RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY .
MUHAMMAD THE PROPHET'S DIPLOMATIC CONTACT WITH
AFRICA
Z.I OSENI
Nowadays, it has become fashionable to say that Islam and
Christianity are alien to Africa in such a contemptuous manner as to suggest that their development had nothing whatsoever to do with
Africa. It is in view of this that this paper attempts to cast a look at the connection which the prophet Muhammad had with Africa in his life-time when he w as propagating Islam, a faith that was to play significant roles in the history of the continent in subsequent centuries.
It is true that Islam did not originate in Africa, but this; should be no means be interpreted to mean that the religion " its formative period had no direct contact with any country Africa, Nor should it be suggested that the faith is irrelevant to the solution of the multifarious problems fronting man in Africa today, be they spiritual or secular. should be borne in mind that right from the outset, the prophet Muhammad's message has been regarded unmistakably universal message. The Prophet never claimed to be a national prophet sent to the Arabs only by God as many
"Wormed Western scholars would make us believe. The allowing words of the Almighty Allah shed light on this:
Say: O men, I am sent
Unto you all as the Apostle of God, to Whom belongs the dominion
Of the heavens and the earth;
There is no god but He; it is He
Who gives both life and death.
So believe in God and His Apostle,
The unlettered Prophet who believes in God and His words: follow him
So that you may be guided aright. 1
We have sent you(Muhammad)
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Only as a mercy to all creatures.
Muhammad is not the father of
Any of your men, but (he is) the
Apostle of God, and the seal
Of the prophets: and God had full knowledge of all things.
We have indeed sent you as a
Universal (Apostle) to mankind,
Giving them glad tidings and warning
Them (against evil-doing) but most
Men do not understand.
You have indeed in the Apostle of God
(Muhammad) a beautiful pattern (of conduct)
For anyone whose hope
Is in God and the Final Day, and
Who engages much in the praise of God.
Blessed be He Who revealed
The Criterion (i.e. the Qur'an) to His servant (Muhammad) so as to be an admonisher to all creatures.
It is He Who has sent His Apostle with right guidance and the religion of truth, to proclaim it over all religion: and enough is God for a witness.
7
Carefully examined, the above Qur'anic verses amongst others, show that the Prophet Muhammad's message is n for the whole world. In his early prophetic career Muhammad had intimate contact with Africans who were slaves in Mecca. Some of them were amongst his early followers. A good example of these was a slave named Bilal ibn Rabah who was, in point of fact, the first
Mu'adhdhin 0 in Islam because his pleasant and sonorous voice.
Bilal remained the chief of mu'adhdhin of the Prophet until the
80

RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . tatter's death; tie f N settled in Syria where he struggled in the cause of Gcc2h$ revered Companion of the Prophet, he died in 642
A.D. 9 It was Abu Bakr, the wealthy friend and political successor of the Prophet, who bought and freed this black Ethiopian from his cruel master, Umayyah ibn Khalaf who tortured him because he embraced Islam. Another black slave of African descent similarly bought and manumitted by Abu Bakr was Amir ibn Fuhayrah. If the
Prophet Muhammad had regarded himself an apostle sent to the
Arabs exclusively he would not have cared about black slaves amongst other down-trodden folks of his time.
For a clear understanding of Muhammad contact with Africa proper, it is necessary to examine the history of the Prophet briefly. After that, I will treat his contact with Ethiopia and Egypt, and then give a conclusion based on this study.
II
The Prophet Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born into the Hashim family in Mecca on a Monday about the year 570 A. 5. He grew up as an orphan under the care of his uncle, Abu Talib. At the age of forty (about 610 A.D.) he received the call to propagate the eternal word of God as he was meditating in the cave of Hira. He received certain revelations from God through the archangel Jibril
(Gabriel) from 610 to 632 A.D The revelations were recorded and compiled into what is known as the Holy Qur'an.
At first, the people of Mecca who were steeped in paganism {i.e. the worship of idols as intermediaries between man and God) ignored him. As time went on, they started their hostility towards the Prophet whose offence was that he called them to serve one and indivisible God directly and to be good to one another rather than blindly follow in the of ten-erring footsteps of their forebears.
For thirteen years, the Prophet had only a few followers, and most of them, who were poor, were mercilessly persecuted by the aristocratic lords of Mecca.
