Aarhus Universitet - Handelshøjskolen Århus
Analyzing Consumer
Choice of Beverages in
Bosnia and Herzegovina
(BiH) applying
Means End Chain
(MEC)
Masters thesis
Nino Jakupovic NJ64041
1/4/2009
Advisor: Liisa Lähteenmäki
Dissertation Project April 2009
Nino Jakupovic NJ64041
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Abstract
An abstract of the dissertation of Nino Jakupovic for the Master of Marketing
Title: Analyzing Consumer choice of Beverages in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH)
applying Means End Chain (MEC)
The beverage industry is one of the fiercest competed industries in the world.
Competitors are always trying to find new ways to increase their sales and reach new
customers. However, the question is how consumers are choosing beverages to
consume, especially in the new countries in Europe like Bosnia & Herzegovina. The
purpose of the present study was to determine why particular beverages for personal
consumption are chosen in BiH. The study also sought to answer 1. Is the choice of
different beverage categories linked to different personal consequences and values of
consumer? 2. Are consumers in BIH more involved in some beverage categories than in
others? 3. How can this knowledge be utilized by a hypothetical beverage producer
when planning marketing strategies for their products in the future?
Consumer analysis using laddering technique showed that there is to some degree link
between the choice of beverage and personal values of consumers. Furthermore,
analysis showed that consumers do tend to be more involved n some beverages than
others. Lastly, using MECCAS model, analysis identified some alternative routes a
hypothetical beverage producer can use to reach consumers in BIH
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Table of contents
Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 5
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.1
Problem formulation and frame .................................................................................... 5
1.2
Dissertation relevance ................................................................................................... 7
1.3
Dissertation Paradigm ................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Theoretical frame of dissertation ......................................................................................... 9
1.5 Limitations and definitions................................................................................................ 10
Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 12
2.0 Theoretical approach ............................................................................................................. 12
2.1 Cognitive consumer behavior............................................................................................ 13
2.2 Means-End Chain (MEC) approach .................................................................................. 15
2.2.1 The objectives of MEC approach ............................................................................... 16
2.2.2 MEC as a model of cognitive structure ...................................................................... 19
2.2.3. Additional problems regarding MEC approach ............................................................ 21
2.3 Application of MEC .......................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Product Involvement and MEC ......................................................................................... 24
Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 26
3.0 Research methods and data gathering of MEC ..................................................................... 26
3.1 Qualitative and quantitative data gathering techniques ..................................................... 27
3.1.1 Laddering by personal interviews .............................................................................. 27
3.1.2 Attribute elicitation and laddering interview ............................................................. 27
3.1.3 Quantitative data gathering techniques .................................................................... 30
3.1.4 “Hard” vs. “Soft” laddering ........................................................................................ 30
3.2 Analysis of laddering data ................................................................................................. 31
3.3 Why using MEC approach and laddering for this study ................................................... 33
Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................................... 35
4.0 Research design ..................................................................................................................... 35
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4.1 Research method ............................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Selection of data gathering technique ............................................................................... 35
4.3 Selection of respondents.................................................................................................... 35
4.3 Elicitation technique.......................................................................................................... 37
4.4 Pilot research ..................................................................................................................... 38
4.5 The interviews ................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................................... 41
5.0 Research Findings and discussion ......................................................................................... 41
5.1 Participants ........................................................................................................................ 41
5.2 Content analysis ................................................................................................................ 43
5.3 Coffee ................................................................................................................................ 44
5.3.1 Involvement with coffee............................................................................................. 46
5.3.2 MECCAS for coffee ................................................................................................... 48
5.4 Fruit juice .......................................................................................................................... 49
5.4.1 Involvement with fruit juice ....................................................................................... 51
5.4.2 MECCAS for fruit juice ............................................................................................. 52
5.5 Bottled water ..................................................................................................................... 53
5.5.1 Involvement with bottled water .................................................................................. 55
5.5.2 MECCAS for bottled water ........................................................................................ 56
5.6 Carbonated soft drinks ...................................................................................................... 57
5.6.1 Involvement with carbonated soft drinks .................................................................. 59
5.6.2 MECCAS for carbonated soft drinks ......................................................................... 60
Chapter 6 Validity, reliability and generalization of the study ................................................... 62
Chapter 7 Conclusions and further research................................................................................ 64
7.0 Conclusion......................................................................................................................... 64
7.1 Implications for further research ....................................................................................... 65
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Chapter 8 References .................................................................................................................. 66
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Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction
The author participated in marketing activities of the Coca-Cola Company Balkan and
Adriatic Region in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), from January 2006 –
March 2008. One of the main objectives of the company at the time was marketing and
sales of different refreshment beverage types on different occasion. The company
continuously gathered a lot of data on sales volumes and/or competitor activities in the
area. However, this data only represented raw numbers on consumers’ choice, making it
rather hard to understand why a certain product category was chosen in the first place,
and if this choice was based on a more abstract aspects of consumer life or barely a
physical need.
Gutman (1984) suggested that consumers’ choice of product enables a consumer to
achieve desired personal values.
Since no data on consumer’s choices in BIH has been gathered to date, the author
decided to investigate if the above statement is applicable to consumers in BiH as well.
1.1 Problem formulation and frame
The aim of this dissertation is to analyze the following main question:
Why are particular beverages for personal consumption chosen in BiH?
When analyzing such marketing question/problem, it is necessary to specify the
question and focus on the most relevant aspects of decision making (Reynolds & Olson,
2001).
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The main question covers personal beverage choice by individual consumers in BIH
and the person consuming beverage(s) will be defined as the decision maker. The focus
will be on the consequences/benefits a particular choice of a beverage type produces for
a consumer. Furthermore, what are the personal values these benefits achieve for a
consumer? The main question will cover consumer choice in context of consumption
during spare (leisure) time and relaxation. Spare time is defined as the period of
recreational and discretionary time before or after compulsory activities such as
sleeping, going to work, running a business or attending school. Spare time will also
include being with friends and/or family.
There are four different beverage categories that will constitute units of analysis of
consumer choice in BIH. These are carbonated soft drinks, fruit juices, bottled water
and hot drinks (coffee). The consumers in BIH are analyzed for each of the four
beverage categories mentioned.
All of the above categories are widely represented in the area and constitute the biggest
share of consumption beverages used for refreshment in spare time. It is anticipated that
these categories will create a broad picture of factors influencing choice of different
beverage categories, without having too broad or too detailed number of categories.
Product involvement is another issue that can deepen the explanation of consumer
behavior. Therefore, it is interesting to explore if there is a difference in product
involvement when choosing different beverages.
Knowledge about consumer choices can also have implications on beverage marketers.
The results of this dissertation can be utilized by the beverage marketers in BIH, to
structure their advertising campaign in the near future.
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The following, more specific questions will be used to gain insight in the main study
question using a more targeted approach:

Is the choice of different beverage categories linked to different personal
consequences and values of consumer?

Are consumers in BIH more involved in some beverage categories than in
others?

