232
3.733
-436
6.619
-3.325
6.591
-188
10.635
186
2.127
6.210
51.073
101
Transport by
water
7
3
178
7
6
31
2
81
2
323
841
20
14
18
1
1
12
16
46
5
1.614
2.996
4
4.614
1.307
18
766
236
2.327
-21
6.920
25
0
5.526
94.000
132
Source: Destatis; own estimates
19
Germany 1995 continued
At producers' prices (net of all VAT)
Mio. €
Agriculture, forestry and fishery products
Power and mining products
Fuel, rubber & plastic products, metals, other basic materials
Machinery, transport equipment, electrical goods
Textiles, leather, paper and printing products
Food, beverages, tobacco
Building and construction
Repair services, wholesale & retail
Railway services
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account transport services (P)
Business own-account transport services (G)
Private households (PrHH) intermediate transport services
Intermediate
railway services
purchased by
PrHH
Intermediate
Communication Services of
public transport services
credit and
services
insurance
purchased by
institutions
PrHH
8
271
70
88
39
0
44
40
210
0
207
79
52
84
3
192
117
145
55
10
101
194
5
6
544
241
122
134
8
36
164
39
1.439
73
125
1.636
2.194
-574
3.806
-4.058
1.368
-84
2.921
101
663
1.936
15.927
30
81
151
756
113
2.969
68
150
3.188
91
-1.068
3.101
-538
1.586
-134
4.640
186
170
4.689
24.282
42
Intermediate railway services purchased by PrHH
Intermediate public transport services purchased by PrHH
Communication services
Services of credit and insurance institutions
Other market services
Non-market services
DOMESTIC GOODS AND SERVICES
Imports
Non-deductible taxes/taxes on products
TOTAL INTERMEDIATES/FINAL DEMAND
Consumption of fixed capital
Taxes linked to production less subsidies
Gross wages and salaries, employers social contributions
Net operating surplus
GROSS VALUE ADDED AT MARKET PRICES
Adjustments, statistical discrepancies
OUTPUT
Employment (1000)
Primary Energy (TJ)
Final energy less transport (TJ)
Final energy uses for transport (TJ)
Transport units (Pkm, tkm) (Billions)
10
322
52
1.024
637
3
303
281
10
1
176
503
216
496
34
29
1.236
112
1.232
82
6.760
2.141
890
9.791
9.876
7
18.080
9.398
37.362
1.928
49.080
565
4.207
19.746
11.000
0
27
544
50
98
794
4
561
211
65
0
270
2.943
1.093
938
68
59
2.041
89.509
18.783
642
118.699
6.113
3.388
128.200
5.939
2.303
47.177
-39.232
16.188
-1.065
143.324
1.232
14.915
29.925
0
0
Other market
services
1.005
2.816
1.674
1.934
6.555
9.730
15.402
4.860
179
13
1.289
20.557
8.634
3.509
236
202
3.696
3.253
80.954
8.501
174.998
10.604
4.974
190.577
86.908
3.692
91.863
218.558
401.021
-3.945
587.653
4.799
56.101
82.648
0
0
Non-market
services
680
4.482
5.487
6.833
5.796
3.389
5.777
6.678
1.360
45
2.637
12.164
5.205
10.938
1.367
2.249
5.437
2.155
28.384
11.567
122.631
12.749
11.057
146.436
46.188
-8.686
260.542
32.420
330.464
-14.554
462.347
9.462
141.707
330.918
0
0
Total intermediates/
primary inputs
25.914
48.608
185.476
105.614
67.679
32.126
32.308
88.346
5.362
1.431
54.206
91.847
40.861
41.825
2.921
4.640
26.803
111.346
293.867
37.958
1.299.136
223.966
54.379
1.577.482
266.470
982
996.900
359.382
1.623.734
-49.386
3.151.830
37.382
10.312.646
6.922.427
1.879.354
1.109
Final
Government
consumption of expenditure
households
Gross fixed
capital
formation
(machinery)
8.500
26.811
17.409
33.787
41.542
71.585
3.457
158.455
4.007
358
24.197
0
0
0
16
265
5.989
1.684
385
265
742
10.090
0
0
2.853
0
0
0
0
113
3.764
66.185
6.711
0
0
11.436
105
0
2.582
0
0
0
20.512
29.998
239.262
101.675
781.554
78.364
91.331
951.248
0
0
0
0
0
0
951.248
0
992.806
1.661.083
699.881
412
206
310
10.137
317.208
350.150
2.970
3.670
356.790
0
0
0
0
0
0
356.790
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11.986
2.000
104.882
37.118
3.480
145.480
0
0
0
0
0
0
145.480
0
0
0
0
0
Source: Destatis; own estimates
