WRITING SKILLS
A COURSE FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL
PURPOSES
EVANGELIA KOUTSOYANNI
ATHENS 2008
1
CONTENTS
PART I: THE WRITING PROCESS
1 THE STAGES OF WRITING
Prewriting
6
Drafting and Revising
12
Developing Introductory and Concluding Paragraphs 14
2 STRUCTURING TEXTS
The General-to-Specific Pattern
Topic Sentences
19
21
3 PARAGRAPH UNITY
Supporting Ideas
26
Primary and Secondary Supports 30
4 METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Definition
34
Example
37
Causal Analysis
38
Process Analysis 41
Comparison and Contrast 44
Classification 47
5 COHERENCE
Order
52
Transitional Devices
Reference
55
58
2
PART II: SPECIAL WRITING TASKS
1
WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
Planning a Research Paper
61
Citing and Documenting Sources
Developing a Research Paper
2
62
64
WRITING LOGICAL ARGUMENTS
The Logic of Argument
68
Structuring an Argumentative Essay
3
WRITING A SUMMARY OR ABSTRACT
Reasons for Summarizing
Types of Summaries
Writing an Abstract
4
5
68
71
71
76
WRITING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
Analyzing Essay Titles
78
Writing a Lab Report
79
WRITING IN THE WORKPLACE
The Letter of Complaint
83
The Letter of Application
85
The letter of Inquiry
Memoranda
90
93
WORKS CITED
94
3
THE WRITING PROCESS
Prewriting Techniques
Drafting and revising
Developing Introductory and Concluding Paragraphs
4
1
1 THE STAGES OF WRITING
For any writing assignment, no matter how small, we do not write automatically but we follow
certain steps that allow us to produce an effective piece of writing. The main stages are:
 Prewriting
 Drafting
 Revising
Each of these stages involve a number of smaller steps:
 Prewriting
Finding a topic
Planning your approach
Considering the audience
Formulating a thesis statement
Choosing supporting evidence
 Drafting
Develop introductory/conclusion paragraphs
Develop body paragraphs
 Revising
Revise ideas
Revise organization and structure
Revise sentences and words
Punctuation and mechanics
PREWRITING
Finding a Topic
The subjects of some papers you write during your studies will be assigned. In other cases you
may be free to select your own subject. Sometimes you will know immediately what you want to
write about. But more often writers find their topics by a slow, uneven process. Once you
recognize that you have been given a subject area rather than a topic, you can work toward
possible topics by dividing and subdividing the subject area.
If all you have to go on is the vast subject area “Education”, for example, you can start by
noting as many categories of education as you can. It may help to think of the categories as
sets of opposites:
Education:
private/public
lower/ higher
vocational/ academic
Which of these categories do you feel most comfortable with? Write it down and run through
the categorizing operation again:
Higher education:
undergraduate/graduate
science/humanities/ engineering
privately supported/ state supported
5
Now study each item in your second list and ask what issues or questions it raises in your
mind. One of them should prove to be an acceptable topic. Thus, if you are looking at state
supported education, you might ask these questions:
1. How much influence does the government exercise on admission policies?
2. Do professors in a state institution enjoy greater academic freedom than those in a
private one?
3. Are the degrees obtained in a private institution recognized? Do they provide the
same professional rights?
Some prewriting techniques
Once you are sure you have arrived at a topic be sure it can pass the following tests:
-
Is it likely to sustain my interest?
Is it appropriate to my intended audience?
Can it lead to a reasonable thesis?
Does it involve enough complexity- enough “parts” – for development at essay lengths?
Do I have enough supporting materials to work with?
If you cannot answer all of these questions positively consider the following techniques:



Good writing flows from knowledge. Reading around and about your topic broadens
your understanding and will give you facts you can draw on later.
To stimulate ideas, writers frequently ask themselves questions about a subject. One
way to organize questions is to think of the five Ws of journalism. In writing a news
story , reporters are taught to ask , and answer , who, what, where, when, and why.
Freewriting and brainstorming can lead to preliminary ideas for an essay. Sit down and
write anything that comes into your head about the subject. Write without trying to
control the direction or the organization of your prose. Don’t worry about spelling,
grammar, or punctuation. Just write.
Task 1
Review your reading assignments over several days, looking for ideas and opinions that
arouse your curiosity or provoke a strong reaction. List five ideas that you might use as writing
topics.
1. ____________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________
6
Task 2
Working by yourself or with a group, brainstorm for ten minutes on one of the following subjects
or on a subject of your choice.
 Work
 Automation
 Advertising
 Politics
Planning Your Approach
How will you present your topic to your reader? Writers use four established modes of writing
and speaking: description, narration, exposition, and argument.
- Description tells how something looks or sounds or tastes, or feels.
- Narration tells a story, usually in chronological sequence.
- Exposition explains.
- Argument usually maintains a point of view against some opposition.
Most writing involves combinations of these modes. You rarely find an exposition that does not
include the other two. Much writing in tertiary education is expository because papers usually
explain texts, statistics, events, or observations. The line between an expository paper and an
argumentative paper may be thin. You may explain your interpretation of a short story, for
example, to prove that someone else’s interpretation is incorrect. Then your exposition
becomes an argument.
Task 3
What mode(s) of writing do the following topics require?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The most interesting person I have ever met.
A key moment in my childhood.
The aims of education
How cellular telephony works.
Conventional medicine has little to learn from alternative medicine.
Write an account of an unusual journey that was spoiled by a travelling companion.
The best international language would be an artificial one.
In what ways is your national character reflected by the sports and pastimes that are
popular in your country?
9. The West should put more pressure on developing countries to stop damaging the
global environment.
10. Computer networks.
7
Considering the Audience
For all types of assignment, you will need to consider the discourse community – people who
share certain interests, knowledge , and expectations and who also share some customary
ways of communicating with each other. When considering audience , we think of the
characteristics of the people we hope to communicate with through our essay (not of the
teacher or examiner!). Imagine you are writing your essay for a real life situation. What is the
age of your audience? Their interests? Their educational, professional background? How much
do they already know about the topic? Do they have any prejudices concerning the topic?
Understanding the profile of your audience affects the type of supports you use in your paper,
the level of formality of the paper, the style and diction.
-
Notice the differences in these two paragraphs because of the different audience and
purpose.
A. Welcome to English 103, Writing for Business and Industry. My goal in this class is to help
you become a better writer of letters, memos, and reports – the kinds of writing you will be
doing on the job. Whether you plan to work in business, industry, government, or in another
profession, you will probably be asked to write, and the better you can do so, the better your
chances of getting the job done, avoiding problems, and advancing in you r career.
B. English 103 is entitled Writing for Business and Industry. The primary objective of the course
is to improve the student’s ability to write correspondence, interoffice memoranda, and
technical and professional reports. Obviously, professional in business, industry, and
government benefit if they have skill in written communication. The ability to write means
greater productivity on the job and gives the individual greater opportunities for career
advancement.
Task 4
The following passages serve essentially the same purpose: each is an opening paragraph of a
book introducing CP/M, an operating system used in many home computers. The writer of the
first passage, however, makes different assumptions about his audience than does the writer of
the second passage. In the space provided, describe each writer’s intended audience; then list
features of the passage that indicate the kind of audience the writer had in mind. Consider the
type of information included , the vocabulary, the organisation , the sentence structure , and so
on.
1. The purpose of this chapter is to teach you how to perform basic operations
on your computer system using CP/M. No prior knowledge of computers is
required. You will first learn the vocabulary and the definitions related to the
computer’s operation. You will then learn how to turn the computer on, insert
your System Diskette, and bring CP/M up. You will learn about files; how to
create them, give them names, and make copies of a file or a complete
diskette. You will learn to use the keyboard as well as the screen and the
printer to manipulate, display or print the contents of a file. By the end of this
chapter, you will have learnt how to use all of the most important CP/M
commands.
8
Audience:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Features:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. CP/M is a monitor control program for microcomputer system development which uses IBMcompatible flexible disks for backup storage. Using a computer mainframe based upon Intel’s
8080 microcomputer, CP/M provides a general environment for program construction, storage,
and editing, along with assembly and program check-out facilities. An important feature of
CP/M is that it can be easily altered to execute with any computer configuration which uses an
Intel 8080 Central processing Unit, and has at least 16K bytes of main memory with up to four
IBM-compatible disk drives. A detailed discussion of the modifications required for any
particular hardware environment is given in the Digital Research document entitled “CP/M
System Alteration Guide.’ Although the standard Digital Research version operates on a
single-density Intel MDS 800, several different hardware manufacturers support their own
input-output drivers for CP/M.
Audience:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Features:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Formulating a Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is a sentence which tells your readers what the topic and focus (controlling
idea) of the essay are. It is like a contract between writer and audience. Your audience expects
you to develop the idea expressed in the thesis. The paper should discuss not only on the topic
but also the specific aspect of the topic as defined by the focus.
A thesis that quickly proves unworkable may suffer from too broad a scope. Remember that
you have only a short essay in which to develop your idea successfully. Instead of discarding a
thesis that seems to lead nowhere, try recasting it into narrower terms, replacing vague general
concepts with more definite ones.
TOPIC: A “star wars” missile defense system.
THESIS TOO BROAD: We need to invest in a “star wars” missile defense system.
9
THESIS IMPROVED: Although extremely costly, a “star wars” missile defense system may be
our only safeguard against nuclear war. (Considerations of cost and
safeguarding our future are both expressed in the thesis).
Choosing Supporting Evidence
Generalizations are boring. Assertions are convincing. When you make them, you must give
evidence to back them up. If your instructor writes “Be specific” in a margin of a paper, he/she
is probably asking to give some details to support the generalization you have made. If you say
“Using a computer has made writing easier for me,” you have not explained anything. But if you
say this, you are using details to support your generalization:
My computer has made writing easier for me because it has reduced the physical strain of writing. I can insert and
delete without having to type the whole assignment over again. I can revise on the screen , and I can correct my
errors. The computer also has a spell checker so that I can avoid misspellings. Moreover, I can keep copies of all
the versions of my work.
Kinds of Evidence
There are several kinds of evidence you can use to support your generalizations and
assertions:
-personal observation and experience
-quotations, paraphrases, descriptions from books, periodicals, the Internet, films, or interviews
-statistics and cases
Arranging Information
Different topics and different purposes call for different kinds of organization. Here are some
common principles of organization:

A chronological arrangement relates events as they happened in time. Accounts of
personal experience , overviews of historical events, and processes are often arranged
chronologically.
 A spatial arrangement presents ideas in the order of their physical relationship to one
another. A description of an electronic system is organized according to spatial order.
 An arrangement by order of importance assigns a hierarchy to ideas. An argument for
the adoption of a single European currency , the euro, might present five reasons ,
moving from the trivial to the profound.
Making a rough outline
_________________________________________________________________
A rough outline should include
 thesis statement
 introduction or opening
 ideas or main points
 conclusion
___________________________________________________________________________
10
DRAFTING AND REVISING
With the benefits of your prewriting and your rough outline at hand, you can start writing. Don’t
try to make your first draft perfect. Don’t worry about spelling, or awkward constructions.
Concentrate on producing a flow of ideas . Once you have written a draft, you can correct your
errors, smooth out the rough places, and shape the whole into a pleasing design.