11
In 615 A.D. the Hashimi family was boycotted by the rest of Mecca because it protected the Prophet and his nascent religion which condemned many aspects of their worship and way of life. The
81

RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . biting effect of this ostracism which lasted three years notwithstanding, the family under the leadership of Abu Talib, continued to protect the Prophet. 12 The above mentioned boycott and other untold modes of persecution meted out to his followers compelled Muhammad to advise his followers to migrate to Ethiopia
(ancient Abyssinia) in Africa because he learnt that there was a
Christian King, An-Najashi (Negus) who was upright and generous, and never allowed anybody to be maltreated in his domain. This was the first migration in the history of Islam.The
Meccans tried unsuccessfully to dissuade Negus from receivi: the muslims warmly, The failure of the Meccan idolaters to get the
Muslim migrants under the leadership of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib extradited by the Ethiopian authorities further fuelled their zeal to intensify their persecution of the Propb and those of his followers who did not go to Ethiopia. 14 More will be said on this in Section III.
The Prophet's condition was worsened in 619 by the deaths of his faithful, wealthy and understanding wife, Khadijah and his uncle
Abu Talib who, in spite of his remaining an idolator himself, never relented in protecting his nephew as a customary duty. The next head of the Hashimi family was Abu Lahab, and die-hard opponent of Islamic monotheism, and ideals.
15 He readily withdrew the family's protection from Muhammad, and many ugly sights of dehumanizing of Muslims ensued.
The Prophet migrated to Ta’if thinking that he will be given audience in that famous Arabian summer-resort. But he was disappointed; for he was stoned and called names. This unsavoury treatment stemmed from the fact that the oligarchs of Mecca were very influential in the oasis town too.
This state of affairs got to a climax in 622 A.D. when soc carefully selected Meccan stalwarts plotted to assassinate Muhammad. He migrated to Yathrib, a town about 200 kilometres north-east of
Mecca (later renamed Medina) in the company of his friend Abu
Bakr. At Medina, people were ready to listen to him. He first of all settled the age-long dispute between the two dominant clans of the city, name city the Khazraj and the Aws, His wisdom, impartiality, fore: Prop; honesty, forthrightness, tolerance, and other sterling qualities won him the hearts of the Medinan people, As Islam is a
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RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . religion as well as a way of life, the Prophet did no! Bakr confine his activities to religious rituals alone; rather he did his utmost to solve the social, economic and political problems confronting the new community in Medina.
18
The Meccans were not satisfied with the migration of the and his followers to Medina. Fearing that he might gain and influence and later take revenge on them, they waged a series of wars on him and the Medinan people over whom he had virtually become the informal head of state and religion. " After a long struggle the
Prophet gained the upper hand over the Meccan aggressors whose hope was to extinguish the newly kindled light of Islam.20
In 630 A.D. the Prophet conquered Mecca, but did not kill a soul. He declared general amnesty to his former opponents. He, however, destroyed the 360 idols which were instituted in the
Ka'bah, the Holy Mosque at Mecca which is said to have been built originally by the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) for the worship of one God, Allah.
21 Thus the Prophet Muhammad restored the Ka'bah to its former status of a place for the exclusive worship of God. The general amnesty granted to the
Meccans impressed them greatly. They embraced Islam in multitudes and accepted the message of "the complete submission to the will of God". By this mass conversion, the prophecy in the oly Qur'an 93.4 was fulfilled.
22 This victory and mass inversion is echoed in the Qur'an thus:
In the name of God,
The Beneficent, the Merciful.
When the help of God
And victory, come,
And you see the people enter
God's religion (Islam) in crowds,
Celebrate the praise
Of your Lord, and pray
For His forgiveness;
For He is ever-forgiving .
23
Tribes all over the Arabian Peninsula sent deputations to Medina to receive the message of Islam and to establish friendly relations with the theocratic government based in the city in 631 A.D This
83

RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . continued till June. 632 A.D. when the prophet Muhammad passed away as one of the most successful 1 all prophets of God and religious personalities the world as known. It was left to his great lieutenants such as Abu Bakr, Umar, 'Uthman, Ali, etc. to continue the spread of the redeeming message of Islam to other parts of the world for which the Prophet's mission was also meant.
24
When the Prophet observed the intensification of persecution of
Islam and Muslims in Mecca on the part of the leaders of the city, he advised his followers to migrate to Ethiopia (Habashah in
Arabic). He himself and a few others remained in Mecca calling people to embrace Islam publicly and secretly. The Ethiopian king of that time was Negus Al-Asham ibn Abjar, a Nestorian Christian.