20
Table 2
Projected 2015 Input-Output Table (1995 prices)
GERMANY 2015
Domestic production
At producers' prices (net of all VAT)
Mio. €
Agriculture, forestry and fishery products
Power and mining products
Fuel, rubber & plastic products, metals, other basic materials
Machinery, transport equipment, electrical goods
Textiles, leather, paper and printing products
Food, beverages, tobacco
Building and construction
Repair services, wholesale & retail
Railway services
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account transport services (P)
Business own-account transport services (G)
Private households (PrHH) intermediate transport services
Intermediate railway services purchased by PrHH
Intermediate public transport services purchased by PrHH
Communication services
Services of credit and insurance institutions
Other market services
Non-market services
DOMESTIC GOODS AND SERVICES
Imports
Non-deductible taxes/taxes on products
TOTAL INTERMEDIATES/FINAL DEMAND
Consumption of fixed capital
Taxes linked to production less subsidies
Gross wages and salaries, employers social contributions
Net operating surplus
GROSS VALUE ADDED AT MARKET PRICES
Adjustments, statistical discrepancies
OUTPUT
Employment (1000)
Primary Energy (TJ)
Final energy less transport (TJ)
Final energy uses for transport (TJ)
Transport units (Pkm, tkm) (Billions)
Agriculture,
Power and
Fuel, rubber
forestry and
mining products &plastic
fishere products
products,
metals, other
basic materials
1.034
1.194
2.531
973
173
4.095
320
2.819
64
81
556
2.316
965
491
29
26
62
159
4.441
611
22.939
3.703
1.077
27.719
8.853
-2.274
11.036
6.752
24.367
-491
51.595
853
10.071
130.674
0
0
40
10.183
2.713
3.623
387
6
1.523
1.666
445
137
338
2.765
2.447
472
28
25
542
860
10.237
2.774
41.212
4.292
2.256
47.759
14.081
-4.164
24.850
9.480
44.247
-472
91.535
372
3.617.977
2.007.648
0
0
63
14.829
77.082
7.978
5.322
1.898
1.915
13.916
1.253
449
5.715
9.362
5.599
2.293
142
124
2.435
1.973
39.527
3.379
195.253
79.751
1.802
276.806
19.874
2.907
104.466
10.953
138.200
-2.293
412.713
1.993
5.855.592
3.134.056
0
0
Machinery,
transport
equipment,
electrical goods
2
4.392
55.477
92.365
6.264
67
1.141
19.411
462
153
7.510
15.880
6.500
3.224
194
171
3.013
1.354
44.711
1.503
263.793
92.245
1.849
357.887
24.560
1.384
155.995
686
182.626
-3.224
537.289
2.905
129.201
246.436
0
0
Textiles,
leather, paper
and printing
products
1.111
3.487
9.252
1.536
34.085
47
640
7.882
233
52
3.005
6.031
3.191
1.517
92
81
1.988
790
20.435
2.604
98.057
33.768
895
132.721
10.439
1.240
50.789
7.534
70.002
-1.517
201.205
1.376
196.483
238.710
0
0
Food,
beverages,
tobacco
25.152
2.559
4.812
1.090
3.808
22.642
545
9.320
98
66
3.907
7.161
3.858
935
55
49
450
433
17.691
1.736
106.368
24.828
45
131.241
6.631
910
25.916
7.856
41.314
-935
171.620
935
130.863
187.123
0
0
Building and
construction
1
2.477
44.235
11.485
8.203
6
2.713
9.990
150
86
2.003
9.672
3.292
2.633
149
131
753
1.442
34.671
1.310
135.400
16.223
828
152.451
5.808
955
80.355
27.490
114.608
-2.633
264.426
2.274
7.210
174.075
0
0
Repair services, Railway
wholesale &
services
retail
75
3.352
4.765
5.358
8.119
52
2.030
19.217
373
88
2.505
12.223
4.937
18.699
381
1.498
7.319
3.374
63.700
5.913
163.977
12.117
1.189
177.283
16.066
6.669
161.293
45.950
229.978
-18.699
388.561
5.511
82.679
263.048
0
0
9
692
237
306
86
0
120
163
589
2
792
249
166
180
18
16
46
134
645
124
4.575
237
354
5.167
4.478
-523
7.641
-3.690
7.907
-180
12.893
146
1.989
5.806
47.753
111
Transport by
water
7
3
192
8
7
40
2
98
2
349
1.034
23
17
20
1
1
14
19
65
5
1.907
3.790
5
5.702
1.466
20
879
245
2.610
-20
8.292
20
0
5.167
87.890
145
Source: Destatis; own estimates
21
Germany 2015 continued
At producers' prices (net of all VAT)
Mio. €