Consider the first draft of a paragraph and the improved version of it.
Once people have gone to the trouble of acquiring the capacity to treat everyone as
equals, they can work with others for the common good. A great example is how the
Los Angeles area handled it’s pollution problem. Everyone was aware of the smog.
But the majority of these people were willing only to complain. One group of citizens,
however, came up with a creative idea for carpooling. Providing an incentive, one
lane of freeway was set aside for cars carrying three or more people. But after a
short period of time, the commitment was abandoned. Because of the awful traffic
jams in the other lanes. It was a promising idea, but most people are made less
upset by smog so that they actually prefer it to traffic jams in freeway lanes.
When selfish private habits and the common good come into conflict, the outcome is
likely to be all too predictable. Take a recent example from Los Angeles, where
everyone’s health would be safeguarded by a significant reduction in automobile
exhausts. Acting on a suggestion of a citizen’s group, county officials tried to
promote carpooling by setting aside one lane of each freeway for cars carrying three
or more people. If it had worked, this plan would have enabled everyone to breathe
more easily. The plan had to be dropped, however, when so few people cooperated
that motorists refusing to share rides were hopelessly clogging the remaining lanes.
Los Angeles, it seems, can’t take lung congestion any more seriously than they do
traffic congestion.
11
Revising drafts
Revising ideas
 Is the thesis clear?
 Does the paper speak consistently to an audience?
 Are there enough details and facts to support your major points?
 Is the paper coherent?
Revising organization and structure
 Does the introduction capture the reader’s interest?
 Does the conclusion complete the ideas established and supported in the paper?
 Do the first and last paragraphs in the paper somehow reflect one another? Are some
words or ideas mentioned in the introduction mentioned again in the conclusion?
Revising sentences and words
 Are periods and other end marks used to set off sentences?
 Have run-on sentences been separated by end marks or combined with connecting
words and suitable punctuation?
 Have sentence fragments been connected to other sentences by adding subjects or
verbs?
 Are parallel ideas expressed in parallel forms?
 Do modifiers stand near enough to the words they describe to avoid ambiguity?
 Does each sentence state its information clearly?
 Is there variety in sentence structure?
Revising verbs and other words
 Do subjects and verbs agree?
 Are verb tenses correctly formed and consistent?
 Are pronoun references clear?
 Have all unnecessary words been eliminated?
Punctuation and mechanics
 Are punctuation marks used correctly to make meaning clear?
 Are apostrophes placed to shoe possession or contraction?
 Are quotation marks used in pairs to set off someone’s exact words?
 Is the title correctly capitalized and punctuated?
12
DEVELOPING INTRODUCTORY AND CONCLUDING PARAGRAPHS
A well-written introductory paragraph will perform several important roles:
1. It will attract the reader’s interest, encouraging him or her to go on and actually read
the essay. Using one of the methods of introduction described ahead can help draw
the reader into your paper.
2. It will supply any background information needed to understand the essay. Such
information is sometimes needed so that the reader has a context in which to
understand the ideas presented in the essay.
3. It will present a thesis statement. This clear direct statement of the main idea to be
developed in the paper usually occurs near the end of the introductory paragraph.
4. It will indicate a plan of development. In this “preview”, the major points that will
support the thesis are listed in the order in which they will be presented in the essay.
Common Methods of Introduction: Here are some common methods of introduction. Use
any one method, or combination of methods, to introduce your subject in an interesting way to
the reader.
1. Begin with a broad, general statement of your topic and narrow it down to your
thesis statement. Broad, general statements ease the reader into your thesis
statement by providing a background for it. In the example below, the writer talks
generally about diets and then narrows down to comments on a specific diet.
Bookstore shelves today are crammed with dozens of different diet books. The
American public seems willing to try any sort of diet, especially the ones that promise
instant, miraculous results. And authors are more than willing to invent new fad diets to
cash in on this craze. Unfortunately, some of these fad diets are ineffective or even
unsafe. One of the worst is the “Palm Beach diet”. It is impractical, doesn’t achieve the
results it claims, and is a sure route to poor nutrition.
2. Start with an idea or situation that is the opposite of the one you will develop.
This approach works because your readers will be surprised, and then intrigued, by the
contrast between the opening idea and the thesis that follows it.
When I decided to return to school at age thirty-five, I wasn’t at all worried about my
ability to do the work. After all, I was a grown woman who had raised a family, not a
confused teenager fresh out of high school. But when I started classes, I realized that
those “confused teenagers” sitting around me were in much better shape for college
than I was. They still had all their classroom skills in bright, shiny condition, while mine
had grown rusty from disuse I had totally forgotten how to locate information in a
library, how to write a report, and even how to speak up in class discussions.
3. Explain the importance of your topic to the reader. If you can convince your
readers that the subject in some way applies to them, or is something they should
13
know more about, they will want to keep reading.
Diseases like scarlet fever and whooping cough used to kill more young children than
any other cause. Today, however, child mortality due to disease has been almost
completely eliminated by medical science. Instead, car accidents are the number one
killer of our children. And most of the children fatally injured in car accidents were not
protected by car seats, belts, or restrains of any kind. Several steps must be taken to
remedy this serious problem.
4. Use an incident or brief story. Stories are naturally interesting. They appeal to a
reader’s curiosity. In your introduction, an anecdote will grab the reader’s attention right
away. The story should be brief and should be related to your main idea. The incident
in the story can be something that happened to you, something you have heard about,
or something you have read about in a newspaper or magazine.
Early Sunday morning the young mother dressed her little girl warmly and gave her a
candy bar, a picture book, and a well-worn stuffed rabbit. Together, they drove
downtown to a Methodist church. There the mother told the little girl to wait on the
stone steps until children began arriving for Sunday school. Then the young mother
drove off, abandoning her five-year-old because she couldn’t cope with being a parent
anymore. This incident is one of thousands of cases of child neglect and abuse that
occur annually. Perhaps the automatic right to become a parent should no longer exist.
Would-be parents, instead, should be forced to apply for licenses granting them the
privilege of raising children.
5. Ask one or more questions. But remember that questions need answers. You may
simply want the reader to think about possible answers, or you may plan to answer the
questions yourself later in the paper.
What is love? How do we know that we are really in love? When we meet that special
person, how can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And,
if they are genuine, will these feelings last? Love, as we all know, is difficult to define.
But most people agree that true and lasting love involves far more than mere physical
attraction. It involves mutual respect, the desire to give rather than take, and the feeling
of being wholly at ease.
6. Use a quotation. A quotation can be something you have read in a book or article. It
can also be something that you have heard: a popular saying or proverb (“Never give
advice to a friend”); a current or recent advertising slogan (“Reach out and touch
someone”); a favorite expression used by friends or family (“My father always says…”).
Using a quotation in your introductory paragraph lets you add someone else’s voice to
your own.
“Fish and visitors,” wrote Benjamin Franklin, “begin to smell after three days.” Last
summer, when my sister and her family came to spend their two-week vacation with
us. I became convinced that Franklin was right. After only three days, I was
thoroughly sick of my brother-in-law’s corny jokes, my sister’s endless complaints
about her boss, and their children’s constant invasions of our privacy.
14
Concluding Paragraphs
A concluding paragraph is your chance to remind the reader of your thesis idea. Also, the
conclusion brings the paper to a natural and graceful end, sometimes leaving the reader with a
final thought on the subject.
Common Methods of Conclusion: Any one of the methods below, or a combination of
methods, may be used to round off your paper.
1
End with a summary and final thought. After you have stated your thesis (“Tell them
what you’re going to tell them”) and supported it (“Tell them”), you restate the thesis
and supporting points (“Tell them what you’ve told them”). Don’t, however, use the
exact wording you used before. Here is a summary conclusion:
Catalog shopping at home, then, has several advantages. Such shopping is
convenient, saves you money, and saves you time, it is not surprising that growing
numbers of devoted catalog shoppers are welcoming those full-color mail brochures
that offer everything from turnip seeds to television.
Note that the summary is accompanied by a final comment that “rounds off” the paper
and brings the discussion to a close. This combination of a summary and a final
thought is the most common method of concluding an essay.
2
Include a thought-provoking questions or short series of questions. A question
grabs the reader’s attention. It is a direct appeal to your reader to think further about
what you have written. A question should follow logically from the points you have
already made in the paper. A question must deal with one of these areas:
a. Why the subject of your paper is important
b. What might happen in the future
c. What should be done about this subject
d. Which choice should be made
You may provide an answer to your question in the conclusion. Be sure, though, that your
question is closely related to your thesis. Here is an example:
What then, will happen in the twenty-first century when most of the population will be over sixty
years old? Retirement policies could change dramatically, with the age-sixty-five testimonial
dinner and gold watch postponed for five or ten years. Even television would change, as the
Central would sell everything from toilet paper to televisions. New soap operas and situation
comedies would reveal the secrets of the “sunset years” it will be a different world indeed when
the young finally find themselves outnumbered.
3 End with a prediction or recommendation. Like question, predictions and
recommendations also involve your readers. A prediction states what will or may happen in the
future:
If people stopped to think before acquiring pets there would be fewer instances of cruelty to
animals Many times it is the people who adopt pets without considering the expense and
responsibility involved who mistreat and neglect their animals. Pets are living creatures. They
do not deserve to be acquired as carelessly as one would acquire a stuffed toy.
15
A recommendation suggests what should be done a situation or problem:
Stereotypes such as the helpless homemaker and dotty grandparent are insulting enough to
begin with. Placed in magazine ads or television commercials, they become even more
insulting. Now these unfortunate characters are not just being laughed as they are being turned
into hucksters to sell products to an unsuspecting public. Consumers should boycott
companies whose advertising continues to use such stereotypes
16
THE WRITING PROCESS
The General- to- Specific Pattern
Topic Sentences
17
2
2 STRUCTURING TEXTS
Much of the writing you will do, in tertiary education and throughout your career , is expository.
Expository prose is writing that explains: your purpose may be to describe a process, define a
term, or discuss an idea or point of view. During your studies, you will frequently be asked to
write research papers, reports or essays. On the job, you may be required to prepare letters,
memorandums, or other written material. The writing skills you will need to accomplish such
assignments successfully include the ability to select a topic and limit it, to organize and unify
your material, to develop your topic adequately, and to connect your ideas logically. One good
way to acquire these basic writing skills is to start on the level of the paragraph, where the
demands of length do not overshadow the quality of your writing.
A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a
single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be
organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions
of an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the essay and
grasp its main points.
THE GENERAL-TO-SPECIFIC PATTERN
An organizational principle of informational writing which can be used in organizing texts which
have a wide variety of purposes is the general –specific pattern. In this unit we will study the
general-to-specific expository paragraph-the paragraph that opens with a general statement
and goes on to support that statement with appropriate examples and details.



Generalizations are very important in writing. The sentence you just read is a
generalization and exemplifies one important function of generalizations: they are very
useful in starting off a piece of writing/paragraph.
Generalizations allow the writer to introduce many points of detail in one statement (the
generalization). Some or all of these can be developed later in the text, using
structures appropriate to the task, e.g. classifying, defining.
The general-to-specific expository paragraph is usually built with levels of generality:
the general opening statement, less general supporting statements, and further details
that elaborate on the supporting statements.
Task 1
Look at the following sentences and identify:
a) the most general statement;
b) the most specific statement.
1. The results of the Edinburgh survey show that good language learners cope
effectively with the emotional and motivational problems of language learning.
2. Most surveys show that many good language learners select goals and subgoals for
themselves.
18
3. The majority of good language learners in the Edinburgh survey see language
learning as a social process.
4. In a survey of good language learners taken in Edinburgh , 52% said they found
talking to themselves to be a good way of learning how to talk in a foreign language.
5. One good learner, interviewed in the Edinburgh survey , claimed to have learnt his
English by watching television.
Task 2
Compose generalizations to cover the following sets of details.
1. Computers are good at solving numerical problems. Computers are good at tasks
requiring common sense. Computers are good at selecting information. Computers are
not good at tasks requiring imagination.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Townsend’s extensive study of poverty in the U.K. indicated that 57.2 per cent of those
in households in poverty were women. Also, only 28 per cent of female employees , as
against 62 per cent of male employees, were covered by an occupational pension
scheme.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
Task 3
Rearrange the following sentences so that the resultant text follows a general-specific pattern.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
The defeat of France in the Napoleonic wars is claimed to have been followed by a
period of rampant mysticism including a wide resurgence of interest in astrology.
George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four, an equally damning indictment of the
totalitarian possibilities contained in advanced technology, was written in the years
immediately following the Second World War.
Reactions against technology are not new.
Throughout history man has been warned that he was creating forces he would be
unable to control, that machines would eventually take over the planet and
demand the total obedience of the human race (if ,indeed, it was still allowed to
exist), that to place one’s faith in science and technology was to make a pact, like
Faust, with the devil.
Opposition to reason and rationality, frequently embracing attacks on science and
technology, has in particular been experienced by societies that have suffered a
major upheaval or catastrophe.
Oswald Spengler captured the imagination of a defeated Germany in 1920 with the
publication of his Decline of the West and his prediction that “ Faustian man will
be dragged to death by his own machine”.
19
Task 4
Choose a generalization you feel you can support from the following list, and write a paragraph
using the general-specific pattern.




All people are equal.
Education should do more than merely teach skills.
Uses of computers.
Final exams.
TOPIC SENTENCES
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series
of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place,
character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more things;
classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of
information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most
important of these is a topic sentence.
In a paragraph the sentences must work together to present a single, unified topic or idea. The
main idea of a paragraph is expressed through the topic sentence. The topic sentence tells
the reader the topic of the paragraph and the controlling idea (the point or aspect of the topic
the paragraph focuses on.)
The topic sentence has several important functions: it substantiates or supports an essay’s
thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences;
and it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it.
Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and
perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very
beginning of the paragraph.
Understanding the difference between a topic and a controlling idea, both of which are
essential to the topic sentence, is an important step towards writing successful paragraphs. A
topic alone cannot give your paragraph the needed focus and direction. For example, look at
the following items:
1
2
3
4
The Vietnam War
The Vietnam War altered the lives of a generation of Americans.
There are several important lessons to be learnt from the Vietnam War.
The Vietnam War is responsible for many changes in American foreign policy.
Item 1 is simply a topic. By itself it does not suggest any one aspect of the Vietnam War for the
writer to focus on. But item 1 can be more narrowly focused in several ways; items 2,3,4
suggest three possibilities. Item 2 can be used as a topic sentence, conveying the controlling
idea that the Vietnam War “altered the lives of a generation of Americans.” The sentence
communicates both the topic of the paragraph-“the Vietnam War”- and the focus of the
paragraph, signaled by the words altered the lives of a generation of Americans. Item 3 is also
20
suitable for use as a topic sentence. Here, the topic is stated at the end of the sentence, and
the words signaling the focus are several important lessons. In item 4 , the topic is again at the
beginning of the sentence, and the words indicating the focus are many changes in American
foreign policy . Unlike 1 , either 2, 3, or 4 can be used as a topic sentence expressing a
controlling idea, and any of the three will provide a good beginning for an expository paragraph.
Practice with topic sentences
Task 5
In each of the following sentences, identify the topic and the controlling idea the writers will
focus on.
Example: A number of study skills are necessary for success during finals.
Topic: success during final exams
Controlling idea: a number of study skills are necessary
1
2
3
4
5
Some television commercials are insulting viewers’ intelligence.
College registration can be a frustrating experience.
During the past several years, the protective ozone layer surrounding the earth has
shown definite signs of deterioration.
Technology itself has had a multi-faceted effect on the world of art.
One of the most important operations in signal processing is filtering.
Task 6
For each of the following topics, construct a good topic sentence that expresses a controlling
idea.
Example: (Catching colds) People can avoid catching a cold by taking certain precautions.
1
taking exams
2 studying abroad
3
computers
4
learning a foreign language
5
football
21
________________________________________________________________________
The following phrases , or ones similar to these, can be used in your topic sentence to express the controlling
idea.
The reasons for
The causes of (the effects of)
The steps for (the procedure for)
The advantages of (the disadvantages of)
The ways to (the method of)
The different sections(parts, kinds, types ) of
The characteristics,(traits,, qualities )of
The problems of,
the precautions for,
the changes to
Task 7
Supply topic sentences for the following paragraphs. Be certain that each topic sentence
conveys a clear controlling idea.
1 ……………………………………………………………………………………
The white pages of an American telephone book give the phone numbers of residents. The
blue pages contain the numbers of government offices, and the yellow pages have
advertisements and business numbers. There are maps as well as indexes at the back of
the book. The telephone books of larger cities may provide separate books for different
sections of the city, while those of small towns may have room to include the numbers from
several towns all in one book.
2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Quite apart from the significant increase in Social Security benefits and their protection
from erosion by inflation, the Supplemental Security Income in effect guarantees them a
minimum income; National Health Insurance is provided through Medicare; and special tax
privileges protect their assets in retirement. They even receive discounts on bus and movie
tickets, and much more. All of these entitlements are available to the elderly regardless of
need.
HENRY FAIRLIE, “Talkin’bout My Generation”
22
3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Should it be , for example, more vocational and less academic, should there be a basic
core of subjects and fewer choices, should work experience be compulsory and, in a
different direction, should every effort be made to preserve the teaching of the arts as a
unique area of educational experience? At present both unemployment, an immediate
concern, and the microprocessor, a fundamental technological change, are cited as
justification for a more vocationally oriented curriculum and for the compulsory teaching of
computer studies and information technology.
PH. TAYLOR & C.RICHARDS “Curriculum Studies”
4 ..............................................................................................................................................
Some computers can perform tedious bookkeeping tasks that most families never seem to
have time to do properly. They can balance checkbooks in seconds, endearing themselves
immediately to those of us who are always overdrawing our accounts. They can easily
keep track of family budgets and aid in the filling out of income tax forms. In addition, home
computers can provide entertainment for the whole family . There are many other
applications for home computers as well. Computers can be programmed to control
heating systems , to function as security systems, or to act as efficient memo pads for
important messages and games.
Task 8
a Consider each of the following sentences as possible topic sentences. Rewrite any
sentences which you consider too specific or too vague.
b Write a paragraph for one of the following topic sentences.
1. Even though the procedures followed to enroll in an American university vary
according to each university, some steps are the same.
2. Communication is a crucial part of every relationship.
3. Digital signal processing.
4. Because of the low salaries, many ministry appointed teachers are obliged to take
private classes to supplement their income.
5. In 1948 increased understanding of the physics of solids led to the invention of the
transistor by Shockey, Brattain and Bardeen, that was to have an impact out of all
proportion to its size.
6. World War II affected many people.
23
THE WRITING PROCESS
Supporting Ideas
Primary and Secondary Support
24
3
3 PARAGRAPH UNITY
SUPPORTING IDEAS
The best way to achieve unity in your paragraph is through careful planning.