How can this knowledge be utilized by a hypothetical beverage producer when
planning marketing strategies for their products in the future?
The above questions will be answered via gathering and analyzing data from consumers
in BiH.
1.2 Dissertation relevance
Due to fairly recent war and political unrest in BiH, there has not either been any known
research of the consumer behavior in the area, nor has the author encountered examples
of earlier similar research associated with BiH.
“A global look at Consumer involvement and use of products” (Zaichowsky, 1988), was
a cross-cultural study of consumer involvement with various products, and the single
piece of literature only briefly regarding former Yugoslavia, BiH. Although, a valuable
article the author does not consider it sufficient.
BiH has 4.5 million inhabitants and possible customers. The country is no longer at risk
of war and people are starting to maintain regular daily activities. The research proposed
in this study will therefore be of interest for a company that may wish to launch their
products on BiH market. Former Yugoslavian countries are getting closer to becoming
members of the European Union (EU). Even some Danish beverage companies may be
interested to invest and deliver their product to this growing market. It is therefore
anticipated that some parts of this dissertation could be useful for them as well.
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1.3 Dissertation Paradigm
Paradigm choice is a statement on the researcher’s view of the world (Ontology) and
how the researcher thinks that knowledge will be created (Epistemology) (McKerchar,
2008). Furthermore, it is a question of (Methodology) which is influenced by ontology
and epistemology.
The choice of paradigm has an influence on the method approach one will choose later
in the research process (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Paradigm creates basis for
understanding of application of theory and application of empiric in the research.
The literature on the design and conduct of research traditionally suggests four (4)
paradigms commonly referred as positivism, critical realism (post-positivism),
critical
theory
and
constructivism
(Guba
&
Lincoln,
1994).
Major
differences/similarities between the different paradigms are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Overview of different paradigm approaches
Critical
Realism
Positivism
Ontology
Naive realism,
“reality”
real
Epistemology
Objectivist/finding
truth
Objectivist/
findings probably
true
Hypothesis testing
Modified
experimental.
Majorly Quantitative
Both quantitative
qualitative
Method
Imperfect
reality
real
Critical
Theory
Constructivism
Crystallized
over time
Local
/specific
constructed reality
Subjectivist
/
value mediated
findings
Subjectivist
Dialogic
Hermeneutical
Source: Guba & Lincoln, 1994 with adjustments
Critical realism is the most appropriate choice of paradigm for this dissertation. Critical
realism believes that there is a world to research, but one can never be completely
objective toward the world (Guba & Lincoln 1994).
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This approach tends to rely on dialogic methods and combines observation and
interviewing (Sohlberg, 2003). This dissertation will be based on beliefs of critical
realism scientists who consider the understanding of real peoples’ lived experience are
very important for conducting research (Littlejohn, 2002). When research is conducted
from this perspective one can use a mixture of theoretical reasoning and observable
experiments. The theories in the critical realism are seen as a mean to create knowledge
but every theory changes in time, so neither theory is completely exhaustive.
Furthermore, both qualitative and quantitative methodologies are viewed as appropriate
methodologies according to critical realism paradigm (Krauss, 2005; Guba & Lincoln,
1994)
1.4 Theoretical frame of dissertation
Theoretical frame of the dissertation is based on the problem statement and cognitive
consumer behavior will be the departing point of theoretical approach. The approach
chosen to model the cognitive structure of consumer will be Means-End Chain (MEC).
The MEC’s approach refers to various methods for interviewing consumers about the
reasons for their decision choice and understanding, and analyzing of their responses in
terms of linkages between outcomes (Reynolds & Olson, 2001, Wagner, 2007). The
main assumption is that consumer does not choose product because of the product itself,
but for the benefits consumption of the product can provide. The benefits/consequences
of product consumption are important for realization of consumer’s higher values and
goals (Costa Dekker & Jongen, 2004). In respect to the main purpose of the dissertation,
the author will assume that the choice of specific beverage will depend on personal
consequences this choice has on consumers and personal values consumers will realize
from the benefits of the consumption.
There are two epistemological views/approaches on MEC theory in consumer behavior
(Grunert & Grunert 1995; Grunert, Beckmann & Sørensen 1995; Costa, Dekken, &
Jorgen, 2004):
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Motivational view –MEC is concerned with gathering insights into consumer’s motives
for buying in specific situations and how they are linked to shopping behavior (Grunert
& Grunert, 1995; Costa, Dekken, & Jorgen, 2004). These insights are of qualitative
nature. The user of this approach can evaluate if the approach is useful by assessing if
he/she have acquired better understanding of consumers’ decision making (Costa,
Dekken, & Jorgen, 2004).
Cognitive structure view – MEC is used as a model of consumers’ consumptionrelevant cognitive structure (how consumption knowledge and experience is stored in
the memory of consumer) (Grunert, Beckmann & Sørensen, 1995, Peter, Olson &
Grunert, 1999). The utility of this approach is measured by its usefulness to predict
consumption behavior in a given situation.
The MEC literature on does not provide a clear answer on which of these two views is
to be preferred (Grunert & Grunert, 1995, Costa, Dekken, & Jorgen, 2004). Grunert
(1995), states that the choice of MEC approach depends on the general approach one
has chosen as the basis of analysis. Costa et.al (2004) suggests that regardless of the
approach chosen one has to consider the predictive ability of the conducted study.
The research for this dissertation will be conducted using the cognitive structure view
approach. The choice was made on the assumption that abstract reasons which guide
consumers to choose a certain beverage are organized in the consumer cognitive
structure, and that MEC can be used as a model of cognitive structure that concerns
consumption.
The relationship of product involvement and the MEC approach as well as literature
overview of MEC approach application in consumer studies will also be discussed.
1.5 Limitations and definitions
The main focus of this study is personal consumption of beverages, rather than the
decision making which affects a family or a place of business.
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The research for this project was conducted in former Yugoslavia region which is
comprised of four countries that speak the same language and have the same cultural
background but different economic and political development and current opportunities.
Due to limited resources available to author, the research will be focused on BiH as the
single country in Balkan Peninsula region. It would however be interesting to include
other countries and compare data in future research.
Furthermore, BiH is a multiethnic and multi religious country. It is however deemed
irrelevant to discuss the consumer preferences on the ethnic level as it would make the
discussion highly complex and confusing. Moreover, considering the history of the area
and the privacy of the informants it is not wise to impose such personal questions (i.e.
religion, ethnic background). The political situation which is assumed to be highly
complicated will not be a part of the dissertation.
According to English language dictionary, the term ‘beverage’ is defined “a drink,
especially tea, coffee, or other non-alcoholic drink” In accordance to this the focus will
be on non-alcoholic beverages. Gutman (1984) also placed beer and wine in the
beverages category. This research will however mainly focus on non-alcoholic
beverages. Non-alcoholic beverages are also chosen because of the earlier mentioned
difference in religious beliefs within the country.
The beverage categories are narrowed down by excluding categories like milk and
energy drinks as these are considered to be irrelevant for this study.
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Chapter 2
2.0 Theoretical approach
The American Marketing Association defines Consumer Behavior as:
“The dynamic interaction of affect and cognition, behavior, and environmental events
by which human beings conduct and exchange aspects of their lives” (Peter et al, 1999;
American marketing association (http://www.marketingpower.com).
Consumer behavior has become more and more essential for marketers, academic
researchers in recent years. Assael (1994) argued that consumers determine the profits
and sales of the companies by their purchasing decisions. Consumer behavior blends
different elements from many sciences such as psychology, economics, and sociology
(Peter, Olson & Grunert, 1999).
There are many models, theories and concepts
developed with the aim to understand and use consumer behavior. However, none of the
approaches have been fully accepted by all the researchers on the subject (Peter, Olson
& Grunert, 1999).
Marketing approach to consumer behavior can be divided in behavioral and cognitive
approach. Behavioral approach explores links between the consumer environment and
behavior, while cognitive approach is concerned with mental structure and thinking
processes of consumers (Zanoli & Naspetti, 2002). This includes mental and emotional
processes that consumers engage in when selecting, purchasing and using products
(Zannoli & Naspetti, 2002).
This particular dissertation begins with a cognitive approach to consumer behavior,
acknowledging that both approaches are acceptable to analyze consumer behavior,
emphasizing a high degree of complementarities between the two (Zanoli & Naspetti,
2002; Peter et al, 1999).
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2.1 Cognitive consumer behavior
Theoretical analysis of the problem statement is conducted via analysis of cognitive
consumer behavior, description of the MEC approach, and by relating MEC approach to
cognitive consumer behavior to establish unified understanding framework between
concepts.
According to Grunert & Grunert (1995), cognitive view of consumer behavior views
behavior as the interaction between cognitive structures and cognitive processes.
A cognitive structure is the organization of knowledge and information in human
memory. It is usually described as network models1 consisting of two types of elements:
cognitive categories (nodes) and their associations (links) (Grunert, Beckmann,
Sørensen, 1995).
Cognitive processes are processes consumers consciously or subconsciously use to
change cognitive structure with new information from the environment (Peter, Olson &
Grunert, 1999). Cognitive processes are also used to collect information from the
cognitive structure and direct future behavior (Grunert & Grunert, 1995).
There are two categories of cognitive processes (Grunert & Grunert, 1995):
Automatic processes –are subconscious, do not limit capacity but it takes time to learn
them, and once learned they are very effective (i.e. an experienced driver can drive from
point A to B, without being consciously aware of anything that occurred during the
drive).Strategic process are conscious, they limit the capacity and are used as problem
solving activities, i.e. planning the above mentioned example performed for the first
time in that drivers life. The driver will consciously try to locate point B.
1
There are also other descriptions such as scripts and schemas (Peter et al. 1999)
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Cognitive Information Processing Models (CIPMs) are developed to explain how the
interaction between cognitive processes and cognitive structures occur in the cognitive
system (Peter, Olson & Grunert, 1999).
There are different cognitive models in literature of consumer behavior such as one
constructed by Howard and Sheth (1969), which relates information processing to
decision making. Bettman’s Consumer Information Processing Model (CIPMC) of
choice, describes consumers as problem solvers with a limited capacity to process
information so called “bounded reality” (Bettman, 1979; Bettman, Luce & Payne,
2002). Figure 1 shows the decision making Cognitive Processing Model by Peter, Olson
& Grunert (1999).
Figure 1: Cognitive processing model of Consumer Decision Making
Source: Peter, Grunert & Olson, (1999)
The model illustrates2 how information stimuli from the outside environment are
interpreted by consumer in order to create new knowledge, meanings and beliefs.
2
Blue squares indicate cognitive process. Black squares indicate outside stimuli and behavior
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Interpretation processes include comprehension and attention. They are cognitive
processes which determine how to create personal knowledge from information, which
information to keep (store in the memory), which to discard, and which information to
integrate with already stored knowledge in memory.
Integration processes are used to integrate new and old knowledge, to form attitudes and
decisions which result in given behavior. The knowledge kept in the memory of
consumers is organized in structures of knowledge – cognitive structure. The
literatures often use MEC approach as means of eliciting consumers’ cognitive structure
(Grunert, Lahteenmaki, Nielsen, Poulsen, Ueland, Astrom, 2001; Peter, Olson &
Grunert, 1999).
2.2 Means-End Chain (MEC) approach
Means End Chain (MEC) was conceptualized by Jonathan Gutman in 1982 in the article
entitled “A Means End Chain model based on consumer categorization process”.
Gutman believes that people think at different levels of abstraction. Physical product
attributes are not always the main focus of consumer thinking, but consumers think of
more abstract levels such as benefits of product use, or even the personal values that the
products can help them achieve (Howard & Warren, 2001). In order to conceptualize
MEC Gutman discussed the relationship between earlier research and theories which
tried to relate consumer’s values to the individual behavior (Gutman, 1982).
These theories included Rokeach’s theory of human values which people use to
formulate attitudes and opinions. Furthermore, Howards Choice Theory which says that
product knowledge in consumers is hierarchically organized by different levels of
abstraction. In 1975, Young and Feigns described The Grey Benefit Chain (GBC)
approach by debating the possibility to gather data of consumer’s psychological
perceptions of the products (Gutman, 1982; Rokeach, 1968 & 1973; Howard 1977;
Barrena, 2009; Young & Feigin, 1975). Gutman used background research and
elements from these theories to introduce the MEC into the field of marketing and
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consumer research (Gutman, 1982; Barrena, 2009). He proposed MEC as a cognitive
structure of meaning that relates product attributes and consequences of product use
with personal values of consumers. In other words, MEC explains the relationship
between consumer knowledge and consumer behavior (Barrena, 2009; Howard &
Warren, 2001).
2.2.1 The objectives of MEC approach
The main focus of Gutman’s work was presented in Thomas J. Reynolds and Gutman’s
well known article ‘Laddering: Theory, Method, Analysis and Interpretation’ (1988):
“Means End theory specifically focuses on attributes that exist in products (the means),
the consequences for the consumer provided by the attributes and the personal values
(the ends) the consequences reinforce.”
The above definition defines consumer relationship to product by hierarchical cognitive
structure with linkages between attributes of the product, consequences of product use
and personal values/goals of consumers (Hofstede, Audenaert, Wedel & Steenkamp,
1998). Concepts of attributes, consequences and values create content of consumer
knowledge, and the hierarchical linkages between them form the structure of consumer
knowledge-cognitive structure (Hofstede et.al, 1998).
Values (V)
↑
Consequences (C)
↑
Attributes
(A)
Figure 2: Attributes, Consequences and Values and linkages between them as three level chains.
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Source: Devised by author
The hierarchical linkages between the three concepts represent higher levels of
abstraction. The higher the level of abstraction, the closer one gets to the personal
values of consumer.
Following are the descriptions of the three concepts of consumer knowledge:

Attributes represent knowledge about characteristics of the product (i.e. the
characteristics of the products which are important to the preferences of the
consumers (Gutman, 1982; Reynolds & Gutman, 1988). Attribute knowledge
consists of knowledge of concrete tangible attributes and abstract intangible
attributes (Snelders & Schoorman, 2004). For example, sodium can be an
attribute of carbonated soft drink.

Consequences are positive or negative implications of the consumers purchase
or use of products (Bech-Larsen, Nielsen et al., 1997). Most researchers also
agree that positive feelings are the results of benefits from consumption;
therefore consequences can be used as benefits of product consumption
(Snelders & Schoorman, 2004). Furthermore, consequences can be divided into:
psychological and functional consequences of product use (Peter, Olsen &
Grunert, 1999). Skyte and Bove (2004) further describe consequences as “the
outcomes produced by the attributes”. For example, the tingling feeling of soda
in the carbonated soft drink is a consequence produced by the soda.