Before I continue with the issue of Muslim refugees who fled to
Ethiopia, it is perhaps expedient to highlight tersely the relationship between Arabia and Ethiopia. To begin with, Arabia is regarded as the home of the Semitic peoples of the world.
25 The language of
Ethiopia which ha| been so fortunate as to be written for many centuries is Amharic (Ethiopic), which is one of the known
Semitic languages of the world.
26 With territorial, linguistic and cultural connections, Ethiopia from time to time played various roles in the history of Arabia in general.
The greatest ancient Ethiopian ruler in Aksum was doubtless
Negus Ezana who lived in the middle of the fourth century A.D.
27
According to his own inscriptions, his military campaigns extended from the confines of Egypt to Somaliland. He also ruled over a large part of Southern Arabia such as Himyar, Raydan, Saba 1
(Sheba). and Salhen. His exploits on the Red Sea suggest that economic motives based on mercantile activities with the
Mediterranean region were no unconnected with his expansionistic feats.
His statesmanship apart, Negus Ezana made Christianity the state religion in the Aksumite kingdom of Ethiopia. The religion was not new in the country; for it was first introduced about the year 330 A.D. by Frumentius.
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RELIGION, PEACE
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After the death of Negus Ezana, not much is heard about
Ethiopian kings until 525 when the Emperor Justin called upon
Negus Kaleb to intervene in Southern Arabia where a Jewish king, Dhu Nuwas, ruthlessly persecuted the Christians in the area.
29 By the year 570 A.D. Ethiopia was in, control of a large part of Southern Arabia, and was casting covetous eyes on the Hijaz in the arid northern
Arabia. In order to reduce the commercial as well as religious prestige of Mecca, Abraha ibn al-Ashram, an Ethiopian viceroy in
Yemen, Southern Arabia, attacked Mecca in an expedition that was never to be forgotten in the city. There were some elephants in Abraha's army.Though frightened greatly, most Meccans had the first opportunity to see mighty elephants walk in the vicinity of their city. The year was name Am al-fil (the Year of the Elephant). The expedition failed, owing to the break out of plague within the invading army. The Prophet Muhammad was born in that year. The failure of Araba is usually ascribed to divine intervention in support of Mecca and the Ancient
House, i.e. the Holy Mosque called al-Ka'bah which is situated there.
In the 6th century A.D., 'Abd al-Shams ibn 'Abd Manaf signed a commercial treaty with the Negus. This facilitated regular trade between Meccan merchants and Ethiopia. Meccan travelled to Aksum during the winter of every year. 31
This was the situation when the Prophet Muhammad asked those of his followers, who could make it, to migrate to Ethiopia. A group of Muslims set out secretly in the lunar month of Rajab in
615 A.D. Those who took part in the first migration are:
'Uthman ibn 'Affan and his wife Ruqayyah
(the Prophet's daughter); Abu Salmah ibn
'Abd al-Asad and his wife Umm Salmah;
Abu Hudhayfah ibn 'Utbah and his wife
Suhaylah bint Suhayl; 'Amir ibn Abi
Rabi'ah and his wife, Lay la al-'Adawiyyah;
Umm Ayman; 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Awf;
85

RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . al-Zubayr ibn al-'Awwarn; Mus'ab ibn 'Umayr; 'Uthman ibn Maz'un;
Suhayl ibn Bayda 1 ; Abu Sirah ibn
Abi Raham; Hatib ibn 'Amr; and
'Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud 33
These people left Mecca in secret and managed to get to the Red
Sea where they got a boat and embarked for Ethiopia. They stayed for a very short time there and returned to Mecca. There are various reasons for their return; but the most plausible one is that they heard that with the conversic of 'Urnar ibn al-Khattab and Hamzah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and a few others, the
Meccans had stopped persecuting the Muslims 34 . When the emigrants returned to Mecca, however, they discovered the contrary. In point of fact, they found the Meccan situation worse than it was when they left it. They would not have been allowed to enter the city, their birthplace, but for the intervention of some kind-hearted families which promised to protect them, 35 The emigrants discovered that the loneliness which they suffered in a foreign country, Ethiopia, was far beteer than the cruel persecution they were facing in
Mecca. So migration to Ethiopia was contemplated once more this time on a much larger scale. The group left Mecca, as usual, secretly. It consisted of 83 men and .18 women led by Ja'far ibn
Abi Talib and his wife Asma' bint 'Amis, Miqdad ibn al-Aswad and 'Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud.