The first step in the planning process is to select a topic and a controlling idea and to
write a topic sentence in which they are expressed.
The next step in the planning process is to select those ideas which will best serve as
supports for the controlling idea. Primary support sentences directly support the
controlling idea and can be further developed by other details that you have
listed.(secondary supports).
The types of support most frequently used are descriptive, details, facts, reasons, and
examples.
To understand the importance of unity, examine the following paragraph , which is not unified.
(1)Pilots are the primary cause of many aircraft accidents. (2) Ignoring their responsibilities, many pilots fail to
perform their duties efficiently, and tragedy has too often been the needless result. (3) History records that
many fatal accidents have occurred, for example, because pilots failed to listen to the advice of air traffic
controllers who were in a position to warn them about impending disasters. (4) To become an air traffic
controller, one must be extremely intelligent. (5) Sometimes pilots are overtired, and they neglect to take the
precautions necessary to avoid accidents. (6) They may even be taking drugs which slow down their physical
reactions. (7) As we all know, statistics have proved that the number of college students who abuse drugs is
increasing at an alarming rate, and few of these students realize that if they continue to use drugs they will
never be able to enter a career in aviation. (8) Sometimes accidents occur through a malfunction in the
planet’s equipment. (9) A door may open during flight, or a tire may blow out as the plane takes off. (10)
Pilots, of course, aren’t responsible for accidents such as these. (11) Perhaps most startling is the fact that
every year one or two air traffic accidents are caused by student pilots who attempt journeys beyond their
capabilities and end up producing catastrophes which destroy life and property. (12) Because they don’t
employ student pilots, commercial airlines are the safest form of air transportation. (13) The next time you
take a commercial flight, you should be sure to ask yourself the following questions: Does the pilot look happy
and healthy? What are the weather conditions outside? Do there seem to be any cracks in the wings or tail of
the plane?
You probably had difficulty following the writer’s reasoning in this paragraph. While all of the
sentences in the paragraph relate at least in some way to the topic, “aircraft accidents” , the
paragraph is not unified because not every sentence supports the controlling idea that “pilots
are the primary cause of many aircraft accidents.” If we look at each of the sentences
individually, we find that the following sentences do not belong because they do not lend
support to the controlling idea: (4), (7), (8), (9), (10), (12), (13)
Practice with supporting ideas.
Task 1
Look at the following outlines. Circle the letter of the idea that does not support the topic.
25
1 Reasons for car accidents
A fast driving
B drinking and driving
C not following traffic regulations
D giving signals
2 Advantages of optical fibers
A Great data carrying capacity
B difficulty in repairing it
C great transmission speed
D small signal attenuation
3 Steps for planning a trip
A purchasing a map
B working late
C making an itinerary
D reserving a ticket
4 The main functions of a manager
A planning
B organizing
C working overtime
D controlling
Task 2
Read these paragraphs and cross out the ides that does not support the topic sentence.
1. Working at a part time job while studying at a university has many advantages. If
students can get a job in their area of study, they are gaining valuable experience and
putting their knowledge to use immediately. The extra money they can earn will be
useful for meeting tuition fees and enjoying university activities. Also, they will have the
26
personal satisfaction of having contributed to their own education. Students who need
extra money can hold down a full-time temporary job during their summer vacation.
2. There are several features of spoken English that make it difficult for me to understand.
First, many words are not pronounced as they are spelled, so when I learn new words
through reading, I sometimes don’t understand them when they are spoken. Second,
native speakers contract words and phrases. “What are you doing?” becomes
“Whacha doin’?” In my opinion, people should write clearly. Third, native speakers
have a wide range of accents. A British accent is very different from a Texas one.
Fourth, there are lots of idioms and slag expressions. These expressions also differ
depending on the area a speaker is from. Finally, there are sounds that don’t exe exist
in my language. These sounds are difficult to understand.
3. A satellite is an artificial body that is projected to orbit either the earth or another body
of the solar system. There are two main classes: information satellites transmit signals
containing many different types of information to earth. Typical uses include the
provision of atmospheric and meteorological data, infrared, ultraviolet, gamma and Xray studies of celestial objects, surveys of the earth’s shape, surface and resources,
and as navigational aids. The most popular frequency band for satellite
communications is 6Ghz for the uplink and 4GHz for the downlink. Communication
satellites receive radiofrequency signals from earth by means of highly directional
aerials and return them to another earth location for purposes of long-distance
telephony and broadcasting.
Task 3
Read each of the following paragraphs. Specify the controlling idea and then examine the
paragraph for unity. Identify any sentence that does not support the main idea of the
paragraph.
1. I had always assumed that when I finished my degree in computer information
systems, I would get a job and do exactly what I had been trained to do – write
programs. I discovered , however, that this was a false assumption. During my junior
year I took a computer course in which the professor told the class that writing is often
an essential part of a programmer’s job. Programmers, he explained, must keep logs,
fill out reports, and carefully document the programs they write. In fact, documentation
is an essential part of the job because it enables an employer or co-worker to
understand what the programmer has done. Most computer majors have little time for
electives because their degree programs require so many courses in computer
science. When they do take electives, technical subjects usually win over subjects like
English.
27
2. A meteorite is a meteor that reaches Earth without burning up. Approximately 500
meteorites reach earth every year, but only about five or six of these are actually seen
as they fall through the air. Meteorites can bury themselves 10 feet deep or more with
the force of impact. . If a meteorite were found with a fossil inside , it would mean
there was life somewhere else in the universe .
3. A new hearing device is now available for some hearing-impaired people. This device
uses a magnet to hold the detachable sound-processing portion in place. Like other
aids, it converts sound into vibrations.. But it is unique in that it can transmit the
vibrations directly to the magnet, and then to the inner ear. This produces a clearer
sound. Our eyes and ears may be called transformers since they sense the light and
sound around us and turn them into electrical impulses that the brain can interpret. The
new device will not help all hearing-impaired people, only those with a hearing loss
caused by infection or some other problem in the middle ear. It will probably help no
more than 20 percent of all people with hearing problems. Those people , however,
who have persistent ear infections should find relief and restored hearing with the new
device.
4. Surrealism was a movement in graphic art and literature that was founded in Paris, in
1924, by Andre Breton. Inspired by another movement in art called Dadaism, the
Surrealist movement has been one of the most influential art movements in the 20 th
century. It eventually had a worldwide audience, flourishing notably in the United
States during World War II. As with other areas of society, fine arts was not immune
from the sweeping technological advances that begun in the early 30s.Surrealism
focused on the role of the unconscious in the creative process. In nihilistic protest, it
rejected all aspects of Western culture. Surrealist writers, such as Aragon and Soupalt
, believed in directly transcribing onto paper anything their unconscious mind wished
them to. They never altered or revised what they wrote because they would have
interfered with the purity of their creation. Surrealist painters, a group that included
such famous names as Mirό, Dali, and Ernst, displayed a wide variety of style and
content. Though Breton was the founder of this movement, his strong leadership style
brought about dissent, which resulted in several of the painters breaking away from the
movement.
28
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUPPORTS
Primary supports , particularly those that develop unfamiliar or complex controlling ideas, often
require additional information or illustration if the reader is to understand or accept them. To
supply this additional information requires additional sentences, called secondary supports.
Instead of reinforcing the controlling idea directly, secondary supports reinforce a point or
points made in a primary support by adding information or detail which helps explain a primary
support. They indirectly support the paragraph’s controlling idea.
Example of paragraph structure
Topic sentence: Different kinds of insurance offer different kinds of protection.
Primary support1: Life insurance provides financial assistance to the family of the
insured in the event of his or her death.
Secondary support 1a: The insured can provide for a sum to be paid to dependents
in case of death.
Secondary support 1b: He or she can also plan to arrange an annuity for offspring.
Primary support 2:
Health insurance is designed to pay medical bills if the insured
becomes ill enough to require treatment.
Secondary support 2a: Standard medical insurance covers most of a family’s
hospital bills.
Secondary support 2b: Additional medical plans can provide further coverage.
Primary support 3:
Disability insurance supplements or pays in full the salary of the
insured if he or she becomes disabled or ill and cannot work.
Secondary support 3a: Disability insurance usually pays the worker injured on the
job a percentage of his income.
Secondary support 3b: But there are types of disability that pay the injured his full
income.
Task 4
Write one or two sentence that adds support to each of the following ideas. Use facts,
examples,, or descriptions.
1. Job applicants should appear cheerful, relaxed, and cooperative.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The public telephone system is also used for electronic data transmission.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
29
3. As a medium, technology may be considered an extension of ,say, watercolours or
clay.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. The courses provide both theoretical and practical information.
.................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
Task 5
Rewrite the following “weak” paragraphs by answering the questions and using those answers
within the paragraph.
1. Consumers are constantly being induced to spend their money. Billboards and
magazine ads bombard us with slogans which promise happiness and fulfillment if we
buy this or that product. Certain techniques are employed to entice us to buy products
and services which we often don’t really need.
A Can you give some examples?
B What are some of the techniques used in order to persuade consumers to buy new
products ?
2. Studying in another country is advantageous in many ways. A student is exposed to a
new culture. Sometimes he or she can learn a new language. Students can often
have learning experience not available in their own countries. A student may get the
opportunity to study at a university where a leading expert in his or her field may be
teaching.
A How can exposure to a new culture be an advantage?
B How can learning a new language be an advantage?
C What kinds of experience night a student have?
D What are the benefits of studying under a leading expert?
30
Task 6
Write two paragraphs on two of the following topics. Use whatever arrangement of
primary and secondary supports you feel most effectively supports your controlling
idea.




Education
Advertising
Media
Technology
31
THE WRITING PROCESS
Definition
Example
Causal Analysis
Process Analysis
Comparison and Contrast
Classification
32
4
4 METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
There are a number of ways to develop your controlling idea so that your reader can
understand it. The reason the following methods of development have been so widely used is
that they communicate ideas effectively. And they communicate effectively because they
represent ways in which our minds naturally work when we wish to provide information and
support our views. When we state that something is true, we are likely to give examples to
explain what we assert. Or we might want to show why something came about or what its
effects will be. And we often need to explain how something works or to make a point clear. In
other words, you would use these methods even if you didn’t study them because they
represent thought processes that come naturally to all of us.
DEFINITION
A writer employs definition as a method of development to thoroughly explain the meaning of a
word, term, or concept for the reader.
Here are some examples of writes defining terms for the reader.

In writing a paper on noise pollution, the writer needs to define the technical term
“perceived noise decibels” (PNdb)
....... aircraft noise is measured in PNdb –a unit which measures all the different
sounds that make up a noise, ang gives most importance to those that people
actually find most annoying when they hear them.

Some words have different meanings in different special subjects, or have different
meanings in different areas of one subject. In this example, the fairly common word
“interaction’ is defined by the writer to make sure that both he and his readers are
talking and thinking about the same thing.
It will be convenient to end this introduction
with some definitions that are implied in what
has gone before and required for what is to follow. For the purpose of this report, interaction
(that is, face to face interaction) may be roughly defined as the reciprocal influence of
individuals upon one another’s actions when in one another’s immediate physical presence.
Definition structure
concept
class
form
……….. is a species of
device
special features
………… which
………………………
e. g. Copper is a substance which is easily shaped, and allows heat and electricity to pass
through it . (Formal definition structure)
33
Another definition structure has the same parts but in a different order:
class
special features
who
………….. which
concept
called
…………………… is known as ……………..
e.g. A person who studies living organisms is called a biologist.

We have seen that to define something we need to name it, classify it, and state its
most important characteristics. Because definitions are used to explain words we need,
they are almost always part of a text and not a whole text. We find definitions inside
more serious writing, usually when something is being introduced for the first time.
Task 1
a
Read the text and find the definitions in it.
The type of electricity that discharges from a solid material after it
has been rubbed with another material is known as static electricity.
One of the most common methods of demonstrating static electricity
is by simply combing your hair. After it has passed through dry hair ,
a comb acquires the ability to attract small pieces of paper and
similar objects to its surface. Two types of charge exist: no electrical
phenomena are known that suggest the existence of more than
these two types. Benjamin Franklin is responsible for the convention
that an electrical charge is negative when it has been generated by
rubber rubbed with fur, while the charge is positive when it has been
generated from glass rubbed with silk. A charge generated in any
other fashion can then be compared to these two results.
The force of attraction, or the force of repulsion, of one type of
charge for another is called an electrostatic or coulombic force.
Charles Coulomb first reported the results of such observations as a
statement that has become known as Coulomb’s law: Like charges
repel , unlike charges attract.
b
Rewrite Coulomb’s law as formal definition.
c
Write formal definitions of:
static electricity
positive charge
electrostatic force
34
Expanded definitions
It is often necessary to expand the defining description of a concept by adding extra information
to the definition. This can be done by using brackets or dashes.
A prehistoric animal (a brontosaurus, a mammoth, etc. ) is an animal which lived in a
time before recorded history.
A definition can also be expanded by giving an example of the use of the object or idea being
defined. When you expand a definition by giving an example, you can use the following pattern:
definition
marker
Therefore,
………………………………… Consequently, it is used…….
As a result,
one of its main uses is ………
e.g. Aluminum is a metal which is light in weight. Consequently, it is used in the
manufacture of aircraft.
Task 2
Expand the following definitions by giving an example showing how the item being defined is
used.
1 Glass is a substance which has the property of being transparent.
2 Stainless steel is an alloy which is resistant to corrosion.
3 A thermometer is a device for measuring temperature.
Task 3
Use the notes, and other information if you wish, to write expanded definitions of each of the
items in italics , using relative clause structure.
1
2
3
caffeine- substance-additive-powerful effect on the heart- found in coffee.
substance-not animal or plant-naturally occurring- includes ores, petroleum, natural
gas and coal- often obtained by mining- mineral
spacecraft-vehicle-rocket engine-for traveling in space-capable of carrying astronauts
and missiles –also known as spaceship
Task 4
Study the expanded definition of “civilization” below.
Civilization has received many definitions, but is often associated with cities. The
words civil, and civilized come from the Latin civis (citizen) and relate to obligations
of people in a civitas (city-state). Civilization implies complex government. Also a
civilization develops arts of some maturity and creates some form of writing.
Now write your own expanded definition of one of the following:
 economics
 science
 fine arts
35
EXAMPLE
Example is probably the simplest method of development. When you develop a paragraph by
giving examples, keep three important guidelines in mind:
 Be sure that your examples are appropriate. The examples should directly support the
controlling idea.
 Be sure that your examples are specific. Don’t generalize. Your examples should be
concrete and clear.
 Use enough examples to convince your reader.
In the following paragraph, the writer has developed a controlling idea – financial assistance to
students- by giving examples of financial assistance programs, and ways in which these
programs can be useful in financing a postsecondary education.
College students who need financial assistance with their education often
have more options available to them than they realize. For example, many
federally and state funded programs, such as Perkins Loans and Staffors
Loans, are available to students who qualify for them. Both undergraduate
and graduate students are eligible for a Perkins loan, which pay as much as
$10.000 a year toward student’s educational expenses. Formerly known as
Guaranteed Student Loans, the Stafford loan can pay as much as $8.000
each year toward tuition, room , and board. Many students also can qualify for
the College Work Study Program. This program provides a pert-time job,
usually on campus, for students willing to work up to twenty hours per week.
All work-study students receive at least minimum wage. Some jobs pay even
more. Among still other options of financial assistance that students often
overlook are scholarship programs provided by private corporations and
institutions. Many companies that employ high school students offer
competitive scholarships for their workers.
Task 5
Read the following paragraph carefully. Note down each sentence that begins a new example.
State whether or not each example is appropriate and specific.
Watching different students handle the same type of pressure- the pressure of
taking a final exam in English composition- provides a fascinating study of
human behavior. One student stares vacantly at the blackboard, hoping and
praying that an ides will suddenly pop into his mind. After a short while, an
idea does form; the student jots down the idea, and after a couple of minor
revisions he finishes the paper. Another student gets to work on her paper,
writes half a page, then decides to change the subject. She starts all over
again. Perhaps the pressure of taking an exam so unnerves her that she is
unable to stay on one subject and finish the paper. Still another student,
whose former school experience has not included theme writing, looks
desperately around the room and, upon seeing everyone else concentrating,
tries to concentrate himself. But he begins to sweat and is immobilized for a
minute or so. Finally, he realizes that he has only twenty minutes left in which
to perform, and in desperation he begins to write down a few disconnected
sentences. Still another student, one in the front of the room, writes feverishly,
reads the results nervously, then crushes the paper into a ball and starts all
36
over. One particular sly student, though, decides that the best way to write the
paper is to rattle on about some trivial subject and pretend that he is turning
out a good paper. He finds that reporting on the effects of pressure on his
fellow students reduces tension and keeps him from becoming a victim of that
pressure himself.
Task 6
Write a paragraph on one of the following topic sentences.