Values are preferred end states of being that drive the behavior, and the top of
the hierarchy. One can make distinction between instrumental values (i.e. to be
ambitious) and more broad psychological terminal values of end states (i.e.
happiness) (Peter et al., 1999). Continuing with previous examples the tingling
feeling of soda makes a person feel happy and happiness can be a value of a
person.
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Values play dominant role in guiding consumer choice patterns, and they represent the
consequence consumer strives for when choosing a specific product among others
(Gutman, 1982). MEC approach is based on this fundamental assumption. There are
other assumptions of MEC approach
- Consumers cope with magnitudes of products by grouping them into sets of categories
based on their functions in order to reduce the complexity of choice;
- Consumers learn to associate particular consequences with particular actions they
take, and finally
- All actions have consequences
Some researchers tend to divide the above three levels of abstraction in to further two
sublevels in order to create finer analysis of concepts (Claeys, Swinnen, Abeele, 1995).
The three lower levels of MEC will then present the consumer’s knowledge of the
product while the three upper levels will comprise the consumers self knowledge.
Figure 2 illustrates this.
Figure 3: 6 levels of MEC
Source: (Peter et al., 1999)
There could be more than one MEC concerning a single product. On the other hand the
MEC does not have to be complete (Lind, 2006). Incomplete MEC can point to
consumer inexperience with a product or simplicity of the product (Reynolds & Olson,
2001). Additionally, more symbolic products can reach higher abstraction levels than
product which are bought for its functionality (Gutman, 1997). Studies that involved
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MEC of food products showed more attributes and consequences than values due to its
habitual purchase, and lack of expertise in food (Costa et al., 2001).
Olson & Reynolds (1983) and Reynolds & Olson (2001) suggested that the number of
levels one will adopt in MEC depends on complexity of the product in question. Six
levels of MEC are rather too complex according to the literature (Reynolds & Olson,
2001). If a product is simple fewer chains will be developed. Therefore, it is assumed
that beverages belong to a group of simpler products and the assumption of this
dissertation will be that cognitive structure of consumers’ choice of beverages will be
four standard and most common levels of MEC (Reynolds & Olson, 2001) attributes,
functional consequences psychological consequences and values.
MEC approach models consumers cognitive structure primarily by using data gathered
utilizing qualitative interviewing technique called laddering (Grunert et al. 2001,
Reynolds & Gutman, 1988). The data derived from these interviews give foundation for
creating an aggregate map of consumer cognitive structure called hierarchical value
map (HVM) (Reynolds &Olson, 1983; Grunert, Beckmann & Sørensen, 1995). More
detailed explanation of these techniques will be conducted in methodical part of the
dissertation.
2.2.2 MEC as a model of cognitive structure
It is important to relate the concept of how memory is organized in cognitive structure
and MEC approach to evaluate advantages and disadvantages of MEC as model of
cognitive structure.
The applicability of MEC as a model of cognitive structure was discussed by Grunert,
Beckmann & Sørensen (2001). They fitted MEC with the following 6 dimensions basic
network models of cognitive structures apply:

Episodic vs. Semantic - Is the information in the cognitive structures built on
general or episodic information? If a person should provide knowledge about
beverages it will include general knowledge about beverages and not only
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knowledge on single individual usage event. Therefore, it is assumed that MEC
for choice of beverages can be regarded as semantic.

Declarative vs. Procedural - Can knowledge be verbalized or non-verbalized?
MEC’s can be regarded as declarative as the knowledge gathered from the
laddering interviews can primarily be verbalized by the respondent.

Verbal vs. imagery - Is the knowledge organized in verbal form or is it
structured in the image form? MEC can be regarded as verbal due to language
used to measure results. However, it is also likely that some consumers store
mental imagery much better. However, in this case the focus is not on brand or
label therefore limited imagery knowledge is required.

Hierarchical vs. Not hierarchic - Is knowledge organized in hierarchical or
non hierarchical manner? It is assumed that MEC is hierarchic due to A – C –V
levels of abstraction.

Positional vs. Distributional - Is knowledge stored in specific position or
distributed across cognitive structure? MEC can be regarded as positional due
to one knowledge category refers to a specific concept (Attribute, Consequence
or Value).

Types of Associations - MEC has associations restricted to a certain casual
type; Attribute – Consequences - Values
Fitting MEC to these dimensions shows that MEC can be used as a model of cognitive
structure. However, there is no evidence that MEC should be regarded as the most
appropriate model of cognitive structures as it is possible to find examples of
consumers’ knowledge which follows different dimensions from MEC (Grunert et al.
1995). For example, mental imagery is sometimes easier to memorize than verbal.
Furthermore, consumers can sometimes tend to remember more episodic information
from previous experiences i.e. drinking coffee and being sick.
The data gathered from laddering and the MEC itself are also influenced by previously
described constant interaction between cognitive structures and processes.
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Being influenced by cognitive process MEC can only be an estimate and not a complete
model of cognitive structure which can explain and predict behavior (Grunert et al.
1995).
Grunert, Beckmann & Sørensen (1995) discuss that a lot more research is required to
position MEC into larger cognitive theory of consumer behavior, 1995). The possibility
of building on theory of reasoned action by Fishben & Ajzen (1985) is suggested. Due
to lack of overall theory that establishes MEC as a complete cognitive model of
consumer behavior, Grunert & Grunert (1995), suggest using MEC as an excerpt of the
cognitive structure considered relevant to explain buying behavior.
It is anticipated that the information gathered from this study will not show the
complete cognitive structure of consumers in BIH but only the estimate of the structure
concerning beverage consumption. The overall paradigm of the dissertation also states
that reality is imperfect and that findings are probably true (Chapter 1.3).
The activation of knowledge from the cognitive structure is explained by spreading
activation theory of memory (Anderson, 1983, Grunert & Grunert 1995, Rusell et al.,
2004). This theory suggests that cognitive category will be recalled by extern stimuli (in
this case MEC data elicitation technique). Once a cognitive category is activated, the
activation spreads to other cognitive categories making any related association more
accessible (i.e. values and consequences) (Russel et al., 2004)
2.2.3. Additional problems regarding MEC approach
The literature has also identified additional problematic issues with the application of
MEC approach. Theory and method for MEC are developed informally which often
represents a major problem when certain recommendations should be provided from
data gathered using MEC techniques (Van Rekom & Wierenga, 2007; Reynolds &
Olson, 2001).
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Furthermore, Van Rekom & Wierenga (2007) question the existence of hierarchy with
consumers. MEC theory only assumes that a hierarchy structure exists. Researchers
argue that the existence of hierarchy would establish MEC as asymmetrical construct
which is not certain. An overview of earlier research that used MEC as well as statistical
tests of data gathered, have shown that structure of linkages between A → C →V
sometimes headed in the direction of A → V → C or even in a looping way (Van
Rekom & Wierenga, 2007). This puts hierarchy assumption into question. This problem
is also partly confirmed by Scholdrer and Grunert (2005) who have made analysis of
different assumptions of MEC and where they state that hierarchy question was
“particularly problematic”.
2.3 Application of MEC
Reynolds & Gutman (1988) suggested using MEC as an instrument of segmenting
consumers according to their values, orientations for a product or a brand. Gutman
(1984) applied MEC in his study of beverage consumption. He used MEC analysis to
map consumers’ value orientation toward different beverages. The study concentrated
on single beverage category as well as overall relations across all beverages. The study
showed that MEC model and its data gathering techniques are applicable for studies on
beverages categories, which is well in line with this dissertation.
Furthermore, results derived from the MEC approach are used as basis for evaluating
advertising or developing basis for advertising. This is done in conjunction with model
called MECCAS (Means-End Chain Conceptualization for Advertising Strategy),
(Gutman, 1982, Reynolds & Craddock, 1988).
MECCAS integrate the primary consumer research data from MEC analysis in order to
create objective basis upon which advertisement strategic process can be grounded
(Reynolds et. al 1988). The MECCAS model identifies five levels of an advertising
strategy: driving force, leverage point, consumer benefit, message elements and
executional framework.
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Gutman (1984) used MECCAS to suggest advertising advice producers can use for
different beverage categories. Bech-Larsen (2001) also used MECCAS and concluded
that use of MEC analysis in conjunction with MECCAS can create stronger product
value associations with consumers as well as better communication between advertising
agencies and their clients. Reynolds and Whitlark (1995) are focusing on using means
end framework to develop six thinking tools for developing a communication strategy
and advertising copies.
Additionally, MEC is well known for its application in the food products studies.MEC
provides an understanding of drivers behind food choice and marketing “hooks” for the
promotion of the products (Rusell, Leppard & Cox, 2003). There are numerous articles
regarding food products and use of MEC model.
Lind (2006) has used the motivational view of MEC in order to identify motivational
structure of consumers in relation to purchase of different kinds of pork meat brands in
Sweden as well as the consumer involvement in purchase of pork meat.
Barrenas et al. (2009) used MEC to conduct beef consumption frequency study; Costa
et al. (2007) to study a different choice of meal ; and Krystallis et al. (2008) to define
the most important functional food attributes that affect consumers’ purchasing
decisions . Other studies that used MEC compared cognitive structures between groups
of consumers in different countries such as study of perception of genetically modified
food products (Grunert et al., 2001), or the cognitive structures of consumers for a
specific clothing line across three countries by Botschen and Hemetsberger (1998).
MEC analysis also includes studies of more intangible issues such as schools (Veludo
de Oliviera & Ikeda, 2004), courses (Goldenberg et al, 2000) or recycling (Bagozzi &
Dabholkar, 1994).
One can see that MEC analyses are applicable in various marketing and consumer
research fields. Furthermore, many studies using food products can be related to this
dissertation due to similar assumptions in relation to consumer cognitive structure
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regarding foods and beverages. Previously conducted research definitely justifies the
application of MEC approach to this study.
Furthermore, an interesting point in respect to previous studies overview, concerns the
use of MECCAS models. In accordance with problem statement (Chapter 1.2), one of
the objectives deals with possible use of knowledge about consumers by a beverage
producer. Using MECCAS for this goal can be valuable. Possibly to use MECCAS as a
suggestion for different beverage producers advertising campaigns in BiH. Moreover
Linds (2006) study of involvement regarding different kinds of pork meat can possibly
be used as a starting point when analyzing involvement with different types of
beverages.
2.4 Product Involvement and MEC
Product involvement is conceptualized as the motivation to process information by
consumers (Celsi & Olson 1988; Zaichkowski, 1985).
The concept of involvement is used by researchers and marketers to understand
subjective importance of purchase to the consumers (Grunert, 2000). The degree of
involvement has an impact on choice process and evaluation of alternatives. With high
involvement the consumers tend to use many product characteristics/attributes when
making a choice. With a low degree of involvement the choice will be based on choice
heuristics (Grunert, 2000). Heuristics are choice tactics consumers use in order to
reduce the effort in making judgments (Hoyer & Macinnis, 2007).
There are various studies concerning involvement and its relation to MEC (Claeys
Swinnen & Vanden Abeele, 1995; Celsi & Olson, 1988; Reynolds & Gutman, 1988,
Lind, 2006).
In order to relate the concept of involvement with overall subject of this dissertation the
departure point can be taken in the definition of product involvement made by Peter,
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Olson & Grunert (1999): “Involvement refers to consumers' perceptions of importance
or personal relevance for an object, event, or activity.”
Furthermore, Celsi & Olson (1988) are offering a similar view on involvement: “a
consumer level of involvement with an object, situation or action is determined by the
degree of which he/she perceives that concept to be personally relevant”
Previously depicted picture of MEC (Figure 3) can describe product involvement by
looking at how product knowledge (Attributes, Consequences) is related to the selfknowledge (Values). In other words involvement with a product is higher if there are
stronger relations between product knowledge and self knowledge.
Walker and Olson (1991) are researching the degree of involvement when shopping for
wedding cards vs. thinking of you cards. The wedding cards were more self-relevant to
the consumers; hence the level of involvement was higher. Therefore, if a consumption
of a specific beverage is considered to be highly self-relevant the involvement in
particular beverage will be higher.
There are different opinions on how involvement with products can be measured.
According to Kapferer & Laurent (1985) involvement can be compared to presence or
absence of its major determinants/conditions such as perceived risk, emotional value,
sign value and functional importance of a product. In their work they used scales and
measured involvement profiles on each determinant.
However, when looking at the means-end basis of involvement one can say that the
level of product involvement is determined by the type of means end knowledge
activated in the situation (Peter, Olson & Grunert, 1999). If a consumer postulates that
product attributes are strongly linked with the personal values he/she will feel higher
level of involvement. On the other hand if product attributes only are weakly linked to
the important values it will present lower level of involvement (Peter,Olson & Grunert,
1999).
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Claeys, Swinnen and Vanden Abeele (1995) as well as Lind (2006) are making
distinction between “think” and “feel” products. “Think” products are chosen due to its
functional value. In MEC approach, the functional consequences are considered to be
central for these products (Lind, 2006).
“Feel” products are more connected to the enhancing of self and expressing values
which corresponds to the psychological consequences and end values. Chains for
“think” product will stop at the lower level of abstraction and have higher ratings for
levels related to attributes and functional consequences (Lind, 2006). Feel products, on
the other hand will likely reach psychological consequences and value level (Claeys
Swinnen & Vanden Abeele, 1995).
Costa et al. (2004) and Bech-Larsen et al. (1997) consider food products to be low
involvement products. As mentioned earlier this dissertation is considering similarity
between food and beverages as products and therefore assumes that beverages exhibit
characteristics of low involvement as well as ‘think’ products and they will generate
chains at lower levels of abstraction. However, one can presume that some beverage
categories can have more of ‘feel’ characteristics. This study therefore investigates if
consumers MEC for different types of beverages will be different in terms of “think”
and “feel” characteristics.
Chapter 3
3.0 Research methods and data gathering of MEC
There are different techniques of gathering data when conducting studies using MEC
approach. The techniques can be divided into more “soft” techniques such as laddering
by personal interviews, and more “hard” quantitative techniques such as laddering by
paper and pencil and Association Pattern Technique (APT) (Reynolds & Phillips, 2009).
The following chapter will present both qualitative and quantitative data gathering
techniques to enable the author to choose the technique best suited for research design.
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3.1 Qualitative and quantitative data gathering techniques
3.1.1 Laddering by personal interviews
The laddering technique by personal interview has become the most commonly used
technique in relation with MEC measurements and it is sometimes interchangeably
mentioned with MEC approach (Reynolds & Gutman, 1988, Rusell et al. 2004). The
method is ‘one to one’ semi - structured dialog that elicits the MEC’s of Attributes,
Consequences and Values associated with a brand or product (Reynolds, Dethloff,
Westberg, 2001). The fact that method is semi structural differentiates laddering from
some other qualitative techniques. Laddering is structured in a way to reveal more
abstract but personally important reasons for product choice and personal benefits of
usage.
3.1.2 Attribute elicitation and laddering interview
The two major parts of the laddering technique by personal interview are:

Attribute elicitation and

One on one Interview
The attribute elicitation is a starting point of every laddering interview (Reynolds and
Gutman 1988). It provides interviewers with an opportunity to identify key choice
criteria that consumers use when choosing among different brands or products.
Thereafter it gives interviewer an opportunity to learn why those criteria are important,
salient or relevant to the consumer (Reynolds & Olson, 2001).
There are many attribute elicitation techniques proposed in the literature.
Bech- Larsen, Nielsen Grunert & Sørensen (1997) identified the five most commonly
used attribute elicitation techniques for low involvement products:
1. Triadic sorting – A technique used with the purpose of mapping cognitive
structures (Bech –Larsen, Nielsen, Grunert & Sørensen, 1997, Kelly 1955). In
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this procedure three products are presented to respondents. Respondents are
asked to mention important attributes on which two products are similar and at
the same time differ from the third. Bech-Larsen et al. (1997) describe the
method as complex and time consuming and question if the results obtained can
justify the time and complexity of the method.
2. Direct elicitation – A technique where respondents are asked to freely name the
attributes which are important to them when choosing between products
presented to them (Bech –Larsen et al. 1997). This technique does not limit the
respondent and attributes mentioned can be quite broad. It is often suggested
when conducting explorative research.
3. Free sorting - The respondents are freely placing the products presented to them
in groups of either similar products in some important aspect and different from
products in the other groups. Afterwards, respondents name the perceived
differences between the groups. This technique is suggested by Bech-Larsen for
investigations of cognitive structures.
4. Ranking - Informants are asked to prioritize products presented to them and
state what the reasons behind their ranking were.
5. Picking from the attribute list - In this technique the informants are asked to
decide on attributes from already made list. This list could be gathered from
focus groups or other previous research (Bech –Larsen et al. 1997).
There are no theoretical criteria on which to base elicitation technique choice, and there
is no conclusive research if the specific elicitation technique affects the resulting set of
attributes (Beckmann, Sørensen, 2001). However, Bech-Larsen et al. (2001) reviewed
this issue and have made some recommendations. Consequently, the main
recommendation is to base the elicitation technique choice on the study purpose.
When one of the elicitation techniques is chosen and conducted the laddering interview
starts by approaching the interview from the attributes elicited by the consumer and
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asking a series of questions similar to: “Why is that (Attribute) important to you?” One
has to have in mind is situational specificity related to the purpose of the study. Is it
cognitive structure in specific situation or more broad usage situation?
If one is interested in specific usage situation the respondent has to be aware of this
during entire interview. If it is more broad consumption situation the interviewer has to
cover different situations (Grunert et al. 2001).
The shape and number of the questions asked by the interviewer depends also on how
verbalized the respondents answers are (Reynolds, Dethloff, Westberg, 2001). Less in
depth answers from the respondents requires more probes by the interviewer.
The interviewer constructs each subsequent question on the basis of the answers gained
to previous question and moves “up” the ladder of abstractness. The laddering process
continues in this manner until respondent cannot provide more meaningful information.
Mental block by respondents is the problem often encountered by interviewers
preventing them to move from one level to another and exposing the interviewer to
dangers of becoming biased and giving the answers to the respondent (Reynolds,
Dethloff, Westberg, 2001). Interviewer can either remain silent, to allow respondent
more time to think about the answer, or skip a question and come back to it later.
Furthermore, one question may generate forked answers that result in more cognitive
categories retrieved for one question. The answers should all be recorded and laddering
technique continued from each one of them (Grunert & Grunert, 1995).
Reynolds and Gutman (1988) provided further advice on how to successfully conduct
laddering interviews. The first advice is to create the appropriate interview environment
so informant does not feel in any way “threatened” by the interviewer. This will
encourage respondents to look deeper inside them in order to find underlying motives
for purchase of product class in question. Furthermore, it should be clear that
respondent is regarded as the expert in the interview and interviewer as neutral party.
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3.1.3 Quantitative data gathering techniques
Recently, more quantitative “hard “methods of gathering MEC data have emerged as an
alternative to ‘soft’ laddering. The main characteristic of hard laddering methods is
using either paper and pencil or computerized questionnaires (Walker & Olson, 1991;
Hofstede et al. 1998, Botschen & Hemetsberger 1998). Walker and Olson (1991) used
paper and pencil questionnaires in their study on how two different decision situations
affect consumer generated MECs. The respondents were required to identify attributes
they attach to selecting greeting cards and then to complete a questionnaire which
linked those attributes to consequences and goals. The respondents wrote their answers
in boxes preceded by the statement of: this is important to me because…
However respondents were not permitted to fork their answers. The study by Mulvey,
Celsi and Walker (1994), used the same method to explore differences in means-end
knowledge structures for consumers with different levels of involvement.
Hofstede, Audenaert, Steenkamp & Wedel (1998) suggested Association Pattern
Techniques (APT) as newest alternative to laddering. This technique in contrast to ‘soft’
laddering technique resembles the quantitative surveys where informants check boxes
on the readymade lists of Values, Consequences and Attributes (Phillips & Reynolds,
2009; Van Rekom & Wieranga, 2007).
3.1.4 “Hard” vs. “Soft” laddering
Both hard and soft MEC data gathering techniques have distinct advantages and
disadvantages.
The major disadvantages of traditional “soft” laddering technique are time consumption,
relatively high costs of interviews and finding the right interviewers to complete the
task (Phillips & Reynolds, 2009, Botschen & Hemetsberger, 1998). On the other hand
the ‘soft’ laddering interviews have major advantages in possibility to elicit more
concrete attributes, possibility to bypass forked answers, and possibility to “help”
respondents by using previously mentioned advices from Reynolds and Guttman
(1988).
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The advantages of the more quantitative approach are lower the costs of conducting
research, saving time for the interviewer, no need for transcribing or coding data
(Grunert et al. 2001). Furthermore, interviewer is not attending the interviews, larger
sample sizes are easier to cover and interviewer bias is eliminated (Botschen &
Hemetsberger, 1998; Grunert & Grunert, 1995). However, as stated by Phillips and
Reynolds (2009) it is debatable if consumers would reach the higher levels of
abstraction on their own, by using the ’paper and pencil’ approach and without probing
questions by the interviewer. Moreover, it can be assumed that by just checking the
boxes from readymade lists like in APT the informants will limit their cognitive process
and just use tick boxes with answers they recognize and would not use something they
may recall. Gengler and Reynolds (1995) believe that hard laddering interferes in one
of the core assumptions of the method, which is to enable the interface with the answers
created spontaneously by the respondent.
There is still no research that clearly suggests which technique is preferable to use or
study which definitely tests validity of results from both techniques (Valudo de Oliviera
et al., 2006). Russell , Busson et al. (2004) as well as Reynolds and Phillips (2009) have
researched this issue, however no firm recommendation on which technique to use was
made yet. Grunert and Grunert (1995) assert that the soft approach is potentially better
when types of problems, on the respondent’s side, are caused by very weak or very
elaborate cognitive structures. In fact, they believe that when a respondent’s level of
knowledge about a product is too low or too high, the interviewer should prefer the soft
laddering method because there are more chances to conduct an appropriate interview.
3.2 Analysis of laddering data
The data one has gathered is raw and rather complex, and responses can be distinctive
from one respondent to another (Gutman, 1984). In order to interpret and present the
complex data obtained from the laddering, a content analysis has to be made first.
Content analysis groups large numbers of personal meanings into limited number of
common categories under the levels of Attributes, Consequences and Values coding
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them individually. There can be different formulations, with the same meaning
mentioned during the interviews and they should be grouped in the same category (i.e
sparkling taste or tingling feeling can both fit into attribute level - carbonization).
Furthermore, one has to bear in mind that categories have to be broad enough to include
more than one respondent making a statement that fits the category but also narrow
enough prevent a risk of lost of meaning (Reynolds, Gutman, 1988). This provides a
rather subjective aspect to the laddering, thus it is subject to the interviewer to make the
grouping.
The content analysis serves as a background for the second step of the analysis which is
constructing an implication matrix that shows the number of associations between
different concepts in the interview. This could be in direct connection A – C, or in
indirect connection A – V. The sum of different connections indicates the strength of a
given association.
Implication matrix creates basis for constructing HVM. Marketers can use HVMs to
generate product, for advertising and to apply segmentation strategies (Lin, 2009).
According to Reynolds & Gengler (1995) the finished HVM must include all
associations from raw data over a chosen threshold level (cut-off level). The cut off
level is defined by Skytte & Bove (2004) as …”the minimum number of times two
elements must have an indirect link to be mentioned in the hierarchical maps”.
However, the direct links should be added to this definition.
The determination of the cut off level is also subjective decision by the analyst who is
constructing HVM, as there is no theoretical guideline concerning the determination of
the cut off level (Grunert & Grunert, 1995). However Reynolds and Gengler (1995)
assert that minimum threshold of associations shown in the HVM should never be lower
than 70% and typically in the range of 75% to 85%, otherwise valuable information can
be lost. On the other hand Skytte and Bove (2004) recommend a cut-off level that will
represent between 50-70% of the relations.
In most studies the cut off level is from 1-5 depending on the number of respondents
and number of categories identified.
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According to Grunert, Grunert & Sørensen (1995) the obstacle of HVM is the question
of redundancy between linkages. If there is a linkage between categories at abstraction
levels A – V - C than linkage between A - V would be redundant, and could lead to
misleading characteristics of HVM. However, if there is homogeneity among
respondents Grunert et al. (2001) argue that redundant HVM’s should be allowed.
3.3 Why using MEC approach and laddering for this study
The theoretical frame of this dissertation identified different advantages and limitations
of MEC approach to deal with study objectives. However, it also anticipated to show
the possibility of applying MEC approach to complete these objectives.
The following reasons justify the use of MEC to conduct a consumer study in BIH:
It is believed that MEC approach is a very useful method to model cognitive structure of
consumers in BIH when choosing beverages. Previous studies have shown that MEC is
applicable framework for similar studies. Furthermore, theoretical approach has also
shown that every variable identified in the problem formulation either has been and/or
can be analyzed using MEC approach. In addition, another valuable component of MEC
is its commodity of allowing the respondent(s) to use own frame of reference to provide
reasons for choosing specific beverage.
In accordance with the theoretical frame of the dissertation provided as the background
for conducting a consumer study in BIH, the author will analyze the objectives
proposed in Chapter 1.1 in the following way:

Is the choice of a different beverage category linked to different personal
consequences and values of consumer?
This question/objective will be analyzed departing from Gutman (1984), and by using
data gathered from consumers to construct MEC’s for each beverage category as a unit
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of analysis. These MEC’s are hereafter analyzed and HVM’s are created for each unit of
analysis. This will provide the estimate of cognitive structure model of consumers in
BIH concerning beverages.

What degree of product involvement describes the choice of a different
beverage category?
Data gathered from consumer study and Lind’s (2006) theoretical background will be
used to analyze this particular objective and investigate how consumers in BiH are
involved in consumption of different beverages. The level of involvement will be
presented by means of number of ladders elicited by the respondents and the complexity
of the HVMs.
Furthermore, the quantity of each of those concepts will be used to investigate whether
it is a “think” or a “feel” product.

How can this knowledge be utilized by a beverage producer when
advertising their products in the future?
This objective will be analyzed by using data from the consumer study, applying it into
the MECCAS model. The results of the laddering interviews represented by HVM’s,
will provide the opportunity to select a MEC to create suggestions for future marketing
strategies by beverage producers. The suggestions will concentrate on creating a
message in the mind of the target group, for a hypothetical beverage, for each beverage
category. HVM’s also provide the opportunity to explore whether the present marketing
activities correspond with the results gathered by the consumer study.
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Chapter 4
4.0 Research design
The research design was developed using parts of the theory and the description of
MEC methods from previous chapters.
4.1 Research method
In line with paradigm, established in Chapter 1.3, qualitative research design will be
applied to gather data to establish consumer reasons to choose a particular beverage.
Qualitative research will enable both researcher and the respondents to put more
“words” into the subject which would be made rather difficult if a quantitative method
(i.e. questionnaires) was used.
4.2 Selection of data gathering technique
There is no conclusive evidence on preferable technique (Chapter 3.1.4) for data
collation. The laddering interviewing techniques was used as previously described and
the choice was based on following reason. Author has an assumption that using paper
and pencil or ATP technique in BiH combined with consumer(s) lack of experience
with these types of studies would not be efficient. It would encourage respondents to get
through the survey ‘easily’ and without using their cognitive processes, and therefore
will provide less real picture of their cognitive structure.
4.3 Selection of respondents
When conducting a study applying MEC and laddering it is preferable to establish some
criteria for selection of the respondents. It is important to obtain a certain degree of
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homogeneity of respondents, in order for HVM to reveal cognitive differences that are
not related to socio-demographic profiles of respondents (Grunert & Grunert, 1995),
and respondents should provide most information on the subject (Reynolds & Olson,
2001).
These considerations let to inclusion of the following respondents:

Both male and female between 18 – 30 years of age (students and young
people in BiH),
Young adults are considered to be trendsetters in the area of beverage consumption.
Most beverage products are marketed towards young people (e.g. Coca-Cola, Evian
etc).
Young people are also a group which is most likely to be consuming all four beverage
categories on daily basis. Furthermore, this group is considered to be more open minded
and, current in their cognitive structure. Younger generation would be harder to
interview due to lack of focus during the interview, and many of them are still guided
by their parents when choosing beverages. This generation might not be user of all
beverage categories (e.g. coffee).
An older generation is more influenced by joint decisions of a family in terms of
purchase and this generation might also not consume all beverage categories (e.g.
carbonated soft drinks).
The respondents were chosen from either Bosnian capital, Sarajevo or the second
largest town in BiH, Mostar. The two different cities are chose to elicit more diversity
between participants (big-smaller city). All potential respondents are daily consumers
of chosen beverage. They were approached and asked if they are interested to
participate in the consumer study.
The primary data for this research was gathered outside Denmark. The main problem
the author encountered was time and resource constraints to enable him to travel to BiH
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to ensure that enough respondents are recruited to create some type of tendencies in the
research.
Reynolds and Olson (2001) use the rule of thumb and consider 20 people to be the
minimum size for any subgroup investigated. One subgroup of respondents between the
ages of 18 – 30 was included in this research. However, using 20 people seemed as a
rather small sample size. The decision was made that 30 interviews will be conducted as
a minimum sample size.
Finally, one has to consider language variation. Bosnian language is researcher’s native
language and no problems were encountered while conducting interviews. Moreover,
raw data was gathered in Bosnian and most of data processing is in Bosnian language.
However, the coding and structuring of HVM’s is conducted in English.
4.3 Elicitation technique
The ranking technique was chosen as the elicitation technique. This choice was based
on the limited number of categories respondents have to choose from and on the
assumption that this technique will be best suited as the starting point for the interview.
Free sorting technique, frequently used for uncovering cognitive structures, or list
picking (the quickest technique) (Bech-Larsen, 2001), were also strongly considered
and could have been efficiently used. However, there was no previous attribute list
made for this study from the focus group so the list could not have been used. The
ranking technique was also chosen to enable the author to establish which beverages
will be ranked at the top and provide a picture of peoples´ choice. Furthermore, there
are not many categories for respondents to choose from and free sorting technique
would not be optimally utilized. Additionally, according to Costa et.al. (2003), ranking
technique makes a good balance between concrete and abstract attributes gathered as
well as relevance of the attributes gathered is considered to be high. Moreover, this
technique is also considered to have a good predictive ability which is well in line with
previous discussion about cognitive view of MEC from Chapter 2.
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4.4 Pilot research
A small pilot study was conducted by the author prior to doing the main research for the
study. The pilot study enabled the interviewer to change and improve various aspects of
the interview design or technique to make it more appropriate. Three young individuals,
independent from either similar studies or beverage industry were initially interviewed.
The informants objected to using a voice recorder during the interview. They deemed
this as ‘material’ likely to be misused. Therefore, in the main interview it will be
optional and left to the informants to approve the use of recorder. If particular
respondent does not approve usage of voice recorder, the interviewer will note the
answers in hand.
The elicitation technique was also improved by making the author realize the
importance of focusing on the situational context. The answers about choice of different
beverages can considerably vary if the consumption situation context is not clearly
explained to the respondent, very much in line with Grunert et al. (2001).
4.5 The interviews
Data was collected from individual interviews lasting approximately thirty minutes per
person. All interviews were conducted in the surroundings chosen by respondent. That
is being their flat, dorm room, and café bar. The respondents were first explained the
purpose of the research and especially focusing on the fact that there were no right or
wrong answers to any of the questions as the interviewer is only interested in the
opinions of the participants. Respondents were also assured that the interviewer has no
affiliation to any of the producers or brands which might be mentioned during the
course of the interview. This approach was taken to relax the participants.
Each interview started with ranking task. The four groups of different beverage
categories were presented to participants. The participants were asked to rank each
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beverage category in order of preference in their spare time from 4 to 1: with 4 being
the most likely choice and 1 the least likely choice. The preferences were later related to
the attributes of chosen product category.
This method is inspired by suggestion made by Grunert, Grunert & Sørensen (1995).
Once the participant gave their reason(s) (attributes), they were asked to elaborate
further on and to state the importance of the reasons given. Each answer that followed
was also further elaborated, continuing the laddering process until the participant had no
more information to give. One of the respondents chose coffee as the most preferred
beverage and the following is a sample interview with male participant aged 26:
Interviewer: You said that coffee is the most preferred beverage you choose in your spare time.
Why is that?
Respondent: Well, I usually have some spare time after a long day of school and coffee is then one
thing I really need.
Interviewer: Why is it important for you to have the coffee after school?
Respondent: I get really tired than I need something to give me a kick for the rest of the day.
Interviewer: What do you mean by getting a kick?
Respondent: I need something as a stimulant to do things at home. Well, coffee has caffeine and I
believe that when I have coffee I get rested and clear in my mind. It energizes me to do more house
work, to study or whatever…
Interviewer: Why is this energy boost important to you as a person?
Respondent: I am a rather active person I like to get things done. Then I feel I have accomplished
something and my day was not wasted. Otherwise I would sit on the couch and do nothing. I like to
feel that when a day is gone I have done something I am happy about. The day was not wasted.
The answers gathered from the interview were later categorized into Attributes
Consequences and Values as illustrated below:
Accomplishment (V)
↑
Can do more (Pc)
↑
Energizing (Fc)
↑
Caffeine/Stimulant (A)
Figure 5: Example of categorizing the results of the laddering interviews
Source: Devised by the author
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The second choice of beverages was also examined and followed by the rest of choices.
The length of interviews depended on the time needed for respondent to answer the
questions, non consumption, forked answers etc. In addition to recording answer on the
pre-prepared answering sheets the interviewer also recorded interviews using his
personal computer, and only if agreed by the respondent. Only 2/30 participants didn’t
consent to their interviews being recorded. An example of pre-prepared answering sheet
can be seen in Appendix nr. 1.
Furthermore some background data of the participants have been gathered, regarding
age and gender. The complete interview guide can be seen in Appendix nr.2.
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Chapter 5
5.0 Research Findings and discussion
The approaches chosen to discuss the results were guided with questions established in
Chapter 1. The analysis of the results from interviews for each beverage category is
followed by the discussion of the involvement and whether the product should be
regarded as “think” or “feel” product. This discussion provides the grounds for
conducting recommendations for future marketing strategies for these categories by
using MECCAS.
5.1 Participants
A total of 30 participants (n=30) was interviewed. 17 Female (56%) and 13 Male (44%)
respondents participated in research. The mean age of the respondents was 24,2 (Range:
18-30).
The results of the ranking tasks can be seen in the following table. In the appendix 3 a
more detailed table is shown regarding ranking of each beverage by each participant.
Furthermore, in one can see each beverage category divided by the preference. The
table shows how many times each beverage category was selected as first, second, third
or fourth choice, by the respondents.
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Table 2: Results of the ranking task conducted as the attribute elicitation technique.
Total
Beverages
1st choice
2nd choice
3rd choice
4th choice freq.points
Coffee
14
5
7
4
89
Fruit juice
4
10
12
4
74
Bottled water
10
8
8
4
84
Carbonated soft drinks
2
7
3
18
53
Source: Laddering interviews in BiH. Devised by author
The above ranking results show that the highest number of ranking points 89/300
(29,6 %) was allocated for coffee. Coffee is the most likely beverage category to be
chosen by consumers interviewed in BiH, it is closely followed by water with the score
of 84, and fruit juice 74 and carbonated soft drinks 53. The main reason for choosing
each category was further elaborated through laddering interviews. Previously
mentioned context of consumption played a large role in the ranking part of all
interviews. The respondents clearly needed to put the rankings in the context as they
would often mention that ranking of the beverages will be different in another context
(i.e. choosing a beverage while at work/school could differ from choosing one at home).
This can be illustrated through extract from the interview with a participant:
Interviewer: How would you rank frequency of consuming these 4 beverage categories during your
spare time?
Respondent: Well, if by free time you mean when I am at home then coffee would be my first
choice. However, when I am at school I could go for bottled water first as its easier to carry it with
me in the classroom or maybe ½ liter of cola.
Interviewer: No, I am firstly interested in your spare time. Your time off school, while relaxing at
home.
Respondent: In that case coffee would be my first choice. Yes, coffee.
From this point the respondent would concentrate on the given context and laddering
would continue.
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5.2 Content analysis
Content analysis is used to classify raw data into a limited number of categories. To be
able to carry out this classification, 28/30 interviews were recorded on the computer.
Two participants chose not to be recorded and their answers were noted. A definition of
the means, the ends and their relations, was made and content analysis of all concepts
was conducted from the recording. Categories were developed to capture the main
thoughts expressed by the informants on an Attribute, a Consequence and a Value level
in a coding table. Coding tables can be seen in Appendix nr.4-7.
Coding tables were designed for each of the following beverages:
1. Coffee
2. Fruit juice
3. Bottled water
4. Carbonated soft drinks
All these areas serve as units of analysis and will be treated separately in upcoming
subchapters.
The relationships of A-V-C for each category were analyzed using software called MEC
Analyst developed by SkyMax. The answers from each respondent were typed into the
program and program secured the development of implication matrix. Implication
matrix for each unit of analysis can be viewed in appendix 8-11 respectively.
Consequently HVM’s were developed for each unit of analysis as seen in sections
below. The lines between concepts in the presented HVM’s represent the complexity of
the HVM and the thickness of the lines represents the number of respondents
mentioning the link, directly or indirectly, or the strength of the link.
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5.3 Coffee
Coffee has a highest ranking/preference of all units analyzed in the research. The HVM
illustrated below in Figure 6 represents the most common and dominant relations and
categories between the MECs when it comes to the coffee.
The coffee answers elicited the cut off level of four as the most appropriate level to
provide most generalizations. The cut off level of four represents that a connection
between two concepts was mentioned directly or indirectly by at least four respondents
during the interviews.
This cut off level has excluded many weaker links between the categories that occur
when cut off level of three is chosen. Furthermore, this cut off level is giving the most
clear and readable HVM picture.
The first ladder on the left of the HVM shows that respondents are choosing coffee due
to the concrete attribute of caffeine which energizes people and have them ready to cope
with the rest of the day. Similar attribute of coffee is a more abstract attribute of
stimulant which enables respondents to do more in their spare time (e.g. homework,
housework). This in turn leads to the value of accomplishment, which includes doing
more at home, having better results at school and so on. The results of this chain are
rather similar to Gutman´s study (1984) with exception of value of self-esteem which
was not mentioned during this research. However, it can be discussed if
accomplishment in turn would lead to better/higher self esteem.
The other part of Figure 6 represents rather social reasons for the choice of coffee as the
spare time beverage. For a considerable number of respondents having coffee means the
end of working day and the beginning of the leisure time. Here you can have your
friends over, be social with them, talk about your day and fulfill a value of belonging to
a group and be affiliated with people or a group.
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The traditionally prepared Bosnian coffee3, is an abstract attribute respondents are rather
likely to link with consequence of performing a ritual that they have inherited from
previous generations (parents, grandparents). By performing this ritual the respondents
are fulfilling or preserving the traditions of the country. As many respondents answered
it is very important for them to keep this part of the culture sacred and unique for the
country. This part of Bosnian culture is important to the respondents and they want to
have it separated from the European integration and world globalization.
The last part of the HVM represents attribute category of taste. This category includes
different attributes such as sweetness, sourness, or strong taste. The taste of coffee leads
to the consequence of fulfilling the habit of having a coffee on daily basis. On the other
hand there is a strong link mentioned regarding complementarities between coffee and
cigarettes which in the end helps respondents fulfill the value of being happy and