True to type, al-Najashi (Negus) al-Asham (Ella Saham ?) ibn Abjar (Ella Gabaz ?) welcomed the Muslims to his territory and treated them generously. The Meccans quickly sent two emissaries to Negus Al-Asbam, informing him of the fugitives who insulted Meccan deities and ran away from Mecca to Ethiopia, and requested the king to extradite them promptly. As a just ruler, the king called for the leader of the
Muslim team and questioned him about the new religion introduced by Muhammad. Ja'far ibn Abi Talib came forward, greeted the audience, and then said:
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RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY .
We were a barbaric people, worship ping idols, feeding on carrion; practicing immorality, deserting our families and violating the covenants of mutual protection. The strong amongst us devoured the weak.
Such was our state until God sent us an apostle, as He had sent apostles to those before us.
That apostle is one of us; we know his ancestry, veracity, fidelity and purity. He summoned us to God, the Most Exalted, so that we should worship Him and know Him as one (God), discarding all the stones and idols that our fathers used to worship in his stead. He instructed us to worship God alone, and to pray, pay the poor-rate, and fast ...
36
Ja'far then enumerated a number of virtues which Islam teaches in addition to worship, and read a portion of the Qur'an to the king especially verses which are connected with the position of Jesus from the Islamic point of view, The Negus drew some lines on the ground with his staff, saying "the only difference* between us and you is like these lines". He protected the
Muslims against the Mecca idolaiors,
Most of these emigrants remained in Ethiopia until the migration of the Prophet Muhammad to Medina. Seven men out of them died in Ethiopia, while a few others returned to Mecca and migrated with the Prophet to Medina in 622 A.D.
38 At least, one of them,
'Ubaydullah, became a Christian and remained in Ethiopia.
39
Majority of them returned to Medina after the liberation of Khaybar in 628 A.D.
40 At that time there was a lull in the hostility between the Medinans and the idolaters of Mecca consequent upon the
Truce of al-Hudaybiyyah between the two warring groups. 41
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RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY .
In his Muhammad at Mecca, 41 W.M. Watt tries to cast doubt, into the minds of his readers by emphasizing the commercial activities of the emigrants in that African country and their not joining the
Prophet in Medina immediately after his migration in 622. Yet the writer acknowledges the strong religious conviction which motivated their migration in the first place. He also asks whether it would not have been better for the refugees to remain in Mecca and show a good model of Islamic ideals rather than migrate to
Ethiopia.
Well, the early Muslims knew what was better for them in the face of barbarous persecution which resulted in the death of a number of them in Mecca.
41 Hence they migrated to Ethiopia in 619 A.D.
As regards their commercial activities in Ethiopia, the Meccans were known to be traders by profession. In Ethiopia one would be surprised if they had not taken to trading instead of changing to another profession like farming to which they were not accustomed in a strange country, or staying idle and depending solely on the generosity of that African country for so long a period as they sojourned there. It may be added that the Prophet, sure of God's support to those fighting for His cause, waited, quite reasonably, for the time of peace, stability and tranquilly which the Truce of al-Hudaybiyyah provided in 628 A.D.
Following the Truce of al-Hudaybiyyah, the Prophet got letters written for him; he sent them to the leading rulers of Arabia,
Persia, Egypt, Ethiopia and Byzantium. Below is the translat.ionof the text of his letter to the Negus of Ethiopia, Al-
Asham ibn Abjar:
In the name of God the Beneficent the Merciful. From Muhammad the
Apostle of God to al-Najashi
(Negus), ruler of Ethiopia
(al-Habashah) . Greetings.
I convey to you the praises of God beside Whom there is no other deity, the Sovereign
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RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . the Holy One, the Source of Peace, the Guardian of faith and the
Watcher (over all creatures). I testify that
Jesus son of Mary is God's
Spirit and Word conveyed to the chaste, and righteous
Virgin; she became pregnant of Jesus who is from
His spirit and breath as
He created Adam with His hand.