Developments in computer technology have created many new job opportunities.
Taking an exam requires specific preparation.
Advertising companies often use controversial methods to promote a product.
Problems of your university campus
Most television commercials are an insult to human intelligence
Many career opportunities are open to the graduates of electronics.
CAUSAL ANALYSIS
The attempt to analyze cause and effect is at the heart of all scientific disciplines. It is also a
central concern of our daily lives. We see effects all he time; causes are harder to identify. The
effects of drought in Africa are easy to see , but experts do not agree about the cause. Cause
and effect is a linear relationship; in real life causes always precede effects, as the following
example shows.
Cassava is the staple food of millions of people in Africa, Asia , and Central America. But
recent findings suggest that cassava may be responsible for a number of serious problems.
The tubers consist almost entirely of starch and are particularly low in protein, so enforced
reliance on cassava leads to serious malnutrition. To make matters worse, some varieties,
when grown under certain conditions of soil and climate, develop a high prussic acid content
and become extremely poisonous to people and livestock if eaten raw. These tubers have to be
laboriously prepared for consumption by prolonged and repeated boiling. Doctors have begun
to suspect that cassava, if eaten in large amounts during pregnancy, may cause deformities in
the developing fetus; there appears to be a correlation between the cassava intake of pregnant
women and the occurrence of various kinds of brain or other neuronal malformations in their
babies
New Scientist
Cause
Effect
Cassava eaten in large amounts during pregnancy
Enforced reliance on cassava
Cassava grown under certain conditions
37
birth defect?
malnutrition
people and livestock poisoned
Task 7
Make a note of four expressions used by the writer to show a causal relationship.

In English, either the cause or the effect can be placed first in the sentence:
Cause
Effect
Enforced reliance on cassava causes malnutrition
lead to
results in
is the cause of
We can also put the effect first:
Effect
Cause
Malnutrition is caused by enforced reliance on cassava.
results from
is the effect of
is due to

Causes are difficult to pin down with any degree of certainty. The following table gives
some guidelines on the language available for writers to state degree of certainty or
degree of commitment.
Degree of certainty
Verbs
Adverbs
complete
is(not)
certainly
definitely
clearly
undoubtedly
actually
will (not)
must (not)
partial
can/cannot
could (not)
should (not)
might/ may(not)
impersonal (no commitment
of self)
It is said that ……..
X reports that……………..
There is evidence to suggest that ……….
38
probably
is likely/unlikely
presumably
possibly
Task 8
Decide on an order for the sentences below, starting with the one which shows the most
commitment to the statement and ending with the one which shows the least commitment.
A The earth is probably round.
B The earth is possibly round.
C The earth is round.
D Perhaps the earth is round.
E The earth undoubtedly is round.
F It is said the earth is round.
Task 9
The following text explains some ways in which fires in operating theatres can be avoided.
Read the text and a) underline the expressions which show cause-effect relationships. Clearly
label each cause ( C ) and effect (E), b) indicate the degree of certainty which the writer gives
to these relationships.
Industrial and Medical Hazards of Static Electricity
Although static electricity is of practical importance nowadays in only a few specialized
applications, it can produce hazards in industry and in hospitals. If the charge built up to any
great proportions, it would spark over to an uncharged conductor, and might set alight
flammable materials in the process. A very dry atmosphere will help the built-up of charge
and this is one of the reasons why a reasonably high relative humidity of around 65% should
be maintained throughout any factory and hospital. In operating theatres the rubbing of
overshoes on a composition floor or of gowns against a plastic table top can cause large
charges to accumulate. Sparking here could cause the ignition of some of some of the volatile
gases used in operational procedures, which would have serious results. The presence of an
electric field may also cause the malfunction of delicate apparatus. The floors of an operating
theatre should always be metallic , and there should be conducting paths from the top of the
operating table to the floor. Casters on instrument tables must have conducting rubber tyres.
Morowitz Life and the Physical Sciences
Task 10
Using cause and effect as your method of development , write a paragraph on the following
topic sentences:
 Depletion of the ozone layer will have disastrous environmental consequences.
 Does viewing violence on television lead to a more violent society?
 What are some of the factors that have brought about an increased need for a
common language in the world of emerging common markets?
 Why is a working knowledge of English vital and a passport to a job?
 What are the effects of tourism on Greek economy / culture?
 Why did you choose your particular area of study?
 Effects of moving to a new country.
39
PROCESS ANALYSIS
Process analysis is particularly important in our technologically oriented society. Much of what
we do –from assembling a model airplane to attending a political convention-requires an
understanding of how things work.
Process analysis has a wide variety of uses. Instructions , for example, are usually a form of
process analysis. We read of mechanical processes, chemical processes, and processes
established by human law or custom.
When you write up a process in a text, it will normally be in natural time order, i.e. starting at
the beginning of the process and continuing step-by-step to the end.
A process can usually be presented as a flow diagram.
Computing
To begin the process, information in a specially coded form is fed into the input unit. Next it is
“read” by a device which turns it into a series of electric impulses. The computer then “writes”
down this information, that is , transfers it to a storage unit. After this, depending on whether
the information is data or instructions, further stages take place.
R. Dale and I Williamson The Myth of the Micro
information coded
|
|
V
fed into input
|
|
V
read
|
|
V
written
Task 11
Sequencers, such as next , make clear the sequence in which events, or stages in a process
occur. Underline the sequencers in the text above.
Write some sequencers that can be used in the initial, middle, or final steps of a process.
40
Task 12
The following text describes the process of making new laws in the United Kingdom. Notice
that the first paragraph is introductory, and the description of the process does not begin until
the second paragraph. Read the text carefully and a) underline all the sequencers that you find
in it , b) show stages of the process as a flow diagram.
How Parliament Makes New Laws
New laws can originate in either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. A
law which is being proposed is called a “bill” until it is passed; then it becomes an
“act” of parliament.
To begin with the bill goes through the first reading. This just means that the title of
the bill is announced and a time is set for it to be discussed. After this the second
reading is really a debate. The bill may be rejected at this stage. If it is an important
bill its rejection may cause the government to resign. On the other hand it may be
passed, or there may be no vote. When this happens, it goes to the committee stage,
where a small group of members (between 30 and 50) , meet and discuss it in detail.
When the committee has finished its work, it reports the bill with all the changes that
have been made., to the House. This is called the report stage. Then the bill is taken
for its third reading, and a vote is taken. When it is passed, it goes to the other House,
i.e. not the one it originated it. So if the bill started in the House of Commons it would
at this point go to the ?House of Lords. When the bill has been passed by both
Houses, it goes to the Queen for the Royal Assent. A bill may not become law until
the Royal Assent has been given, but this does not mean that the Queen decides on
what will become law and what will not. It is understood that the Queen will always
accept bills which have been passed by both Houses. When the Queen’s consent has
been given, the bill becomes an act, and everyone that it affects must obey the new
law.
41
Task 13
Look at the flowchart below showing the recruitment procedure . Write an explanation of the
procedure.
job
vacancy
job
description
prepared
advertise
ment
short-list
produced
job offered
final
selection
board
present
employer’s
reference
panel
interview
Task 14
Describe how solar radiation can be utilized to provide domestic hot water and lighting. Arrange
your notes under three headings (they should follow the stages of the process).
energy from
the
sun
solar
collector
photovoltaic
cells
heat
exchanger
electricity
accumulators
heat
(hot water)
water
tank
efficiency proportional to the
strength of received sunlight
lights
taps
may be integrated or
secondary circuits
42
Task 15
Write instructions for the use of a fax machine / installation of a program on your PC (with the
help of a labeled diagram if useful) so that someone else can operate it effectively.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Use comparison to consider the likenesses between two items. Use contrast to consider
differences between two items.
In formal comparison or contrast, consider items that are in the same class, and make sure that
the class is sufficiently narrow for the comparison or contrast to be meaningful. Select definite
bases on which to rest a comparison or contrast, and restrict yourself to these bases in writing
your paragraph.
There are two main ways of logically developing a description based on comparison/contrast.
Pattern A : subject by subject comparison/contrast



Topic sentence
Subject 1
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Subject 2
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Pattern B : point by point comparison/contrast
 Topic sentence
 Point 1
Subject 1/ Subject 2
 Point 2
Subject 1/Subject 2
 Point 3
Subject 1 / subject 2
Task 16
Read texts A and B and find which pattern of development each one uses.
Text A
All learning depends upon motivation, perception and exercise. The language
learner’s most important task is to internnalise the basic patterns and to acquire a new
system of language habits so that he/she can react automatically to the structural
signals of the second language. This can be accomplished only by drill. Theoretical
study of a language does not necessarily improve your ability to speak. All this
applies equally well to organic chemistry learning. Structure recognition and structure
43
drawing must be automatic and accurate. The eye must learn to assemble all cues, and
size up just what has gone on in a given reaction-quickly, as a matter of habit.
Obviously achieving this proficiency will also require drill.
Text B
Television is generally biased against the workers. You can prove this any night by
watching the news. When a strike is reported, a management representative will be
interviewed in favorable surroundings (e.g. in his office). The strikers, however, will
be interviewed all together out in the open. The manager will emerge as a polite,
responsible , authoritative person, whereas the workers will emerge as people who
shout and who all speak at the same time (as impolite and aggressive).
Note: Both patterns are equally accepted, depending on the type and purpose of the text you are
writing. Some people find Pattern 2 clearer because of the way it keeps reminding you of the
comparison/contrast relationship. Sometimes, however, such continual reminders can become
boring for the reader.
Ways of expressing comparison and contrast
Comparison within sentences
Contrast within sentences
A is like B
A and B are similar
A is similar to B
with respect to cost
A resembles B
A is unlike B
A differs from B
A and B differ
with respect to cost
A is different from B
A contrasts with B
Comparison between sentences
A is expensive to buy. Similarly, it is
expensive to operate
A is expensive to buy. Likewise, it is
expensive to operate
A is expensive to buy. Correspondingly,
It is expensive to operate
Contrast between sentences
A is expensive to buy. On the other hand, it
is cheap to operate
A is expensive to buy. In contrast, it is cheap
to operate
A is expensive to buy. Conversely, it is
cheap to operate
Task 17
Study the following sentences and circle the markers of comparison/contrast.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Arabic is read from right to left whereas English is read from left to right.
While taxis are expensive, public transport is cheap.
This book is the same price as many others.
Japanese industry invests considerable sums of money in research and development.
In contrast, British investment in this area is low.
5. Both statistics and mathematics are included in the curriculum.
6. Learning to drive a car requires a lot of patience. Similarly, learning a language
requires a considerable amount of patience.
44
Task 18
You are going to read a text which contrasts the “Western” idea of personal space with that of
“Easterners” However, you must build up the text yourself by choosing the sentence that fits
best with what comes before.
Personal Space and Culture
Hall (1959) and others have commented on the different sense of space that Westerners and
Easterners entertain.
A When they speak with each other , Easterners tend to stand closer.
(B) Easterners tend to stand closer when they speak to each other.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
C Westerners carry with them a spatial cocoon, on the other hand. That they don’t like to see
violated.
D Westerners, on the other hand, carry with them a spatial cocoon that they don’t like to see
violated.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
E By a system of keeping reasonable distances between themselves and others, Westerners
fill up beaches, buses-all public spaces in fact.
F Westerners fill up beaches, buses-all public spaces in fact- by a system of keeping
reasonable distances between themselves and others.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
G Deliberately choosing places near each other and even near crowded food stands or exits,
an Egyptian beach fills up with “clumps”.
H An Egyptian beach fills up with “clumps” , people deliberately choosing places near each
other and even near crowded food stands or exits.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
I They enjoy the movement around them of other people and like to watch and interact with
their neighbours.
J Other people moving around them they enjoy and like to watch and interact with their
neighbours.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
K By not speaking to those around them, Westerners forced to sit near each other effect
privacy.
L Westerners forced to sit near each other effect privacy by not speaking to those around
them.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
M During illness the Westerner’s desire for privacy becomes strongest.
N The Westerner’s desire for privacy becomes strongest during illness.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
O Then dominating the social context is his or her need to retreat and “sleep it off”.
P Then his or her need to retreat and “sleep it off “ dominates the social context.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q Egyptians, as might be expected, feel differently.
R Egyptians feel differently, as might be expected.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
S They want the support of others, when they feel most vulnerable.
T When they feel more vulnerable, they want the support of others.
(A.B. Rugh Family in Contemporary Egypt)
45
Task 19
Using the comparison/contrast method of development , write a paragraph on the following
topics.
 Your view of university before and after you were accepted.
 Shopping online vs. traditional shopping
 Using credit cards vs. using cash.
 Working for a private company vs. working in the public sector.
 The desirable and undesirable effects of nuclear power.
 Working from home vs. working in an office.
CLASSIFICATION
In paragraphs developed by classification, a writer makes a meaningful statement about a
subject by analyzing the parts of which it is composed. In formal classification, a writer must
establish precise bases on which to rest the classification.
Task 20
The following is a set of words given in no particular order (i.e. a list). Turn this list into a
classification by ordering the words into groups. Be prepared to explain why you grouped them
as you did.
processor
windows with multimedia
programmer
engineer
speakers
text
printer
RAM memory
operator
animated images
A common way of classifying data is through a tree diagram.
Task 21
The following sentences form a text which refers to the classification chart that follows.
However, except for the first sentence, they are not in the most logical order. Try to find the
best order for the numbered sentences.
A computer has four basic components: input, processor, memory, and output.
(i)
(ii)
The CPU consists of two parts: the control unit and the arithmeticlogic unit.
While the control unit is made up of a register, a decoder, a
counter, and a clock, the arithmetic-logic unit is composed of a
binary adder and registers.
46
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
In a computer, internal memory refers to the storage locations
inside the computer, whereas secondary memory refers to the
storage embodied in the peripherals.
The latter can be divided into sequential and random access.
The input devices can be a tape drive, a disc drive, or a terminal.
The output devices display the results of the computation on either
a printer or terminal, or store them on disk for future use.
The tables below show some of the most common language used in sentences that have
classification as their purpose.
( i)
There are
The
Y
types
kinds
classes
categories
: A, B and C.
. These are A, B, and C.
of X
are A, B and C.
(ii)
X
consists of
can be divided into
Y
classes
types
categories
kinds
(iii)
kinds
classes
A, B and C are types
of X
categories
47
: These are A,B and C.
Task 22
Use the organigram to help you write a paragraph on the organization of the personnel
department.
Personnel Department
|
________________________________________________________________________
|
Recruitment
- Internal
& External
Recruitment
|
|
Training
Payments
- In-house training
Career Development
_ Planning &
Implementing
salary and bonus
schemes
_ External training
|
_ Updating
computerized
personnel
records
_ Job descriptions
_ Manpower
planning
Task 23
Think about your own special academic subject, or a special interest of yours. Try to draw a
tree diagram classifying the various branches or sub-divisions that subject has. Then write a
text to explain the basis or bases on which the subject is divided into these branches.
48
THE WRITING PROCESS
Order
Transitional Devices
Reference
49
5
5 COHERENCE
Coherence means “sticking together.” When a paragraph is coherent, the reader can move
smoothly from sentence to sentence without becoming confused or losing the writer’s train of
thought. Coherence is achieved by arranging one’s material in a logical order and by providing
signals that help the reader understand the relationships between the ideas in a paragraph.
In a paragraph that is unified, all the supporting sentences back up the controlling idea, and
the reader is not presented with any facts or ideas that do not belong in the paragraph. In a
paragraph that is adequately developed, the writer has selected one of the methods of
development as a means of examining the subject and has followed this method consistently
throughout the paragraph.
However, a paragraph may be unified and well developed but still not be coherent. Consider,
for example, the following paragraph:
(1)The current population explosion could yield devastating problems in the future. (2) Famine is already a serious
problem in many countries. (3) If present trends continue, famine will spread. (4) The world population is rapidly
outgrowing its limited food supply. (5) Famine could someday engulf most of the planet. (6) Millions of people
would die daily. (7) In such a situation, full-scale wars would erupt. (8) Countries would struggle to expand their
boarders. (9) They would also try to take over new areas. (10) Food crops would be closely guarded. (11) Inflation
would be intense. (12) Even people in higher income brackets would not be able to buy sufficient food.(13) The
hungry would go angry. (14) The anger of the hungry would cause riots to break out. (15) Humanity’s full military
power would be unleashed. (16) Countries would be torn apart by internal strife and rioting. (17) Those countries
would begin looking to neighboring lands and natural resources and food. (18) Civilization as we know it would
cease to exist.
The paragraph is unified: all the sentences support the controlling idea, the assertion that the
population explosion could yield devastating problems in the future. And the paragraph is
adequately developed: the writer has selected the cause and effect method and has followed it
throughout. But the paragraph is not coherent. Three elements of coherence are missing:



The paragraph lacks any sense of order or organization. (time order/space
order/order of importance).
The paragraph lacks transitions – that is signals that serve as a link between one
sentence and the next.
The paragraph lacks any sentence combining.
Following is a second version of the same paragraph, revised to correct the defects we have
noted:
(1) The current population explosion could yield devastating problems in the future. (2) The world’s population is
rapidly outgrowing its limited food supply, and famine is already a serious problem in many countries. (3) If present
trends continue, famine will spread and could someday engulf most of the planet, resulting in the deaths of
millions of people daily. (4) In such a situation, what food crops remained would be closely guarded. (5) In
addition, inflation would be so intense that even people in higher income brackets would not be able to buy
sufficient food. (6) The hungry, tin time, would go angry and their anger would cause riots to breakout. (7)
Eventually, countries torn apart by rioting would begin looking to neighboring lands for natural resources and food.
(8) Full scale wars would erupt as the strife-torn countries struggled to expand their boarders and take over new
areas. (9) And finally, with humanity’s full military power unleashed, civilization as we know it would cease to exist.
50
Task 1
Can you identify the elements that have contributed to the construction of a coherent
paragraph?
a …………………………………………………………………….
b ……………………………………………………………………..
c ……………………………………………………………………..
To achieve coherence in a paragraph a writer uses a number of techniques:
ORDER
One way to achieve coherence is to arrange the details in a logical order and link the
sentences together. The writer aims to lead the reader smoothly from one idea to the next.
There are three ways of ordering ideas in a paragraph: Time Order, Space Order, Order
of Importance.
Time Order , also called chronological order, simply means that events considered in a
paragraph are arranged in the order in which they occurred.
In 1948, William Shocklay working in the laboratory of the Bell Telephone
Company produced the first transistor. Years later, in 1963, Robert Noyce
managed to put more than one transistor on the same small piece of siliconintegrating first two, then tens of transistors into complex current patterns and
forming the basis of the integrated-circuit industry. Soon afterwards, in 1969, Ted
Hoff, a research worker at Intel worked out a design which, for the first time would
put the complete workings of a basic computer processor on just one chip slightly
less than a sixth of an inch long and an eighth of an inch wide.
Task 2
In the text below, some of the information is not in acceptable chronological order. What
changes are necessary so that you put the information in an acceptable order?
The production of silicon wafers containing integrated circuits is carried
out mainly in the US. Cutting up these wafers into as many as 600 micro
chips and maintaining and connecting them is labour intensive. In 1963,
the major microelectronic companies set out in search of the cheapest
labour power they could find to perform the labour intensive stages.
They found the labour they were looking for in South East Asia, and the
Fairchild company broke the ground by establishing an assembly
factory in Honk Kong. By 1978, Malaysia, to take one example, had 69
microelectronic assembly plants, 20 of them owned by the biggest US
companies. By the early 1970s Intel was building a thriving market in
the US for its microprocessor, and other companies were beginning to
build computer memories from microelectronic devices instead of the
older hand-threaded core memories. This new level of integration led to
a new wave of expansion between 1972 and 1974, this time into
Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia. The other major
51
companies followed and, throughout the 1970s, Taiwan, South Corea
and Singapore were favoured.
CSE Microelectronics Group Microelectronics
Space Order
The writer presents details in a clear, organized manner to depict the scene effectively and
avoids a random listing of details. The writer organizes the support according to a spatial
arrangement or pattern. Space order should enable the reader to visualize the scene
described.
There was a row of cottages on each side of the street, adobe boxes made of the
same packed earth on which the houses stood. At one end of the street wall of every
cottage there was a doorway, another in the wall standing to the backyard corral.
There were no windows. The roofs were made of palm thatch, with a steep pitch, the
ridge pole parallel to the street. Back of the houses were the corrals, fenced with
stones piled about shoulder high to a man. Between the corrals there were narrow
alleys that led uphill to the edge of the forest on the upper side of the village, and to the
arroyo on the lower side. The eaves of the grass roofs hung well over the adobe walls
to protect them form the battering rains. In the summer time the overhang provided
shade at midday, when it seemed as if all the suffocating heat of the heavens was
pouring through a funnel with the small end pointed at Jalco.
Like time order, space order can appear in a paragraph using any method of development.
Descriptions of spatial locations are normally organizes according to conventional ways of
looking at scenes. The most common conventions are:






general to particular
whole to part
large to small
outside to inside
top to bottom
left to right
Task 3
Write a paragraph using one of the following topic sentences. Order your support according to
space order. You may combine space and time order if you feel the topic warrants it.
a An old house frequently has a number of hidden problems.
b Most supermarkets have a familiar layout.
c The library in your school.
52
Order of Importance
The writer lists ideas according to how strongly he/she wishes to emphasize each one. By
saving the most important for the last, the writer builds the paragraph up to a climax thus
emphasizing the last point. Order of importance is probably used more often than any other
principle in the arranging of supports within a paragraph.
This method of ordering supporting sentences according to their relative importance is probably
used more often in student and professional writing than the other two methods of ordering
paragraphs .
In the following paragraph, for instance, the writer uses the cause-effect method of paragraph
development to discuss why many students dislike unannounced in-class writing assignments,
and organizes the ideas from least important to most important.
Most students dislike spur-of-the-moment, in-class writing assignments. In the
first place, they may not have with them the kind of paper or pen which they
like to use, and they are almost certain to find themselves without a dictionary.
Second, students often find that if the choice of topic is left to them, they are
unable, on such short notice, to think of anything worthwhile to write about. If,
on the other hand, they are given a number of topics to choose from, they may
not be able to think of enough to say about any of them. A still greater source
of discomfort for many students is the classroom environment itself. Nervous
students may be whispering , coughing, asking the teacher questions, or
otherwise distracting those who are trying to concentrate. The most difficult
problem with unannounced , in-class writing assignments, however, is the
pressure involved. In part, the pressure is a matter of time: students know that
they have only fifty minutes in which to produce a finished assay, and every
glance at the clock causes a rise on the pressure gauge. Being compelled to
produce a well-written essay on demand creates so much pressure, in fact,
that some students are unable to write anything and therefore turn in a blank
piece of paper. Other students, feeling the pressure almost as much, submit a
few indecisive sentences. And most students would admit that whatever writing
they turn in is bound to be the worst they have produced during the semester.
Task 4
The table shows the results of a survey on people’s reasons for working. Write a report on the
results of the survey.
What is your main reason for working?
To pay the bills
Get rich
Provide for children
Buy a house
Get promotion
Enjoy my job
%
10
5
40
5
5
35
Expressing proportions: by far the largest proportion
the majority, a substantial number , a minority
half the sample, one in two, five out of ten
53
TRANSITIONAL DEVICES
Transitional devices add coherence to a paragraph by linking the ideas in one sentence
with those in the next. They remind the reader of what preceded and signal what is to
follow.
There are many devices at your disposal for producing effective transitions from point to
point in your writing:
Transitional words and phrases
The following list contains the most commonly used terms. Writers choose these useful
expressions to fit the context of the sentences, or the result may be the opposite of what
they intend. A wrong word can obscure what they are trying to make clear.
Addition
also, and, another, furthermore, moreover, too, in addition, besides, what is more
Time
after, before, finally, first, second, meanwhile, next, then, while, simultaneously,
subsequently, in the meantime, in the past, until now, so far, formerly, presently
former, latter
Place adjacent to, above, below, farther to, in the foreground, in the background, to the
left/right, at the top/bottom, in the middle, forward
Illustration
for example, for instance, such as, to illustrate, in particular, in general, indeed, especially,
specifically, mainly, for one thing, in fact
Contrast
but, however, instead, nevertheless, still, yet, in/by contrast, on the contrary, on the other
hand, nevertheless, conversely, whereas,
Comparison
Similarly, likewise, like as, in the same way, in like manner
Concession
surely, certainly, naturally, granted that, although, I concede, I admit
Result
therefore, thus, hence, so, consequently, as a result, all in all
Conclusion
finally, in conclusion, to sum up, to summarize, in short, in brief, in general, in summary
Task 5
Join the sentences using the appropriate connecting word.
Computers can process information at extremely high rates; As a result , they can
solve arithmetic problems millions of times faster than a skilled mathematician.
(RESULT)
2. The very first commercially employed telecommunication system, telegraphy, was a
digital system. ____________ , telephony, radio, and TV all started as analogue
systems. (CONTRAST)
3. Jane graduated from university with a first class honours degree in Spanish. Jill,
____________ , has very good qualifications. (SIMILARITY)
1.
54
4. I don’t think we should offer him the job. Firstly, he has no experience. Secondly, he
has no qualifications. ______________ , I don’t like his manner. (ADD
INFORMATION)
5. As far as the management is concerned, he is the perfect employee. His colleagues,
_______________ , know that he is extremely lazy. (CONTRAST)
6. Salaries are good in the company. _____________ it has an excellent career
structure. (ADD INFORMATION)
7. We must get started on the project. _____________ we won’t finish the job on time.
(CONTRAST)
8. He did no work. _____________ , he failed his exams. (RESULT)
9. He is stupid. He’s very kind, _____________ .(CONCESSION)
10. I got home at six o’clock. ____________ I’ve been watching television. (TIME)
11. Our hotel was what the travel agents describe as “lively and colourful” .
______________, it was in the red light district. (CLARIFICATION)
12. The Personnel Manager interviews all job applicants here. ___________ she looks for
potential rather than experience or qualifications. (GENERALIZATION)
13. 430 students voted in favour of the motion to ban smoking on college premises, while
500 voted against. ____________ , students at the college are against a smoking ban.
(CONCLUSION)
14. Finally, I found the pricing to be as attractive as the other features detailed above.
___________ I recommend purchase of TRIP A. (INFERENCE)
15. Yes, I am studying English at the moment. It’s _____________ for my job, but it also
means that I’ll find it a lot easier to travel. (FOCUS)
Task 6
Explain the difference between the groups of sentences.
1 Firstly, I was impressed by the quality of the service provided.
At first I was impressed by the quality of service provided.
2 Lastly, it has a swimming pool and other sports facilities.
At last, it has a swimming pool and other sports facilities.
At least it has a swimming pool and other sports facilities.
3 Moreover, it is within easy reach of the capital.
However, it is within easy reach of the capital.
Therefore, it is within easy reach of the capital.
4 On the other hand, its spaciousness is very attractive.
On the contrary, its spaciousness is very attractive.
55
Combining Sentences
By combining brief, simple sentences in longer, more developed sentences you can render
your paragraph more coherent and less choppy. Longer, more developed sentences can more
clearly establish the relationships among the facts and ideas in you sentences by emphasizing
important points and subordinating less important points. Do not, however, think that a
paragraph is coherent only when its sentences are long and complicated: sentence length
should reflect the relationships among the ideas being presented.
Task 7
Join the clauses in the sentences with a suitable linking word or phrase.
1. All discs are made of a substance coated with metal oxide and can
____________ be magnetized. (RESULT)
2. ______________ she has an important position in the company, she gets an
excellent salary. (REASON)
3. _____________ she worked very hard, , she got the suck. (CONCESSION)
4. She decided to do a secretarial course _____________ she ever needed to find
work in a hurry. (REASON)
5. I’ll finish the report _________ I get home. (TIME)
6. She did very well at the interview and was, ______________ , offered the
position _____________ she agreed to do a computing course once a week.
(RESULT/ CONDITION)
7. Percussion instruments , ______________ drums, cymbals, and tambourines,
were the preferred instruments in the study. (EXAMPLE)
8. She wrote to the press ___________ expose the scandal. (PURPOSE)
9. ___________ the ice conditions, the two lorries collided. (REASON)
Task 8
These sentences focus on the distinction between conjunctions, in the a sentences, and
sentence adverbials. Fill the gaps in b sentences with a sentence adverbial, so that the two
sentences have the same meaning. The first has been done as an example.
Time
1a (conj) Silvia went for a swim after she had done her homework.
1b (adv) Silvia did her homework. Afterwards, she went for a swim.
2a While she was swimming, I continued to study.
2b I continued to study. ……………………………, she was swimming.
Reason and result
3a Since she had promised to visit him, she went there the next day.
3b She had promised to visit him. …………………….. , she went there the next day.
4a The Adams live in a strange house, so they don’t get many visitors.
4b The Adams live in a strange house. ……………………, they don’t get many visitors.
56
Contrast and concession
5a A lot of men are uncomfortable with Anna, even though she has a sweet nature.
5b Anna has a sweet nature. ……………………………, a lot of men are uncomfortable with
her.
6a The English eat potatoes, whereas the Chinese eat rice.
6b The English eat potatoes. The Chinese, …………………. , eat rice.
Addition
7a Not only does Thanassis speak English, but he can also speak Russian.
7b Thanassis speaks English. …………………… , he can speak Russian.
REFERENCE
The use of words to refer back to things already mentioned or to refer forwards is a key area of
cohesion. Here are various devices that contribute towards reference.
Pronouns
Pronouns add coherence to a paragraph in two ways: they smooth the flow of sentences by
eliminating awkward repetition of nouns, and they help to knit a paragraph together by referring
to nouns in previous or following sentences or sentence parts.
 Be sure that every pronoun has a clear antecedent (a noun it refers to).
Confusing: Alfred was with Peter when he got the news that his rare books had arrived.
Who got the news? Did the rare books belong to Peter, or did they belong to Alfred?
Improved: When Alfred got the news that his rare books had arrived, he was with Peter.