content. This can be explained by considering a rather large number of smokers in BiH
in part due to rather low price of cigarettes4 and relatively low influence of anti smoking
lobbies compared to Western Europe, Nevertheless, coffee and cigarettes are still
regarded as complementary products in BiH. This research also shows the strong link
between the two products.
3
Bosnian coffee is rather similar to the Turkish coffee; it is mostly homemade but can be bought at the
cafés.
4
Price of a package of cigarettes is approx. 1EUR Source: http://www.fds.ba/loc/
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CutOff=4
Accomplishment
Happy/Content
Tradition
Affiliation/belonging
Can do more
Habit
Be social
Relaxing
Ritual
Energizing
Good with
cigarettes
Caffeine
Colour
Stimulant
Traditional
(locally
prepared)
Taste
Abstraction level
Attributes
Functional consequences
Psychological consequences
Values
Figure 6 Hierarchical value map for coffee
Source: Mecanalyst result from laddering interviews
5.3.1 Involvement with coffee
The analysis of involvement will begin from Lind (2006), looking at the number and
complexity of the chains elicited from the respondents and showed in the HVM’s.
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The total number of chains gathered from coffee interview is 70 and the mean, number
of ladders is 2,33 per respondent. The highest number of ladders for a single respondent
is 4, and the lowest number is only a single ladder. Both 4 ladders and 1 ladder were
elicited from single respondents.
HVM for coffee shows that ladders for coffee are reaching higher abstraction levels of
psychological consequences and values. However, according to Grunert, Sørensen, and
Nielsen (1996) the length of chains is not significantly correlated with involvement.
On the other hand Gengler, Klenosky and Mulvey (1995) claim that complexity of
HVM regarding interconnections between levels of abstraction depicts the level of
involvement.
The HVM for coffee can be described as rather complex, with different interconnections
between the components of knowledge. The thickness of the lines in the HVM shows
that there are many strong connections between product knowledge (Attributes,
Functional Consequences) and self knowledge (Psychological consequences, Values)
indicating higher level of involvement for coffee than for other products in the study,
Therefore, it can be concluded that HVM for coffee represents higher level of
involvement.
Regarding “think” and “feel” aspect of coffee as a product the discussion is also based
on the Lind (2006) as well as Claeys, Swinnen, Vanden Abeele (1995). The HVM
indicates that coffee has higher level of abstraction and consequently is not only
consumed for its functional value but also for its symbolic value. Furthermore, 59,7 %
of ladders were complete, having direct connection between attribute and value which
also suggests more symbolic reasons for consuming coffee. Finally, the relatively high
number of psychological consequences and values also suggest that coffee can be
treated as a product of choice with more symbolic value, or a “feel” product.
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5.3.2 MECCAS for coffee
Coffee is a product usually marketed as something to start the day with or connected
with the concrete attributes such as smell or taste of coffee.
The market leader for coffee in BiH Grand kafa (www.grandkafa.com/en/kampanje),
advertise coffee using print and media by focusing on the sensual experiences of coffee
drinking. Even the slogan of the company is targeted in that direction called “both taste
and smell”.
Figure 6 illustrates that both marketing strategies are indeed included in the cognitive
structure of consumers in BiH. The ladder of Taste → Habit → Happy, corresponds to
mostly used coffee marketing campaigns while ladder Stimulant → Can do more →
Accomplishment is also present in the area and rather usual way of marketing coffee.
Grand kafa is following this ladder by portraying young business people tired at their
office until tasting Grand coffee (www.grandkafa.com).
If MECCAS for a hypothetical coffee brand should be developed, a new kind of
message should be provided in order to achieve differentiation compared to the existing
competitors. One strong ladder in the HVM is in favor of coffee/cigarette compatibility.
However, this cannot be used in the modern world due to the hazards of smoking.
Therefore, alternative strong ladder in the HVM could be used Traditional → Ritual →
Tradition. The suggestion for application of this ladder in the MECCAS framework can
be as follows:
Message elements (The specific attributes. consequences or features about the product
that are communicated verbally or visually (Gutman, 1984)5:
Coffee that is meant to be traditionally prepared. Bosnian way of making coffee.
5
All definitions for MECCAS elements are from Gutman (1984)
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Consumer benefit: (The major positive consequences for the consumer that are to be
explicitly communicated, verbally or visually, in the advertising):
The message for coffee has to contain visuals of people being together performing a
ritual of drinking coffee, relaxing and talking. Making deeper friendships and family
ties (i.e. using motives of traditional Bosnian family).
Leverage point: (The way in which value is linked to the specific features in
advertising)
The focus here can possibly be on staying true to the value of tradition in the ever
changing environment.
Driving force (The end level to be focused on in the advertising):
In this part the driving force of advertising should be to keep the traditions alive through
consummation of coffee.
5.4 Fruit juice
Fruit juice is mentioned as the third choice by the respondents in the interviews.
Fruit juice has gathered 74 points on the frequency of choice scale (Table 2), and it is
mostly chosen as a second choice with ten respondents choosing it as their second
beverage choice (Table 3).
Figure 7 shows the fruit juice HVM that illustrates the connection between fruit juice
being the second choice, and the cognitive structure of the respondents. The first two
attributes shown on the far left of the HVM describe fruit juice as a substitute for other
beverages in this research. When respondents substitute water for fruit juice it is
because they want a change in the form of a more flavor and specific taste compared to
the neutral taste of water.
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Furthermore, there is a strong connection between using fruit juice as a coffee
alternative, strongly leading to the similar consequence that coffee produce and that is
being social. This is possibly related to the limited daily amount of coffee one can
intake and fruit juice is percept as a substitute that can be consumed with the same
consequence. The interesting detail is that no other beverage except fruit juice had an
alternative/substitute attribute strong enough to be represented in the HVM.
Moreover, the important attribute of fruit juice is to be cold. Cold fruit juice makes
people feel less warm, and they feel that they can do more during the day. The attribute
of coldness is connected to BiH being warm southern country, and possibly the warm
weather when interviews were taken. It would be interesting to see whether attribute
cold would be mentioned if a similar research was to be conducted during winter period.
The next chain produced from the interviews regards low or no sugar content of the fruit
juice. The low level of sugar is important to the respondents as it keeps the weight
down, and in turn leads to better looks. By looking fit the respondents would reach
better self-esteem, which is considered as a value. This is well in line with Gutman
(1984), who indentified rather similar ladder in his work. The value of self–esteem can
be connected to the age group targeted in this study. It is possible that possible future
studies which could include different age group would not have this value as strongly as
it is the case here.
The last attribute identified for fruit juices are the vitamins in the fruit juice. The
respondents believe that consuming fruit juice can add or substitute the vitamins from
eating fruits and in turn it results in better health. Consequently this is connected to the
value of health which is the second value that is identified on this cut off level.
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CutOff=4
Self esteem
Health
Satisfied
Can do more
Better looks
Feel Healthy
As filling but has
more taste
Water
substitute
Colour
Satisfying
Can be social
Feel better/Less
warm
Coffee
alternative
Cold
Keeping weight
Natural fruits/
no sugar
Vitamins
Abstraction level
Attributes
Functional consequences
Psychological consequences
Values
Figure 7: Hierarchical value map for fruit juice
Source: MEC analyst results from laddering interviews. Devised by author
5.4.1 Involvement with fruit juice
The total number of ladders elicited for juice is 72 or 2,4 by respondent, which is a
slightly higher number than coffee. Furthermore, the number of ladders is ranging from
the lowest total of 1, by 6,67% of respondents up to 4. However, the ladders elicited are
producing a simpler HVM then the ones for coffee. Thus, involvement for fruit juice is
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depicted by lower complexity of HVM than coffee. This suggests that fruit juice can be
described as low involvement product.
In contrast to coffee, the fruit juice laddering interviews provided a larger number of
attributes and functional consequences but a lower number of psychological
consequences and values. Furthermore, the ladders for fruit juice have a lower number
of complete links from attribute to the value level. A total of 12,8% of ladders had a
direct link between an attribute and a value, compared to 59,7% for coffee.
Having all this in mind one can say that choice of consumption of fruit juice is
connected more to the functional values of fruit juice than its symbolic value. Thus,
fruit juice can be defined as a think product.
5.4.2 MECCAS for fruit juice
The analyses of fruit juice interviews have shown that values of health and self-esteem
are the strongest values identified.
Most fruit juice competitors are also concentrating on these values. One of the stronger
market players in BiH Nectar (www.nectar.rs) is targeting young people and the value
of high self-esteem when consuming their juice, because their juice keeps the weight
down. The other player Cappy6 is mostly concentrating on having the juice as powerful
drink to start the day with vitamins. Having in mind the similarities between results
obtained from laddering and, the actual messages sent by players on the market one can
assume that either the consumers are very much influenced by the advertising of the or
the companies are rather good to target the cognitive structure of the consumers.
However, this is out of scope of this dissertation as answer can only be based on pure
speculation. It is advisable to perform a new research to clarify this relationship.
6
Cappy is Minute Maid juice using another brand name in BIH
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Vitamins →Feel healthy → Health and Natural fruits → Keeping Weight →Better
looks → Self-esteem ladders in the single message. Marketing would be more efficient
in this way and would target both cognitive structures of consumers.
Message elements: The message should include information that there is no sugar in
the fruit juice and enough vitamins to fulfill a Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA).
Consumer benefit: Get enough fresh fruit and vitamins, keep weight down, and feel
good about yourself.
Leverage point: The leverage point should be to stay healthy and by drinking the fruit
juice one can invest in healthier future by remaining thin.
Driving force: The driving force should include healthy and long life.
5.5 Bottled water
Bottled water is a beverage category which was picked as the second most frequent
choice by the respondents in this research. The accumulated number of points gathered
was 84 and 10/30 people regard bottled water as their first choice when choosing non
alcoholic beverage in their spare time.
The first ladder far to the left gives bottled water the abstract attribute of being the
cheap refreshment. As BiH is rich with rivers the production of domestic bottled water
is relatively high and therefore the price is low compared to other foreign refreshment.
It can be discussed whether this particular attribute influences the ranking method of the
beverages. However, there can be no clear answer for this from this research. The
cheapness of the water leads to the consequence of having more money to buy other
things.
Another attribute of bottled water is that it is domestic/local product which is a way to
support the employment in the country, which is considered to be one of the issues
concerning the country now.
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The attribute-consequence ladder of being cold corresponds to the previous discussion
concerning fruit juice, where cold water is used to cool the body down in the warm
weather.
The functional consequence of water being satisfying, as well as feel healthy, do not
have direct connection to the attribute. The reason for this can be that they are
connected to the different attributes which have not been strong enough to be included
at this cut off level. The psychological consequence of feel healthy is connected to the
value of health.
The last attribute on the right side of the HVM is no sugar no calories attribute which s
connected to the consequence of keeping weight and have better self esteem. This
ladder is again similar to the fruit juice ladder. It is therefore possible that the choice of
fruit juice and bottled water are based on the same cognitive structure. People choose
these beverages in order to avoid excessive sugar, keep their weight down and at the end
feel better about themselves.
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CutOff=4
Health
Better selfesteem
Accomplishment
Can do more
Security
Feel healthy
Keeping weight
Cool the body
down
Have more money
for other things
Thirst
quenching
Cheap
Colour
Higher
employment
Healthy
Domestic/local
Basic need
Satisfying
Cold
No sugar/no
calories
Abstraction level
Attributes
Functional consequences
Psychological consequences
Values
Figure 8: Hierarchical Value Map for bottled water
Source: MEC Analyst – devised by author
5.5.1 Involvement with bottled water
The total number of ladders for bottled water is 80 or 2,66 ladders per single
respondent. This is slightly more than coffee and fruit juice and also the highest total
number of ladders for all four types of beverages. The most ladders elicited by a single
respondent is four and the least number elicited is two ladders.
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One can argue that bottled water HVM is characterized by simple HVM which indicates
a lower degree of involvement than one created for coffee. Even though water has
gathered highest number of ladders it can be assumed that bottled water is still a low
involvement product due to the simplicity of the ladders.
Similar to the fruit juice bottled water elicited more attributes and functional
consequences than psychological consequences and values. Furthermore, a larger
number of direct connections between attribute and value have been identified (27,5%)
than with fruit juice, however a lower number than with coffee. Taking both number of
direct A→V links and types of elements into consideration one can say that bottled
water is mainly chosen for its functional values and therefore a think product.
5.5.2 MECCAS for bottled water
The results of this study suggest that bottled water is a think product; present