Now, I am summoning you to God, the One without any associate, and to friendship based on obedience to Him; and that you should follow me and believe in what has been revealed to me; for I am an apostle of God. I call upon you and your soldiers to come to God, the Great and Mighty. I have delivered the messages and admonished. Please accept my advice. Peace be upon him who follows the right guidance. 44
When the letter got to the king through 'Amr ibn Umayyah al-Darnri, he received the message warmly and expressed his joy in regard of the place of Jesus and his mother expressed in the letter. He, however, did not openly accept the message of
Islam because he, feared that that would estrange him from his people amongst whom Christianity was a state religion.
45 The more enthusiastic view which is widely held in Islamic circles is that he. embraced Islam.
46 This view stermed obviously from his friendliness to the early Muslims and his display of the timehonoured trait of "African hospitality". To crown it all, a reply to the Prophet's letter which is quoted by some Islamic sources
89

RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . gives the impression that the Negus Al-Asham actually accepted Islam. The translation of the letter runs thus: in the name of God, the Beneficent the Merciful, To Muhammad, the
Apostle of God from the Negus Al-Asham ibn Abjar,
Peace, mercy and blessing of God - beside Whom there- is no other deity and
Who guided me to Islam - be upon you. Now, I have received your letter in which you made mention the issue of Jesus.
By the Lord of the heaven and earth,
Jesus is not more than what you said. We know that which you sent to us, and we have hosted your cousin and his companions. I bear witness that you are God's apostle, in truth and in confirmation (of previous scriptures). I have sworn an oath of fealthy to you, having sworn an oath of fealthy to your cousin and submitted in his presence to God, the Lord of the universe. I have sent my son, Arha (Armah ?) ibn
Al-Asham ibn Abjar to you, I own nothing but myself; if you wish that I come to you, I will do so, O Apostle of God .
47
According lo Ibn Ishaq, the most ancient biographer of the
Prophet, the Negus sent his son Arha in the company o sixty other men from Ethiopia to the Prophet in Medina, but they got drowned in the sea. 48
Perhaps, the acceptance of Islam by the Negus was a matter of mere recognition of the Prophet and admiration of his efforts to guide people, especially the barbarous Arabians aright. No
90

RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . much is known of the "Islamic" practices of the Negus and, subsequently, his successor. Nonetheless, until further research into the religious life of Negus Al-Asham brings forth more useful results on this issue, let us, for the time being, be content with the indisputable fact that he Negus Al-Asham was well disposed towards the Muslims to such a point as to host some of them in his country
:
and recognize their leader, Muhammad. As a good gesture of reciprocity, the Prophet organised a jaiiazah (funeral) prayer in absentia in his honour when he died in 631 A.D is done for a full-blooded Muslim.
49
IV
As for the Prophet's contact with Egypt, this was not physical; for he never visited Egypt as far as the ancient records of his Sirah
(Biography) indicate. Nevertheless, many -Arabians have been trading with Egypt right from time immemorial, In point of fact.
'Amr ibn al-'-As, the Muslit conqueror of Egypt had undertaken a good of number of trading trips to Egypt ever before he embraced
Islam in 629 A.D, and he knew that country very well.
As noted in section III of this paper, the Prophet sent to many rulers, Arab and non-Arab. One of them was the Maqawqin of
Egypt named Jurayj (George ?) ibn Mina. The letter which was delivered to him by Hatib ibn Abi Balta'ah reads:
In the name of God the Beneficent the
Merciful. From Muhammad, the Apostle of God to al-Muqawquis, ruler of Egypt.
Peace be on him who follows right guidance.
Now, I call you in the Islamic manner. Submit (to God), and be safe, and
God will double your reward. If you turn your back, you will bear the sin of all Egyptians.
"O you people of the Book, came to common terms as between us and you that we worship none but
God; that we associate no partners with Him; that we do not erect from amongst ourselves
Lords and patrons other than God.
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RELIGION, PEACE
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If they turn their back, you (should) say:
Bear witness that we are (at least)
Muslims (bowing to God's will) .
50
The Prophet then concluded the letter Hatib delivered it to the addressee at Alexanderia. After reading it, the
Muqawqis asked the bearer why the Prophet, if he was truthful, did not curse those who persecuted him so ruthlessly, and drove him out of his motherland. Hatib, on his part, asked him why Jesus did not curse the Jews who tormented him. It was here that the ruler gave in, and promised to look into the matter seriously. He later sent some presents and the following reply to the Prophet:
In the name of God
To Muhammad ' Abd-Allah from al-Muqawqis , ruler of Egypt. Peace be on you.