Be certain that every pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and
gender. Also maintain consistency in the person of the pronouns used.
If you find a good teacher , can you give me his address?
The sentence above assumes that the teacher will be a man. The use of his/her instead is a non-sexist
alternative, but this style can be rather clumsy. They is now in common usage, and can be used to refer to one
person.
If you find a good teacher, can you give me their address?

Whether you use first-person pronouns or third-person pronouns largely depends on
the tone you wish to adopt in a paragraph. First-person pronouns are informal and
personal; third-person pronouns are more distant and objective.
In expository writing the pronoun you is used less frequently than first-and third-person
pronouns and is reserved primarily for instances where the writer is speaking to a
clearly defined audience.
57
Repetition of key words and phrases
To maintain focus on the controlling idea throughout a paragraph, writers often repeat key
words and phrases that emphasize this idea. Repetition of key words and phrases adds
coherence by drawing the reader’s attention to the controlling idea of the paragraph. Repetition
of key words and phrases does not mean repeating the exact same words all the time (this can
become rather monotonous); it means using related forms of key words or synonyms.
I first visited Amorgos in 1990, and I’ve loved the island ever since.
The former and the latter
Neither Reagan nor Bush could deny knowing about this plan: the former had thought it up,
while the latter had actively supported it.
Task 9
These sentences include reference mistakes: they all use the word it inappropriately. In each
sentence , replace it with an appropriate word or words. They may not be pronouns: it might be
appropriate to use repetition, a synonym or a general word.
1. Male employees in Japanese companies are usually willing to be sent to another
branch, but Japanese women often refuse it.
2. When democracy fails, the people’s last weapon is civil disobedience. It means
actions that disobey the authority of the state, for instance illegal demonstrations and
refusing to pay taxes.
3. Increasingly, a university degree is essential. For those who have it, there is plenty of
work.
4. I’m not satisfied with the atmosphere in the office, my workload and the salary, but I
feel , however, that there are some ways in which it could be improved.
58
SPECIAL WRITING TASKS
Planning a Research Paper
Citing and Documenting Sources
Developing a Research Paper
59
1
1 WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
Research projects rely on careful investigation on varied sources in the library and elsewhere.
These sources include not just the obvious books, periodicals, and reference items but also
electronic reference lists (databases) , microfilms and microfiches.
Read your sources with care, and take careful notes. Most of the sources you will use for a
brief research paper will be secondary, although you should try to use primary sources
whenever possible. Primary sources include works of literature, historical documents,
interviews, observations, and experiments. Secondary sources analyze and comment on
other source material.
PLANNING A RESEARCH PAPER
Planning is crucial to the success of a research paper. Before you begin to write, be sure that
you have completed all the planning steps.







Prepare a preliminary list of sources.
Develop a hypothesis and tentative thesis.
Sketch out a rough plan.
Read your sources.
Take notes: summarize/paraphrase/outline/ quote.
Keep track of your sources; make sure that your notes distinguish your ideas from
those of your sources.
Read and organize your notes.
60
CITING AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES
Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find
information upon it.
-Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), lexicographer, critic, and post
University students often research and write papers using sources. Sometimes you will write a
research paper that relies mostly on source material to examine a topic. Sometimes you will
draw on information from books , newspapers, journals, textbooks, and the Internet to back up
pr supplement an essay that is mostly your own ideas. Either way, you should always
acknowledge your sources. Every academic discipline has its own conventions for crediting
sources; two common sets of conventions are those of the Modern Language Association
(MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA). Most research papers in the
humanities use the MLA format. The main features of this format include parenthetical citations
directly in the text, a list of works cited ,and , when necessary, explanatory endnotes.
Using parenthetical references
 For quotations:
MLA style
Howard Gardner in “Who Owns Intelligence?” says , “Early intelligence tests were not without
their critics” (66).
APA style
Judith Hopper (1999) says in “A New Germ Theory,” “Microbes obviously can cause mental
disorders” (50).

For paraphrases:
MLA style
Judith Hopper explains in “A New Germ Theory” that some forms of mental illness may be
caused by germs (50).
APA style
Periodic emission of radiation from black holes suggests gravitational collapse is not as final as
once believed (Hawing. 1998).

For an indirect source (a source you know from reading another source):
MLA style
According to Walcott Gibbs, “ “Almost every important advance in the science of medicine has
beenthe direct or indirect result of knowledge acquired through animal experimentation” “ (qtd.
in Wall 883).
APA style
According to Walcott Gibbs (as cited in Wall,1988, p.883), “ “Almost every important advance in
the science of medicine has beenthe direct or indirect result of knowledge acquired through
animal experimentation. “ “
61
Model list of WORKS CITED, MLA style (excerpt)
Baugh, Albert C., et al. A Literary History of England. New York. Appleton,1948.
“Black Holes.” The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Ready Reference. 1992 ed.
Crystal , David. Listen To Your Child. Penguin Books,1986.
Greece:2006. Athens: National Tourist Organization of Greece, 2005.
Morgan, Clifford T., Richard A. King, Nancy Robinson. Introduction to Psychology. 6th ed. New
York:McGraw,1979.
Rees, Martin J. “Black Holes in Galastic Centers.” Scientific American Nov.1990:56-66.
Wolfe, Don M., ed. American Scene: New Voices. New York: Stuart,1963.
Model REFERENCES, APA style (excerpt)
Hawking, S.W. (1988). A brief history of time. New York: Bantam.
Lane, E. (1992, November 20). Black hole snapshot: Scientists think that’s what Hubble photo
may be. Newsday, p.7.
Wald, R. M. (1992). Space, time , and gravity: The theory of the big bang and black holes. (2nd
ed.) Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
Article in an Online Magazine
MLA Style
Saletan, William. “Roe vs. Wade.” Slate 23 Jan. 1998 http://www.slate.com/framegame/98-0123/framegame.asp.
Note: The second date is the date the material was accessed.
APA Style
Saietan, W. (1998, January 23). Roe vs Wade. Slate. Retreived January 29, 1998, from
http://www.slate.com/framegame/98-01-23/framegame.asp
Task 1
Using the MLA style, write correct entries for the following sources to be included in a list of
works cited. (You may not need all the data that appear in each group.)
1. Writing in the Arts and Sciences, a 1981 textbook published by Winthrop Publishers,
Inc., in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The authors, in the order in which they appear on
the title page , are Elaine Maimon, Gerald Belcher, Gail Hearn, and Finbarr O’Connor.
2. An article by Paul Moses called “Debate Over, Bishops Reach Out,” in Newsday, a
Long Island, New York newspaper. The article appeared on Friday, November 20,
1992, on page 5 and continued on page 41.
62
DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PAPER
The research report needs to explain the aims of the research and the research methods and
to set out and discuss the results , drawing conclusions.
The main body of the essay should include:





Statement of the problem.
- Review of the literature.
- Theoretical background.
Methodology (Design and methods).
The methodology of the study refers both to the research design, that is, the overall
logic , the basic plan of the approach, and to the methods used to obtain, process, and
analyze the information, including the methods of selecting the subjects or
phenomena to be studied.
Presentation of the results.
The researcher must select what to report, but the selection must be on the basis of
relevance to the problem in hand.
-Use tables or histograms or graphs. (Decide which presentation is effective and
informative).
Discussion and interpretation of the results.
The prime purpose here is to provide an argued response to the research
problem/question on the basis of the findings of the study.
Here the writer needs to pose and attempt to answer questions such as the following:
-What light do the results throw on the various points , questions, and problems
raised at the introduction, especially in the statement and development of the
purpose of the research?
- If the study sets out to test a hypothesis, do the results support this hypothesis?
-If the study is descriptive or explanatory, what significant information has been
provided?
- If the aim was to generate a theory, a set of hypotheses , a model, to what extent
has this been achieved?
Conclusions and recommendations.
The researcher must arrive at definite conclusions and make them clear. He must shoe
how, in his/her view, these conclusions follow from or are in keeping with his/her data.
In this section the writer can also :
a. theorize - can the findings be integrated into the existing body of theory?
- do they support or call into question the theoretical assumptions on
Which the study was based?
b. draw out methodological implications.
c. consider the practical implications and make considerations.
63
ASSEMBLING THE FINAL COPY OF A RESEARCH PAPER
The main sections of a research paper may be listed as:









Title page. The MLA Handbook suggests that the author’s name , the class, the date,
and so on appear on the first page of the paper.
Table of contents
List of tables, figures etc.
Acknowledgements
Formal outline or abstract.
The body of the essay
Endnotes. If you use parenthetical documentation, endnotes or footnotes will me
minimal. If your instructor requires footnotes, place then at the bottom of the pages. In
APA style endnotes follow the list of references.
Appentices
List of works cited (MLA) or references (APA)
64
SPECIAL WRITING TASKS
The logic of Argument
Structuring an Argumentative Essay
65
2
2 WRITING LOGICAL ARGUMENTS
In explanatory paragraphs and essays, you take a point or controlling idea and explain it
according to the steps we have discussed in previous chapters. In explanatory writing, the point
you make is one that your audience is likely to accept once it has been explained. Now you will
learn about another kind of writing-argumentation. A good way to understand the difference
between expository writing and argumentative writing is to examine two pieces of writing on the
same topic: a paragraph that explains and a paragraph that argues.
The following expository paragraph is developed by cause and effect:
There are several reasons why the estate of the late Emma Wiltshire is a good location for a
city park. In the first place , its location is perfect. Its central location makes it convenient for
most of the residents of the town. Further, it is situated between two municipal bus lines,
enabling people from the outskirts without private transportation to enjoy it regularly. In the
second place, it would make a suitable site for public and private activities. The setting is
perfect for a family picnic ground. In addition, the park could serve as a site for outdoor theatre
presentations. A fine hill on the property , known as “ Battle Hill”, is a natural seating place for
audiences. Finally, and perhaps most importantly to some, the estate, if made into a park,
would be a welcome sight to experience. The park would be very attractive to walkers, joggers,
and bicyclers because it is extensive enough to contain trails, which could flow through one of
the most scenic areas in the country. In addition, the Wiltshire estate would be, for these
people, an important alternative to having to exercise on busy streets that sometimes do not
have sidewalks. For these reasons, it is hard to conceive of a better location for a city park.
This paragraph is expository. It supplies information about a large area of a city, showing why
this particular division of land is a good location for a park. The writer assumes a sympathetic
audience that needs only a series of reasons to believe the thesis. But suppose that, instead of
informing agreeable readers, the writer faced a completely different challenge. Suppose the
audience was not necessarily in agreement with the writer’s point of view and the writer had to
convince them that turning the estate into a park was something the community should do. The
writer’s altered purpose, then, would result in a somewhat different piece of writing – perhaps a
paragraph similar to the following:
The city of Greenfield should buy the old Wiltshire estate and convert the property into a large
park city. Purchasing the property and converting it into a park would solve many of the
problems citizens of the town face when they want to exercise outdoors. In the first place, the
property is far enough from the centre of town and heavy traffic so that residents do not have to
risk injury just to exercise. The property is extensive enough to provide trails for walking,
jogging, and even bicycling. Tree-lined and serene, the property would also answer the
community’s need for a suitable site for public and private activities. Equipped with tables,
pavilions, and trash cans, it would be perfect for picnics and even group get together.
Furthermore, the estate includes a fine hill known as “Battle Hill” , which could serve as an
outdoor theatre. Opposers of my plan suggest that the estate would require too much
rehabilitation at too high a cost for our town budget. They cite, in particular, the dilapidated
state of the Wiltshire Mansion, which sits in the middle of the estate. In response to that
argument, I suggest that area residents consider the possibility of turning the Mansion into a
centre for meetings and conventions. Such a centre would attract outside business to the area
and pay for itself in a short period of time. Despite the argument of those who oppose my plan,
66
I continue to be convinced that turning the Wiltshire estate into a public area for the residents of
this town would be advantageous for us all in the long run.
As you can see from the previous examples, several important differences exist between
exposition and argumentation:




The controlling idea in the topic sentence of the expository paragraph becomes
more urgent in the argumentative paragraph (proposition).
The argumentative paragraph assumes that the audience is extremely skeptical of,
if not actually opposed to, the controlling idea, and it therefore considers in
advance any hesitations that the audience might have and attempts to refute any
opposing evidence.
The argumentative paragraph demonstrates, more readily than the expository
paragraph, the reasoning process that supports its controlling idea .
The two paragraphs are structured differently, the most notable difference residing
in the sentences of the argumentative paragraph where opposing arguments are
considered.
THE LOGIC OF ARGUMENT
Argument, like exposition, involves the use of logic, and logic means “sound reasoning”. But
what makes argumentation unique is the way in which it displays the reasoning process that is
going on. Usually the sound reasoning that is shared with readers to get them to agree with
proposition is either deductive or inductive.
Deductive arguments are based on generalizations, statements of truth that most readers will
accept without proof. In a deductive approach the writer starts with a proposition that then
develops with specific supports.
In the inductive approach, the writer starts with the specifics and uses these specific details to
build to a proposition. In other words, the writer assembles pieces of evidence toward a
generalization. Using an inductive argument in an essay can be an effective means for
convincing an especially hostile or close-minded audience of your proposition.
Structuring an Argumentative Essay
Just as the thesis of the expository assay appears in the first paragraph , the proposition of the
argumentative essay can be expressed at the end of the first paragraph. Then the body
paragraphs include the evidence needed to support the proposition. The final paragraph brings
the essay together by restating major points of support. Refuting your opposition is normally
done in the final body paragraph whether the essay is based on deductive or inductive
reasoning.
67
Task 1
Read the following short paragraph and then answer these questions:
1. Is the argument deductive or inductive?
2. What is the proposition?
3. What means of support do the body paragraphs provide?
4. Where is the refutation proposed?
College students should take as many courses outside their major as possible because they
offer many benefits. First of all, students who are unsure about their choice of major will benefit
from sampling other disciplines. For instance, a business major may find out that he/she really
is better suited for psychology. Or an art major may find that he/she really enjoys a course in
computer graphics and may decide to add a minor in computing science to his/her degree. A
second reason is that students may want to take courses outside their major is flexibility. Very
few jobs require competence in just one skill area. So the more varied the background that a
student brings to a job, the better. Some students will argue, however, that they do not have
sufficient time in the space of four years to take a wide variety of courses and meet their
college’s requirements for graduation as well. What they are overlooking, however, is the fact
that in their college requirements there are plenty of opportunities for taking interesting courses
outside their discipline. With all the educational opportunities available in most colleges, it is
tragic when students limit themselves to courses within their majors.
68
SPECIAL WRITING TASKS
Reasons for Summarizing
Types of Summaries
Writing an Abstract
69
3
3 WRITING A SUMMARY OR ABSTRACT
WHAT IS A SUMMARY
A summary is a brief restatement, in your own words, of the main ideas in a reading passage.
Depending on your purpose, when you write a summary, you will focus only on the main points
in the selection or include several supporting details (examples, facts, reasons, and so on).
Your main reason in summarizing a passage is to give your reader an accurate sense of the
content and emphasis of the original.
REASONS FOR SUMMARIZING