advertising is predominantly focused on the values of health and self-esteem. ˝Ilidzanski
dijamant˝ is one of market leaders for bottled water in BiH. Their marketing campaign
contains pictures of beautiful, fit young woman. The campaign is mainly based on
fitness,
beauty
and
health
as
the
main
massage
for
their
campaign
(www.ilidzanskidijamant.ba).
˝Jana˝ is the another competitor on the market. Their marketing efforts concentrate on
the purity of water combined with young, fit business people and consuming water as a
natural part of their everyday. The campaign slogan is “bring freshness into your work
day”. This strategy is well in line with the ladder of Satisfying → Can do more →
Accomplishment, elicited from the study.
In order to deliver MECCAS for hypothetical water producer in the area, one can
choose a route of No sugar/No calories →Keeping weight→ Better self-esteem, which
shows rather strong links in the consumers’ cognitive structure. However, similar to the
fruit juice, this ladder is already covered by the competitors in the market as discussed
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in earlier examples. If any differentiation is to be achieved it could be interesting to
concentrate on the domestic attribute of bottled water which was mentioned by 33% of
the respondents in the study, and possibly combine it with the ladder of No sugar/No
calories →Keeping weight→ Better self-esteem in order to produce a synergy effect.
Message elements: The message should include origins of domestic Bosnian water,
possibly featuring untouched rivers of the country. Moreover, the message should also
include information on how healthy and fit one can become by having water, and
promote high self-esteem lifestyle.
Consumer benefit: Consuming bottled water will help consumer to stay fit as well as
help the country by consuming a healthy domestic product.
Leverage point: The leverage point is to invest in the body and invest in the country.
Driving force: The end level to be focused on is to improve the self-esteem by drinking
water and helping the homeland.
5.6 Carbonated soft drinks
Carbonated soft drinks are the least frequently chosen beverage according to the ranking
technique. It has gathered 53 points in the list of most frequent choices and only 4/30
(13,3%) respondents choose carbonated soft drinks as their first option when having a
refreshment in their spare time. This result was rather surprising having in mind the
popularity of carbonated soft drinks in the World. However, one can only guess the
origin of this result. It may have occurred due to the “pressure” of the interview on the
consumers wanting to present the “more healthy choice” or due to the context of the
interview. However, it would be interesting to see whether different result will transpire
if “paper and pencil” technique was used.
The first ladder in the HVM for carbonated soft drink is similar to many other beverages
with having a cold carbonated soft drink in the warm weather is refreshing and helps the
body cool down.
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The second attribute elicited is unique for the carbonated soft drinks. Some varieties of
carbonated soft drinks are considered exciting. Thus, there are many different flavors,
brands and shapes of carbonated soft drinks to choose from. However, this attribute
could be slightly outside of the frame of this research. The variety can be guided by the
occasion. Soda (carbonization) is category used to include the carbonization and
tingling feeling of carbonated soft drinks when consumed. This attribute has a more
complex connections compared to others in this research. The connections are ranging
from negatively driven consequences of being bad for stomach, to more positively laden
consequences of soda in the carbonated soft drinks complementing food, and reaching
more hedonistic psychological consequence of being satisfied. The other consequence
of soda is fulfilling a habit one has developed of consuming carbonated soft drinks on
daily basis.
The strongest attribute for carbonated soft drinks is sugar. Sugar is associated
negatively with the consequences of having the weight and teeth hygiene issues because
of percept high content of sugar. The weight issue and bad for teeth consequences both
result in lower self-esteem. On the other hand sugar is also negatively connected to the
value of health.
Comparing this study to Gutman (1984) study one notices that consumers’ cognitive
structure differentiates on the perception of carbonated soft drinks. Gutman (1984)
claims that carbonated drinks are filling (attribute) which helps people avoid eating
other foods thus contributing to weight control, ultimately leading to self confidence
and self-esteem. This study, on the other hand, shows that avoiding sugar in carbonated
soft drinks helps to control weight issues and in the long run should help the selfesteem. Therefore, it can be said that since Gutmans study up till now the cognitive
structure of people towards carbonated soft drinks has changed in more negative
manner. The reasons for this could be more focus from the media and corporations on
the health and self-esteem issues in the modern world.
Having this in mind and by using information processing models described in Chapter
2.1 one can say that the cognitive structure of consumers has shifted in the 25 years
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period. It would be interesting to conduct future studies to diversify carbonated soft
drinks e.g. include diet drinks, to get a more nuanced picture of carbonated soft drinks.
CutOff=4
Health
Lower selfesteem
Not healthy
Satisfying
Bad for health
Habit
Good in warm
weather
Exciting
Bad for teeth
Weight issues
Bad for stomach
Compliments
other food
Cold
Color
Variety
Soda
Sugar
Abstraction level
Attributes
Functional consequences
Psychological consequences
Values
Figure 9: Hierarchical Value map for Carbonated soft drinks
Source: MEC Analyst – devised by author
5.6.1 Involvement with carbonated soft drinks
One very interesting occurrence with carbonated soft drink is that even though it is the
least frequently chosen beverage it has gathered most chains among respondents. The
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total number of chains is 86 or 2,86 per respondent. The number of ladders by a single
respondent ranges from 0 where a respondent claimed not to have any knowledge or
reasons his/her choice up to 6.
One can argue that even though respondents do not frequently choose carbonated soft
drinks they do have established structures of knowledge regarding them. However, the
ladders are rather short and mostly not complete. Combining the number of ladders and
complexity of the HVM one can say that involvement for carbonated soft drinks is
higher than with water and juice and rather similar to coffee or medium level of
involvement.
Similar to the fruit juice and bottled water carbonated soft drinks produced more
attributes and functional consequences than psychological consequences and values.
Furthermore, 12,8 % of the links had a direct connection between attribute and value,
which suggests that carbonated soft drinks are regarded as think products.
5.6.2 MECCAS for carbonated soft drinks
Market for carbonated soft drinks is mostly similar to the other markets in the World
with larger companies like The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo and a number of local
competitors.
Coca-Cola is targeting young adults and teenagers by using ads which present fun, cold
refreshments, and enjoying life with Coca-Cola (www.coa-cola.ba).
The other
producers in the area are using similar tactics to attract young people to their products.
A part of this strategy is depicted in the ladder Cold→Good in warm weather ladder or
Variety → Exciting ladder. Moreover the competitors are targeting consequences of fun
and values of belonging/affiliation which were not strongly present in this study.
In order to differentiate a hypothetical carbonated soft drink product one can possibly
use another ladder which showed strong links and that is Soda (Carbonization) →
Compliments other Food → Satisfying.
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Message elements: The message elements should contain tingling feeling of sodium in
the drink and satisfactory/inviting look of blend of meal and carbonated soft drink.
Possibly, having dinner with family and/or friends.
Consumer benefit: It should be visually and verbally communicated the feeling of
ultimate hedonistic satisfaction consumer will experience when having carbonated soft
drink and a meal.
Leverage point: The marketing should concentrate on the satisfaction when having a
meal complemented with a drink in a relaxed atmosphere.
Driving force: Is to have an ultimate hedonistic pleasure with carbonated soft drink.
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Chapter 6 Validity, reliability and generalization of the study
Validity in qualitative study corresponds to the question if the study reflects the
phenomena of interest to the reader (Kvale, 1997).
Validity of this study is concerned with discussions regarding the success and
application of the method concerned in representing the choice of beverages in BiH.
Moreover, validity is also concerned with truthfulness of what is meant to be
investigated.
In this study the author assumes that HVMs and later analysis describe the beverage
choices by consumers in BiH. The validity of the study could have been improved if
there were two persons conducting the interviews and consequently coding the
interviews, as suggested by Grunert (1995). This was not possible to achieve due to the
form of the dissertation. However, in order to ensure the largest possible degree of
validity each informant has been asked to validate his/her answers as well as
researchers’ interpretations during the course of each interview. Moreover, one could
have formed a focus group with some of the participants after all the interviews were
conducted. The focus group would aim to further validate the answers. This was not
possible due to time and scope restraints. This can be utilized if and when future studies
are conducted.
The other question concerned with validity of the study using MEC and laddering is if
the interviewing process has allowed the respondents to use their own frame of
reference while providing their reasons for choice of different beverages. The author
assumes that this is fulfilled to a high degree as Attributes, Consequences and Values
have been named with the departing point in respondents own frame of reference.
However, the translation of the coding to English could have slightly adjusted some
answers as a direct translation was not possible (i.e. psychological consequence of being
satisfied with carbonated soft drinks has a special word in Bosnian language which does
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not have a direct English translation). The word covers hedonistic and cultural specific
satisfaction feeling, but the best translation appeared to be satisfied.
Reliability refers to another study under similar circumstances and its ability to produce
similar findings (Rekom, Riel et al. 2000).
It is difficult to ensure reliability of a qualitative study due to its context and current
time of the study. Comparing this study to that of Gutman (1984), one can say that
cognitive structure of consumers have changed leading to different results in many
areas. Previous discussion of change in cognitive structure due to the new information
also confirms this. Therefore it can be anticipated that some of the information gathered
could be changed if another researcher does the same study in future.
It will not be possible to generalize on the basis of the results obtained in this study for
the reason of that it is the first study of this character in this geographical area with
rather small number of informants. Within qualitative studies, it is, however, possible to
indicate some tendencies and some patterns based on what is termed analytical
generalization (Maaløe 2002). In order to improve analytical generalization it will be
necessary to conduct smaller comparison studies, which will contribute to further
elaboration of the topic.
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Chapter 7 Conclusions and further research
7.0 Conclusion
This dissertation was one of first studies concerning beverage choices and consumers in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study has shown that MEC can be a valuable tool in
modeling cognitive structure of consumers in BIH concerning choice of non alcoholic
beverages.
The analysis of laddering interviews in respect to the main question showed that there
are different reasons for choice of a particular beverage category in BIH. The reasons
however, are more or less abstract depending on beverage chosen. Coffee was a product
most frequently chosen by the interviewed consumers and provided most abstract
reasons for choice of all beverage categories. On the other hand all other categories less
frequently chosen have also shown that consumers in BiH link personal consequences
and values to the choice of beverage, though not to the same degree as for coffee.
The analysis of involvement showed that also here the interviewed consumers seem to
be more involved in the choice of coffee compared to the other categories. Also here
coffee serves as an alternative to the low involvement products that food and beverages
are considered to be. Furthermore, HVM’s for beverages show that while carbonated
soft drinks, fruit juice and bottled water are mostly chosen for their functionality, coffee
is a beverage that tend to be chosen more for its symbolic value.
Moreover, the study and analysis of the results have indicated that MEC approach in
conjunction with the MECCAS model can be used to compare cognitive structure of the
consumers and marketing activities of the different companies at the market. It is clear
from the study that current marketing activities of the companies to high degree follow
the cognitive structure of the consumers in the area. However, analysis have also
indicated that it is possible to identify various alternative routes a hypothetical beverage
company can use to influence and target consumers cognitive structure.
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7.1 Implications for further research
This study can be regarded as a starting point for more future studies of the products
and the area in question. During the process of conducting this dissertation different
areas for further research have been identified.
First of all the question of consumption context should be further investigated. It would
be interesting to investigate whether the results of this study would be different if
another context was chosen. Moreover, if different context were used simultaneously it
the study could elicit different results.
Furthermore, the future research should include use of “hard” laddering approach in
order to uncover possible similarities/dissimilarities in cognitive structure using
different approaches.
As this study covered four categories it can be argued that more narrow approach should
be taken in the future studies. They can include only a single beverage which would
allow deeper analysis of the consumers and the information gathered. Furthermore, one
can suggest a comparative study of Bosnian and Danish consumers in order to
investigate whether different cultures produce different information regarding
beverages.
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Web Sites:
www.marketingpower.com
www.coca-cola.ba
www.ilidjanskidijamant.ba
www.jana.com.hr
www.grandkafa.com
www.fds.ba/loc/
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