Now, I have read your letter and understood what you mentioned in it and that to which you are summoning (people) I know that a Prophet remained to be sent and thought that he will appear in Sham (Syria). I have honoured your messenger and sent you two maids who are highly regarded in Egypt; I have also sent you clothes and a donkey to ride. Peace.
51
In spite of this diplomatic response, the Muqawqis did not embrace Islam. Nevertheless the responses from the Ethiopian emperor as well as the ruler of Egypt were amongst the best that the Prophet got for his letters. For instance the Persian
Emperor, Chosroes Eparwiz ibn Hurmuzj tore the Prophet's letter in annoyance, and insulted the sender.
52 But within a decade the mighty Persian empire crumbled like a pack of cards in the face of Muslim forces. 53
Of the two Egyptian ladies sent to .the Prophet, he marrieij one, Mariyah the Copt and gave the other one, Sirin to
Hassan ibn Thabit in marriage. Mariyah bore him a son, Ibrahim, who died in 631 A.D. But for his death, Ibrahi would have been the only son of the Prophet through whom his direct male
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RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY . descendants can be traced.
54 Thus the Prophet had some affinity with an African family, being their by son-inlaw.
In conclusion, from the fore-going discussion it is obvious that the
Prophet Muhammad had contacts with many Africa: of different social status. On the Meccan scene, black slaves of African origin, prominent amongst whom is Bilal ibn Rabah, embraced
Islam and were tortured by their matter; in consequence. But the wealthy ones amongst the Muslim notably Abu Bakr, manumitted some of them, and thereby gave them a better opportunity to exercise their freedom of faith.
On the international scene, Ethiopia proved an unforgettable asylum for Islam at a time the Meccan Lords did their utmost to stiffle its growth. Although Negus al-Asharn was a Christian, whose religious views did not entirely agree those of the nascent
Islam, he shouldered the responsibility of honouring his guests and offering them that famous African hospitality. The honour does not go to that African leader alone; rather all his subjects who did eve' thing to make Ethiopia homely to the Meccan refugees in it; similarly the refugees who comported themselves;' a comely manner and did not abuse the hospitality granted them should earn our respect too,
One can appreciate this concord and friendliness better remembers that the Prophet himself did not go to Ethiopia to physically guide his followers in that country. Yet they maintained Islamic ideals which endeared them to their' host.
In like manner, the Negus never saw the Prophet Muhammad physically, and yet he honoured his word, revered the word of God as brought to humanity by Muhammad which Ja'far recited to him.
The ruler of Egypt's diplomatic response is also worthy of praise.
Although he was a Byzantine viceroy in Egypt (and not an
Egyptian by blood), he displayed a friendliness and good coexistence which endeared him to early Muslims and which will continue to earn him respect from all those who read about him.
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In the above survey no doubt there is a lot to be learnt by the present and future generations of humanity as regards friendliness amongst people of different nationalities and faiths.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. The Holy Qur'an 7: 158
2. The Holy Qur'an 21: 107
3. The Ho1y Qui’an 33: 40
4.
The Holy Qur’an 34: 28
5. The Holy Qur'an 33: 21
6. The Holy Qur'an 25: 1
7 The Holy Qur'an 48: 28
8. A1 -mu'adhdhin (muezzin) is the one who call Muslims to ritual worship (salah). The call to prayer is known as adhan.
9. See M, Abdul Rauf, Bilal ibn Rabah (A Leading
Companion__of the Prophet Muhammad (American Trustee
Publications, 1977) Pp. 49 - 50.
10. See M. Rodison, Mohammed, translated by Anne Carter
(Penguin Books, 1971) p. 101.
11. For details, see M, Abdul-Rauf, op.cit, Pp. 16-23.
12. See P.K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 10th Edition
(London, Macmillan, 1970) P. 114. See also M.W. Watt,
Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1961 Pp. 119
- 122,
13. Watt, op.cit. , P. 110.
14. M. Abdul-Rauf, op.cit. pp. 29-31.
15. C/F. Holy Qur'an 111.
16. See Muhammad Rida, Muhammadun Rasul-Allah, 4th
Edition, (Cairo, Dar Ihya' al-Kutub alp Arabiyyah, pp. 112-4.
17. Ibid, pp. 125-6.
18. Ibid, pp. 181 - 3; 212-5, and 230-40.
19. Ibid, pp. 276-8.
20. c/f. The Holy Qur'an 9: 32.