Writing a summary is an excellent way to make sure you fully understand a reading
passage, because it requires you to restate ideas in your own words and to
distinguish between main points and supporting details. Summarizing also focuses
your attention on the organization of the passage and the author’s purpose and
emphasis. This helps you not only to comprehend the writer’s ideas but to see their
strengths and weaknesses.
Along with outlines, summaries are a good study tool for examinations, because they
help you understand and remember the most important information in textbooks and
lectures.
In addition to paraphrase and quotation, summary is a common way of incorporating
sources into an essay, research paper, or oral report.
TYPES OF SUMMARIES
There are two basic types of summaries: informative summaries, which directly restate the
main ideas in the original passage without mentioning the author, and descriptive summaries,
which provide an overview of the main ideas in the selection and mention the author and title.
(These latter summaries contain such statements as “ The author states/ believes/ implies that
…… “)
An informative summary of the Declaration of Independence might begin as follows:
When people declare themselves independent of their political ties, they should give
reasons. Governments are formed to protect equality and rights, including life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness. If government does not do this, people can change the
government.
A descriptive summary of the same passage might begin as follows:
Jefferson opens the Declaration of Independence by stating that a country declaring
independence needs to give its reasons. He goes on to discuss the purposes of
government in protecting individual rights and the legitimacy of change if government
does not live up to its obligations.
70
To convey the content of a source, informative summaries are preferable to descriptive
summaries. In addition, when research material is simply reported for its factual content, the
informative summary is used.
STEPS OF WRITING A SUMMARY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Read the original carefully.
Choose material for the summary.
Decide whether your summary will be informative or descriptive.
Rewrite the material in concise, coherent sentences and paragraphs.
Identify the source of the original text.
METHODS OF CHOOSING MATERIAL FOR A SUMMARY
1. Select more important information and delete less important material. This method may
be useful when clearly stated main ideas in the piece are immediately followed by
many details or examples.
2. Take notes on the main ideas. This method may be useful when the development of a
complex idea in the piece is treated in many subsections. The notes serve as an
outline of the flow of the author's thought.
3. Miniaturize the original. This method may be useful when the logical development is
subtly argued and parts of the piece fit together in unusual ways.
The following rules will guide you in writing effective summaries. The summary:
1. Is usually about one-third the length of the original, though it will vary depending on the
content of the original.
2. Begins with the main idea (as in developmental paragraphs) and proceeds to cover the
major supporting points in the same sequence as the source, always in complete
sentences.
3. Changes the wording without changing the idea.
4. Does not evaluate the content or give an opinion in any way (even if you see an error
in logic or fact).
5. Does not add ideas (even if you have an abundance of related information).
6. Does not refer directly to the writing (do not write, for example, "The author says").
7. Does not include any personal comments by the author of the summary (therefore, do
not use I) and
8. Seldom uses quotations (but if so, always with quotation marks).
71
Practice Summary Writing
(a)
Below , on the left , there is an extract from an article on a successful career.
On the right, there are some notes on the main ideas. Underneath the article
you will find a brief summary.
Where and how to cut your losses
Half the skill in getting ahead on the
career front is knowing when to move
important to know when to
on. In everyone’s life there comes a
change jobs
moment when they should make the
break- the world is full of has-beens
who, perhaps, just didn’t have the
may miss the right moment
courage to take a chance when that
chance came. It pays to constantly
reassess where you stand. A good
question to ask yourself is “Where am
try to consider your position
I going to be, this time next year, if I
a year ahead
stay in the same job?” Each career has
a different kind of time-scale. The
sales scene moves fast-you tend to make
money in the early years, then move on
to management before you are too old
and too tired to continue with the
foot-in-the-door technique and the patter.
some careers/jobs move slowly
The same thing goes, to a certain extent,
some fast
for advertising. But other careers move
at a different pace-to become head curator
in a museum, for instance, or head librarian,
may take years.
Summary
In this article on successful careers the writer says that it’s important to know when to
change jobs. Many people miss the right moment; so you should always think about
where you are now, and where you’ll be in a year. Some jobs, though, move slowly,
while others move quickly-careers have different time –scales.
(b)
Below, Michael Foot, leader of the Labour Party at the time (6 th December,
1982), discussed Democratic Socialism during the period 1940-5.
The best example that I’ve seen of Democratic Socialism operating in this country was during
the Second World War. Then we ran Britain highly efficiently, got everybody into a job. It
wasn’t so difficult then to employ people who were disabled and difficulties and all the rest of
it. We wanted to use all their efforts. And we found the money to do it. We also produced, I
would have thought probably more than any other country, including Germany. We mobilised
better . The conscription of labour was only a very small element of it. We also did what I think
72
we ought to do on a far greater scale now, looking after the people who are worst hit. In the
war, instead of saying because (the country) is in extreme circumstances you’ve got to cut the
pay of the people who are worst off, they did the opposite. They increased the pensions, the
social security. It was a democratic society with a common aim in which many of the class
barriers were being broken down. Many of us thought we would never return to a society in
which class barriers were rebuilt. Many of them have been. And many of those class barriers
are the very things which have injured the community since.
Summary of ideas
The best example of working British Democratic Socialism was in the Second
World War because Britain used the resources to employ everyone without
exemption, to produce a lot, to mobilise effectively, to pay high pensions and
benefits, and to look after those in difficulty. The common, democratic aim
broke down class barriers, seemingly for ever. Since then they have been
rebuilt and the state policies are the reverse of wartime ones and have
damaged the community.
(c)
Below is a short description of a book.
AVIATION
AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY
Christopher Chant
Throughout this fascinating book, topics of technical
or social interest are carefully explained through picture
essays, and lavish full-colour drawings of several of the
world’s greatest aircraft show off the technical features
that made them famous: 100 colour photographs and
400 in black-and-white. 304 pages. Orbis $ 12
Sentence summary
An extensively –illustrated technical history of the world’s great aircraft.
Task 1
Write a summary of the book description below.
_____________________________________________________________
INTERNATIONAL LAW,
HUMAN RIGHTS
Editors Mr. P, van Dijk
Prof. mr. C. Flinterman
Dr. mr. P.E.L. Janssen
In 1987 the Netherlands Open University, which was established in 1984, began a
course in international law. It was considered to be of great importance that the
students of this course, who live in all parts of the Netherlands, should have easy
access to relevant instruments of inter-national law, preferably in the original
language. It is for that reason that the editors of the present book made a careful
selection from the numerous international conventions, declarations and other
instruments of international law.
Their focus was mainly on the ever expanding international law of human rights,
which is of such great significance within the Netherlands’ domestic legal order.
_____________________________________________________________
73
Task 2
Below is an announcement about study courses. Summarise the basic
information in the announcement omitting unnecessary detail.
PROFESSIONALISATION
The first of a series of five courses on various aspects of arts promotion for full-time and
voluntary administrators will be held from 21-23 March. In conjunction with the Centre for Arts
and Related Studies of the City University, and with financial assistance from the Arts Council
of Great Britain, these courses are being organised by South West Arts as part of a scheme to
help arts organisations by bringing about greater professional expertise.
This first weekend (Friday evening to Sunday lunchtime) will be devoted to Programming and
Budgeting. It will cover aspects of programming, budgetary control, applying for grants,
timetabling tactics and related topics. The main guest lecturer will be john Pick, Director of Arts
Administration Studies at the University.
Future courses will be on Community Theatre and Sharing (April 11-13), Avoiding Disasters
(May 23-25) and Selling Yourself-Image (June 13-15). It is hoped that costs for participants will
be very low. Venues in each case will be announced in the next issue of this newspaper.
Anyone who wishes to be included in any of the courses should conduct John de la Cour at
South West Arts as soon as possible. Numbers will be limited to 35 on each course.
74
WRITING AN ABSTRACT
An abstract of an article or a scientific paper is a summary that allows a reader to decide
quickly whether or not to read the whole work. Published abstracts usually appear at the
beginning of the articles they summarize. You can use abstracts to file information you collect
during your research.
Here is a sample abstract.
INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING_____________________JOURNAL OF RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION
A report on progress towards new recommendations:
A communication from the International Commission on Radiological
Protection
International Commission on radiological Protection
ICRP, SE-171 16, Stockholm, Sweten
Received 2 March 2001
Abstract
Throughout the hundred-year history of the uses of ionising radiation in medicine and industry there has
been advice on the need to protect people from the hazards associated with exposure. Protection
standards have evolved throughout this period to reflect both the scientific understanding of the
biological effects of exposure and the social and ethical standards to be applied. The Main Commission
of ICRP is now considering a revised, simpler approach that is based on an individual-oriented
philosophy and represents a potential shift by the Commission from the past emphasis on social –
oriented criteria. The initial proposals were promulgated through IRPA and an open literature publication
was published in the Journal of Radiological Protection in June 1999. On the basis of comments
received and the observations presented at the IRPA-10 Congress in May 2000, the Commission is
beginning to develop the next recommendations. The article describes the issues involved in the
preparation of the next recommendations and indicates the process that the commission proposes to
follow. The Commission wishes there to be an ongoing debate with an iteration of ideas over the next
few years.
75
SPECIAL WRITING TASKS
Analyzing Essay Titles
Writing a Lab Report
76
4
4 WRITING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
Writing across the curriculum can differ significantly from one discipline to another. A physics
professor may ask you to write a lab report describing an experiment. A business course might
concentrate on case studies and reports. A philosophy course may require a number of short
papers developing abstract concepts or steps in logic. An economics professor may ask you to
write a paper explaining the effects that sweep through an economy from a change in the tax
system. In all these disciplines you will be asked to write reports that show you have read and
understood assigned books and articles.
These different kinds of papers require the same prewriting techniques, the drafting, the
revising, and the proofreading that apply in any other writing task. For each writing assignment,
be sure you understand its purpose and elements as well as the mechanics of length and date
due. Consider these questions.





Does the assignment call for a report or an essay? That is, does the assignment
require you primarily to assemble information, or does it require you to collect
information and interpret it?
What are the key words in the assignment? discuss, explain, compare , evaluate;
why, when, who, where, what. How do these key words define what you must
write?
How long will the paper be?
What is the deadline for the assignment?
Where will you find the evidence to help you write the assigned paper? The library
or the Internet? By observation? By experiment in the laboratory?
ANALYSING ESSAY TITLES
The title of an essay usually determines its topic (subject matter) and its focus (detailed
limitation of the topic).
The instruction word or phrase (rubric) tells you what text type you should produce. Below is a
list of the most common key-words with an explanation for each. In case there is no comment
or instruction, and neither can it be deducted from the title of the essay , then most probably a
free response essay is required.
Discuss: requires an answer which explains a concept, gives details about it with supportive
information, examples, points for and against.
Analyse: requires an answer which takes apart an idea or concept in order to consider all the
factors it consists of. Answers should be methodical and logical.
Evaluate: requires an answer which is similar to one with the key word Discuss but the
conclusion in this type is expected to make a judgement , either pro or contra,
the concept being discussed and evaluated.
Criticize: requires an answer which points out mistakes or weaknesses, and which also
indicates any favourable aspects of the subject. It requires a balanced answer.
77
Compare: requires an answer which sets items side by side and shows their similarities
and differences. A balanced (fair, objective) answer is expected.
Summarize/ Outline: requires a summary of all available information about a subject,
i.e. only the main points and not the details.
Trace/ Report: (most frequently in historical questions) requires the statement and brief
description in logical or chronological order of the stages in the development
of a theory, process, phenomenon etc.
Illustrate: requires an answer which consists mainly of examples to demonstrate or prove
the subject. It is often added to another instruction.
Prove/ Disprove: both require answers which demonstrate the logical arguments and/or
evidence connected with a proposition: prove requires the pro points, and disprove
the contra points.
State: requires an answer which expresses the relevant points briefly and clearly without
lengthy discussion or minor details.
Explain: requires an answer which gives a rather detailed and exact explanation of an idea
or a principle or a set of reasons for a situation or attitude.
Justify: requires an answer which gives only the reasons for a position or argument.
Define: requires an answer which explains the precise meaning of a concept.
WRITING A LAB REPORT
A lab report is a report of an experiment you do in a laboratory as part of a science course.
The lab report describes the materials you use in the experiment, narrates the process of the
experiment from start to finish , and gives its results.
The lab report allows your instructor to see if you have done the experiment correctly. The
structure required by the report helps train your mind in the orderly methods and precise
observations on which good science depends.
Lab reports are based on observation; the experiment is the primary “text.” No secondary
sources are consulted. When writing a lab report you must mention the materials or
instruments you used, the step by step process and the times involved in the various steps,
and the precise results of the experiment.
78
Here is an example of a lab report in an introductory physics class.
___________________________________________________________________________
Lab Report
Physics 212
Object of the Experiment: To demonstrate the transfer of energy in moving bodies that
collide with one another.
Materials for the Experiment: A baseball, a basketball, and a flat floor.
The Experiment: I held a basketball four feet from the floor in one hand and with the other
hand I held a baseball on top of the basketball so that the baseball rested on the
basketball. Quickly removing the hand supporting the basketball, I let the two balls fall
together on the floor, the baseball atop the basketball. When the basketball struck the
floor, it did not bounce. But the baseball on top of it rebounded about sixteen feet in the
air. I repeated this experiment several times, and the results were the same each time.
And the results were the same each time.
The principles of physics illustrated by the experiment are the conservation of energy and
the conservation of momentum. The law of the conservation of energy holds that although
energy can be transferred, it cannot be created or destroyed; the law of the conservation
of momentum holds that for every action there is an equal reaction. Energy is defined as
the ability of a body to do work; momentum is defined as velocity times mass.
The basketball is approximately three times as heavy as the baseball. Their mass thus
adds up to a factor of four. When the basketball and the baseball are held four feet above
the floor, they represent potential energy—a potential to do work. When they are dropped
together, they fall at the same velocity towards the floor. When the basketball strikes the
floor, it rebounds according to the law of the conservation of momentum that for every
action there is an equal reaction. In the instant of impact, it is travelling upward while the
baseball is travelling downward, and they are travelling at the same rate of speed. The
basketball rebounds from the baseball, but since it cannot move through the floor, and
since it is the heavier object, all the energy of its fall is transferred back to the baseball by
the law of the conservation of momentum. When a heavy object collides with an object
one-third its weight, all the energy is transferred to the lighter object.
Since the balls
were held four feet above the ground, and since the mass of the basketball represents
three and the mass of the baseball represents one, there is a total mass of four. Since the
basketball cannot move, the total energy of the falling mass, four, is transferred to the
baseball, which bounces four times as high as the distance the baseball and the basketball
were held off the floor. By the law of the conservation of energy , the potential energy of
the baseball at the height of its trajectory thus is the total of the potential energy of
baseball and basketball together at the start of the experiment.
________________________________________________________________________
Task 1
Report the results of an experiment you held in your study course.
79
SPECIAL WRITING TASKS
A Guide to Letter Writing
The Letter of Complaint
The Letter of Application
The Letter of Inquiry
Memoranda
80
5
5 WRITING IN THE WORKPLACE
A GENERAL REFERENCE GUIDE TO WRITING LETTERS
The opening paragraph of a letter should state the purpose of the letter. The middle
paragraph(s) should explain the details, beginning a new paragraph for each main point. The
closing paragraph should state the course of action needed or repeat the purpose of the letter.
Always use the appropriate phraseology for opening and closing.
Be clear about the point being made in each paragraph; topic sentences are very important.
Also, plan your letter well and in advance. It is very important to use the correct forms of
salutation, and signature endings should always be appropriate. Note that in the letter writing
section of the exam you are not required to write any addresses. The exact number and
division of paragraphs may also depend on the specific instructions for each letter-writing task.
Register is another important thing in letter writing; always bear in mind who you are talking to
and how this should affect the ‘tone’ of your letter. Remember to use the appropriate
vocabulary for both formal and informal letters.
Make sure that when writing a letter it is well structured and organized. Even if you make
mistakes, both the reader and the writer will be more tolerant of these in a letter which is
attractively set-out and neatly-written. Another very important point is the use of linking words
and phrases.
Formal and Informal Letters
The characteristics of formal style are:
 The greeting (Dear Sir/ Madam, Dear Mr. / Mrs. / Miss / Ms Lee)
 Frequent use of passive
 Formal Language (complex sentences, non colloquial English)
 No abbreviated forms
 The ending (Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully)
Note: Use Yours sincerely when you have used Dear Mr Lee and Yours faithfully when you
have used Dear Sir / Madam. Use Ms when you do not know whether the woman is married
or not.
The characteristics of informal style are:
 The greeting (Dear Alex, Dear dad,)
 Informal language and style (idioms, colloquial English)
 Abbreviated forms, pronouns omitted
 The ending (Yours / Love / Best Wishes / Regards / Anthony)
81
The characteristics of semi-formal style are:
 Formal greetings (Dear Mr/Mrs + surname)
 Informal endings (Best wishes / Yours + first name / full name)
 A respectful tone, depending on the relationship you have with the recipient of the
letter. Also, pronouns should not be omitted and idioms
should be carefully used.
_____________________________________________________
THE LETTER OF COMPLAINT
When something offends you, causes you inconvenience, or needs changing in public life, it is
necessary to write a letter of complaint to the appropriate people, organization, or department.