Agriculture, forestry and fishery products
Power and mining products
Fuel, rubber & plastic products, metals, other basic materials
Machinery, transport equipment, electrical goods
Textiles, leather, paper and printing products
Food, beverages, tobacco
Building and construction
Repair services, wholesale & retail
Railway services
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account transport services (P)
Business own-account transport services (G)
Private households (PrHH) intermediate transport services
Intermediate railway services purchased by PrHH
Intermediate public transport services purchased by PrHH
Communication services
Services of credit and insurance institutions
Other market services
Non-market services
DOMESTIC GOODS AND SERVICES
Imports
Non-deductible taxes/taxes on products
TOTAL INTERMEDIATES/FINAL DEMAND
Consumption of fixed capital
Taxes linked to production less subsidies
Gross wages and salaries, employers social contributions
Net operating surplus
GROSS VALUE ADDED AT MARKET PRICES
Adjustments, statistical discrepancies
OUTPUT
Employment (1000)
Primary Energy (TJ)
Final energy less transport (TJ)
Final energy uses for transport (TJ)
Transport units (Pkm, tkm) (Billions)
Intermediate
railway services
purchased by
PrHH
8
268
74
104
44
0
47
48
200
0
252
90
60
90
0
0
10
43
230
44
1.611
92
158
1.861
2.431
-636
3.871
-4.270
1.396
-90
3.167
79
620
1.811
14.892
33
Intermediate
Communication Services of
public transport services
credit and
services
insurance
purchased by
institutions
PrHH
2
184
121
165
60
13
106
224
4
6
641
266
137
140
0
0
92
177
1.032
126
3.497
87
190
3.773
97
-1.148
3.273
-755
1.468
-140
5.101
145
159
4.384
22.703
46
11
390
69
1.482
881
4
404
412
12
1
263
702
307
656
39
34
1.777
167
2.130
115
9.858
3.447
1.433
14.738
13.450
10
25.581
11.839
50.880
-656
64.962
563
5.006
23.498
10.780
0
32
672
66
145
1.119
6
762
314
77
0
411
4.186
1.581
1.263
80
70
2.992
135.776
33.078
923
183.552
10.545
5.844
199.941
8.239
3.196
61.367
-50.344
22.458
-1.263
221.136
1.316
19.017
38.155
0
0
Other market
services
1.360
4.031
2.580
3.302
10.701
17.946
24.209
8.394
247
20
2.270
33.858
14.472
5.473
319
280
6.273
5.714
165.100
14.138
320.687
20.121
9.439
350.248
139.627
5.931
173.922
324.801
644.280
-5.473
989.055
5.641
78.682
115.914
0
0
Non-market
services
713
4.971
6.554
9.038
7.331
4.843
7.035
8.936
1.451
54
3.597
15.522
6.760
13.219
1.431
2.413
7.148
2.933
46.839
14.903
165.690
19.059
16.530
201.278
57.488
-10.811
327.313
37.326
411.315
-13.219
599.375
8.763
156.586
365.664
0
0
Total intermediates/
primary inputs
29.698
54.206
219.868
144.421
89.014
51.802
44.713
121.225
5.717
1.684
79.525
126.330
56.986
52.353
3.167
5.101
37.642
167.009
508.815
52.368
1.851.644
340.711
83.139
2.275.494
368.542
3.743
1.335.508
476.993
2.184.786
-52.353
4.407.928
36.032
10.296.466
7.071.567
1.766.909
1.343
Final
Government
consumption of expenditure
households
12.299
34.585
22.053
32.971
55.039
96.462
4.487
205.950
5.161
457
33.961
0
0
0
0
0
24.999
50.457
391.080
133.552
1.103.514
120.539
126.894
1.350.948
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.088.612
1.821.378
563.642
474
23
344
7.825
1.498
515
360
971
13.463
0
0
4.048
0
0
0
0
0
253
535
16.738
406.042
452.616
4.298
5.312
462.226
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gross fixed
capital
formation
(machinery)
0
158
5.298
90.724
9.674
0
0
16.518
148
0
3.952
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
21.325
2.853
150.651
63.094
5.464
219.210
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Source: Destatis; own estimates
Table 3
22
Retail & wholesale - Transport & Energy per € of Output
Total transport requirements (€)
1962
1978
1988
1991
1995
Rail transport
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account P