21. The Holy Qur'an 2: 124-30; 3: 96-7; 14: 35-41 and
22: 26-33.
22. The Holy Qur'an 93: 4. In this verse, the prophecy the ultimate victory of the Prophet and the success of mission is given.
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RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY .
The prediction was made in the early period of his prophetic career when success was far from sight.
23. The Holy Qur'an 110: 1-3.
24. For a more comprehensive history of Muhammad, Seej M.W.
Watt, Muhammad Prophet and Statesman (Londoj Oxford
University Press, 1961); (b) M. Rodison, opj
(c) M. Kida, op .c
H_.; (cl) Muhammad Zaki Baydun,
Mawkib an-Nur fi Si rat ar--Rasi;.l (Beirut, Dar al~kitab al-'Arabi,
1970); (e) "Muhammad Al - Khadari Bayk, NTir_al - Yagin fi
Sirati Sayyld _ a.l-_Mxirs_alin (Kano, A.A. Abu al-Su'ud and
'UthmarT at""-- Tayyib, n.d.); (f) Muhammad 'Atiyyah al-
Abrashi, 'Azamatar-Rasul (Cairo, 'Isa at - Babi al - Halabi &
Co., 1971); (g) Muhammad 'Izzah Duruzah, Sirat ar Rasul,
Vols I and II, (Cairo, Dar Ihya 1 Al-kutub al-'Arabiyyah, 1965)
(h) Francesco Gabrieli, Muhamrnad abnd the Conquests . of
Islam, translated from the Italian by V. Luling and R. Linell
(London, World University Library, 1968); (i) Abdul-Malik ibn
Hisham, As-Sirat an -_Nabawiyya., Vols I and II, (Cairo,
1914); (j) Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Hayatu Muharr>mad,
9th Edition, (Cairo, Maktaba an - Nahdat al - Misriyyah 1965), e.t.c.
25 P.K. Hitti, Op. cit. , Pp. 3 - 13.
26. C.L. Barber, The Story of Language, London (The
English Language Book Society & Pan Books Limited,
1964). See the diagram on P. 71.
27 A.K. Irvine, "Habashat 11 in The_ Encyclopedia of Islam
New Edition Vol. Ill edited by B. Lewis et al. (Leiden, E.J.
Brill, 1971), 'p 10
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid. See also A.A. Galw/ash, The Religion of Islam,
Vol. I. (n. d.) pp. 19-22.
30. The Holy Qur'an 105. See some comments in A.Y.
Ali, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary,
(Beirut, Dar al - 'Arabiyyah, 1968) pp. 1791 - 2.
31. A.K. Irvin, op. cit., P. 10. See The Holy Qur'an
106 where such commercial trips to foreign lands during winter and summer are alluded to as God's grace.
95

RELIGION, PEACE
AND UNITY .
32. See M.Z. Baydun, op. cit, p. 81. See also M. Rida, op. cit pp. 97 - 8.
33 M.Z. Baydun op.cit. , p. 82.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid, p. 85. See also M.O.A. Abdul, The Historical
Origins of Islam, (Lagos, Islamic Publications Bureau, 1973). p. 28.
37. M.Z. Baydun, op.cit. pp. 86 - 7.
38. M.W. Watt, op.cit, p. 185 -6.
39. M. Rida, op.cit, p. 272.
40. Ibid, p. 274.
41. See Z.I. Oseni, "Muhammad The Prophet's Model of
Nation - Building", Department of Religions' Seminar Paper,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, 21st May, 1981, mimeographed, pp.
10-11.
42. -W.M. Watt, op. cit., pp. 185 - 6.
43. M. Rida, op.cit. pp. 88-9.- See also M.A. El-Dessuky and I.A.B. Balogun, A Brief History erf the_Life of the
Prophet Muhammad and the Growth of Islam, (Lagos, Islamic
Publications Bureau, 1976) p. 14.
44. Muhammad al - Khadari Bayk, op cit, p. 199.
45. Ibid.
46. M. Rida, op.cit, p. 277.
47. Ibid, p. 272.
48. Ibid, p. 273.
49. Ibid, p. 273 - 4.
50. Ibid, p. 269. The words in quotes are from the Holy
Qur'an 3
51. M. al-Khadari Bayk, op.cit, p. 198.
52. M. Rida, op.cit, pp. 267-8.
53.. See. P.K. Hitti; op.cit, pp. 155 - 9.
96