Business own-account G
PrHH intermediate own account
PrHH intermeditate rail
PrHH intermediate public transport
Total
0,008
0,004
0,022
0,029
0,008
0,015
0,002
0,003
0,091
0,001
0,001
0,011
0,024
0,008
0,032
-0,002
0,001
0,076
0,001
0,001
0,013
0,024
0,011
0,030
-0,001
0,001
0,080
0,001
0,001
0,011
0,018
0,009
0,029
-0,001
0,002
0,069
0,001
0,000
0,007
0,025
0,010
0,031
0,001
0,003
0,079
Commercial transport
PrHH intermediate
0,071
0,020
0,045
0,032
0,050
0,030
0,040
0,030
0,044
0,034
Rail transport
Transport by water
Other for-hire transport services
Business own-account P
Business own-account G
PrHH intermediate own account
PrHH intermeditate rail
PrHH intermediate public transport
Total
342
302
267
377
93
638
70
87
2.175
12
54
138
229
95
1.132
14
79
1.754
9
19
146
204
96
1.269
11
144
1.900
10
29
135
189
100
1.136
16
150
1.763
11
7
82
220
147
969
10
32
1.478
Commercial transport
PrHH intermediate
1.380
795
528
1.226
475
1.425
462
1.301
467
1.011
Total energy requirements (kJ)
Table 4
Germany (1995) Transport-Related Uses of Final Energy (PJ)
Commodities and services
Agriculture,
forestry and
fishery
products
Power and
mining
products
Agriculture, forestry and fishery products
1.215
Power and mining products
357
Fuel, rubber & plastic products, metals, other basic materials
409
Machinery, transport equipment, electrical goods
6
Textiles, leather, paper and printing products
10
Food, beverages, tobacco
42
Building and construction
3
Repair services, wholesale & retail
22
Railway services
258
Transport by water
649
Other transport services
1.517
Business - transport on own account (P)
3.946
Business - transport on own account (G)
2.711
Private households - intermediate transport
3.310
Communication, postal services
21
Services of credit and insurance institutions
2
Other market services
1
Non-market services
3
Total
14.481
4
51.478
1.250
43
22
2
24
32
1.527
1.060
2.206
5.431
6.599
4.277
151
12
7
46
74.171
Fuel, rubber &
plastic
products,
metals, other
basic
materials
170
50.686
700.182
541
2.049
166
287
1.090
5.123
4.523
19.933
24.280
21.187
22.150
882
237
207
163
853.856
Machinery,
transport
equipment,
electrical
goods
493
103.776
205.904
94.918
6.200
225
799
5.345
4.827
3.388
41.329
57.354
39.087
49.895
1.966
824
773
452
617.555
Textiles,
Food,
leather, paper beverages,
and printing
tobacco
products
142
4.435
3.778
40
5.950
12
34
206
1.298
798
10.735
16.649
13.956
17.123
582
32
39
31
75.838
213
324
209
3
31
445
3
22
1.226
1.747
15.742
26.699
21.336
18.014
358
2
2
2
86.378
Building and
construction
202
8.485
21.168
586
1.223
25
13.417
765
3.145
3.248
18.566
45.839
29.067
46.698
789
176
147
56
193.600
Repair
services,
wholesale &
retail
141
32.259
25.873
2.141
1.470
75
530
29.590
2.176
1.248
12.766
40.054
25.870
198.717
2.752
818
490
148
377.116
Railway
services
7
4.579
1.317
36
33
2
21
35
45.617
75
1.550
1.106
1.055
2.683
35
15
8
10
58.182
Transport by
water
43
814
4.884
13
40
43
24
58
22
78.851
2.121
280
215
459
29
20
20
7
87.943
Other
transport
services
110
4.779
18.200
190
281
81
161
539
341
1.644
431.289
9.473
6.276
11.613
664
231
255
54
486.181
Communication, postal
services
2
481
175
26
37
1
10
14
69
29
1.421
1.370
956
3.707
10.900
7
4
2
19.211
Services of
credit and
insurance
institutions
56
5.287
2.714
55
432
31
170
133
358
47
3.584
8.606
5.311
7.948
792
5.507
188
61
41.281
Other market
services
226
5.338
3.547
73
584
216
354
246
1.282
767
12.591
58.086
42.039
37.327
1.320
189
2.218
91
166.493
Non-market
services
175
5.542
3.908
133
424
122
148
221
7.974
1.521
34.897
59.964
41.632
165.460
2.902
100
154
11.862
337.140
Total intermediates
3.201
278.620
993.519
98.803
18.787
1.486
15.984
38.316
75.243
99.593
610.247
359.137
257.297
589.380
24.142
8.170
4.513
12.988
3.489.426
23
24