Read the following letter, in which Nikos complains to the company which arranged his
family’s holidays.
5 Vernardaki str.,
Athens 32
The Manager
Mondo Holidays
502 Academia Ave.
Athens 33321
2nd September ______
Dear sir,
I am writing to complain about a two-week holiday at “Nostos” apartments in
Naxos , which my family and I booked through your company. The holiday
number was N221 and the dates were 20th -28th August.
Firstly, there was no representative of your company to meet us at the airport.
We learnt later that the mini-bus had broken down earlier in the day.
Moreover, the taxi drivers were on strike so we had to walk half a kilometer to
the nearest bus stop, where we waited almost two hours for a bus. Eventually,
after a thirty minute walk at the other end, we arrived at the apartments at one
o’clock in the morning.
Secondly, none of the apartments had been cleaned since the previous occupants
had left. Fortunately, we found some clean sheets in one of the cupboards. When
we complained to the courier about this she told us that the cleaning lady had
been ill for several days.
Thirdly, your brochure stated that “Nostos” was “a pleasant , ten-minute stroll
from a fine sandy beach”. However , we found that it was over half an hour’s
walk along an extremely busy main road and that the beach was pebbly,
overcrowded and rather dirty.
Finally, whereas the brochure said that “evenings are fairly quiet at “Nostos” ,
there was , in fact, an incredibly noisy disco opposite the apartments. This made
it impossible to go to bed before three o’clock in the morning.
To sum up, this was the worst holiday my family and I have ever been on. The
standard of service was appalling and your brochure gave a misleading
description of the facilities. Therefore, I feel that we are entitled to a full refund of
the cost of the holiday.
I hope this matter will receive your prompt attention.
Yours faithfully,
Nikos Pappas
82
Writing practice
Task 1
To your local council (Parks Dept.).
You are not happy about the dirty beaches, water, parks in the district.
Give examples. Have you got any tentative solutions?
Task 2
You have ordered an electronic language translator you saw in an
advertisement in a newspaper. However you are not satisfied with what
you have received. Write a letter to the company which sold you the device
covering the points in your notes:
- too big to fit in a pocket
- German, French not included
- Lithium batteries not included
- Paid extra for p&p (postage and packing)
STUDY BOX Letters of Complaint


Letters of complaint are normally written in a formal style.
Mild or strong language can be used depending on the feelings of the writer or the
seriousness of the complaint, but abusive language must never be used.
Introduction
Paragraph 1: Appropriate opening remarks. State the purpose of the letter and give enough
detail for the reader to understand the correct nature of the complaint.
Main Body
Paragraph 2: Give all the detail(s) of the complaint. Make sure you include all necessary dates,
times, people involved, the inconvenience you faced, etc.
Paragraph 3: State what you would like to be done about the matter. Suggest action to be
taken.
Conclusion: Appropriate closing remarks.
Useful Language for Letters of Complaint
Opening Remarks: (mild) I am writing to complain about / regarding / on account of / on the
subject of …/ I am writing to draw your attention to… / I am writing in
connection with…etc.
(strong) I was appalled at / I want to express my strong dissatisfaction with /
I feel I must protest / complain about…etc.
Closing Remarks: (mild) I hope / assume you will replace / I trust the situation will improve / I
hope the matter will be resolved / I hope the matter can be sorted out…, etc.
(strong) I insist you replace the item at once / I demand a full refund / I hope
that I will not be forced to take further action etc.
______________________________________________________________
83
THE LETTER OF APPLICATION
(a) application for a job
5 Vernardaki str.
Athens 11233
Agelos Asteriou
Personnel Manager
MIKA Food Company
12 Alexandras Ave.
Greece
23 rd March ______
Dear Mr Asteriou,
I would like to apply for the position of assistant accountant that I saw advertised in yesterday’s
edition of the Citizen. I have completed my fourth year at the Athens University of Economics
as an Accounting major and I wish to supplement my education with relevant work experience.
From my enclosed CV you can see that in the past I worked as assistant accountant at
FERRIES food stores, where I assisted the bookkeeper in auditing procedures , including
applications to computerized systems.
As prospective accountant, I am particularly interested in working with a big firm like MIKA,
because I believe it can offer me a great potential and an opportunity to practice and improve
my professional status.
If you consider that my qualifications are suitable, I would be pleased to attend an interview.
Please write to mw at the above address or call me at 693244553.
I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Sincerely yours,
Petros Zouras
Petros Zouras
.
( b )Preparing a Résumé
Your résumé is an important document you will have throughout your working life. You will
need a résumé for applying for student work-study programs, part-time jobs, and your first job
upon graduation. Here are some things to include and attend to.
A résumé should include:
 personal data
 career objective
 education
 work experience
 special interests
 references
Be sure your résumé is:
 attractively laid out
 consistent in format and wording
 error free
84
_____________________________________________________________
RÉSUMÉ
MARIA KALOGIROU
Current Address
Permanent Address
20 Vernardaki street
Athens 11121
Tel.; 6934657899
2 Tourounzi street
Amfissa 3310
Tel.: 2265022333
CAREER OBJECTIVE
Position of accountant or assistant accountant
in an accounting firm.
EDUCATION
2002-2007
1994-2001
Athens University of Economics,
Department of Business Administration –Minor in
Accounting and Finance.
BA expected June 2008.
Major courses: Financial Management,
Accounting, Analysis of Financial Statements
24 Lyceum of Athens (HONS)
EXPERIENCE
Summers 2004/2006
Assistant bookkeeper, TASTY Food Stores.
Summer 2007
Clerical assistant to the Personnel Manager,
HELLAS Shipping Company.
SKILLS
Use Excel spreadsheets
Speak English (CPE Dec. 2005)
REFERENCES
Professor Anna Kontou
Department of Economics
Athens University of Economics
University Campus 11232
Phone: 210-7683400
Mr. Elias Goumas
Personnel Manager
Hellas Shipping Company Ltd
32 Alkiviadou str., Piraeus
Phone: 210-4230870
______________________________________________________________
85
(c )
The university you attend participates in a five-day European student conference. The subject
of the conference is the value of university life beyond the lecture rooms. The university has
decided to send two students to the conference and will pay all their expenses. The university
is inviting students to apply in writing, explaining why they should be chosen to represent the
university and what they would learn from the experience.
Dear Sir,
I am writing to put myself forward as a representative for the student conference to be held in
Rome on 22nd-26th May.
Throughout my student life, I have taken an active part in university life, namely the student
union, and I believe that I have benefited enormously as a result. Furthermore, I am an
articulate individual and I would be more than capable of communicating my experiences to
other students, given the chance to do so. I should mention here that I speak English and
Italian fluently.
As many students in their first year do, I joined the student union within a few days of arriving
at university. I soon participated in the entertainment committee, of which I am now
chairperson. I am proud of the events we organize and I believe that an active social life is
very important to students, particularly for those who live away from home for the first time.
Although I am not keen on sports, I am aware of the variety of sports available on campus.
Friends of mine who take advantage of such facilities speak highly of them. This is another
area of university life which I would be quick to comment on at the conference.
Finally, to be chosen to represent our university at the conference would be an honor. I would
find it a rewarding experience and would be able to bring back information and ideas from
other students attending other universities around Europe.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours faithfully,
Katerina Apostolou
Writing practice
Task 3
Write a letter of application for the job below.
CAMP LEADERS REQUIRED TO WORK WITH BRITISH CHILDREN






must be responsible, reliable and have the ability to lead
minimum age 16
must know rules of sports
some knowledge of first aid preferred
must be available for the months July/ August
must speak English fluently
86
Apply in writing to: British Society Summer Camp, Loutraki 22111, Greece
Task 4
A number of universities in Britain are running a one month summer course at advanced
level for the following subjects:
Bristol University: Technical English
Business Communications
Reading University: Scientific English
Advanced Translation Course
Task 5
Fill in the education application form.
FARNLEY POLYTECHNIC
APPLICATION FORM
A. Surname (BLOCK CAPITALS)
Other Names
Current Address & Phone No.
Permanent Address
Date of Birth
Age:
Place of Birth
Nationality:
Marital Status
B. Give brief details of your education:
Give brief details of any training you have received:
C. Explain your reasons for wishing to study here:
What do you hope to do after your course here?
Task 6
Use the University library; consult the relevant brochures, and write a
letter of application to a university to attend a degree or higher education
87
course in Britain.
STUDY BOX Letters of Application



A formal letter of application is written when applying for a job or a place on an
educational course.
A letter of application should be similar in style to the advertisement; that is, if the job
advertisement is written in a less formal style, the letter could also be written in a less
formal style. On the other hand, if the job advertisement is written in a formal style, the
letter must be formal, too.
Advertisements for temporary jobs (holiday or summer jobs) may be written in a less
formal style. A letter of application for such a job may not include extensive reference
to experience, qualifications or skills.
Letters Applying for a Job
Introduction
Paragraph 1: Appropriate opening remarks. State reason for writing mentioning the position
you would like to apply for and where and when you were informed about the
vacancy.
Main Body
Paragraph 2: Give details of age, qualifications, present / past employment, qualities and skills
and any other details you consider relevant.
Paragraph 3: Express your interest and suitability for the job and give your present / past
employers’ opinions of you. Appropriate closing remarks.
Conclusion: State that you are willing to attend an interview and look forward to a favourable
reply.
Useful Language for Letters of Application (for a job)
Opening remarks: I am writing with regard to your advertisement / I am writing to apply for the
post / job / position of … which I saw advertised in... etc.
Reference to experience: ... for the past / last year I have been working as… / Two years ago I
was employed as… / I worked as … before … / I have had experience
of..., etc.
Closing remarks: I would appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience / Please contact me
regarding any queries you might have / I enclose my CV and I would be glad
to attend an interview at any time convenient to you / I look forward to
hearing from you in due course, etc.
Useful Language for Letters of Application (for a course)
Opening remarks: I would like to apply for admission to the … beginning … / I would like to be
considered for…, etc.
Reference to experience: I hold a certificate / degree in / I am due to take examinations in / I
have sat the examination / I have completed the following courses /
My degree is in English, etc.
Closing remarks: I would appreciate a prompt reply at your earliest convenience / I look forward
to meeting you / I enclose further details regarding my education and
qualifications to date / I hope that you will consider me for entry / I look
forward to receiving your response in the near future, etc.
88
THE LETTER OF INQUIRY
(a)
You want to become a member of an environmental group. You have seen an advertisement in
a magazine and have decided to write to Greenhome to ask some questions about their
organization.
Dear sir/madam,
I am writing to you with regard to your advertisement published in the magazine “ Bios”. I am
interested in environmental issues and I am considering joining Greenhome. I would appreciate
it if you could give me some information about your organization.
To begin with, I would like to know how often the meetings are held and where they take place.
I would also be interested in knowing whether the talks are given by experts in the field or by
members of your association.
In addition, I would be grateful if you could inform me whether there is extra charge for the
newsletters you publish. Finally, I would like to know if there is a reduced membership fee for
students.
Thank you in advance for your assistance . I look forward to hearing from you at your earliest
convenience.
Yours faithfully,
Ann Kontou
(b)
Read the letter in which a language school informs a student of the accommodation
arrangements it has made for his stay in England.
BAKER STREET SCHOOL
5 Baker street, London ER3 5A
10th July ______
Dear Mr Petras,
Thank you for your letter of 30th June.
I confirm your enrolment on our six week intensive Technical English course which begins on
Monday 25th September. I would be grateful if you could send me the registration fee of $100
by the end of August.
As requested, I have arranged your accommodation with an English family and have
reserved a room for you from your arrival on 24th September until 7th November. The rent will
be $150 a week and will include bed, breakfast, and an evening meal.
Landlord: Ms Jonson
Address: 32 Palmer str., Notting Hill 552, London
Telephone: 00441392499944
89
Please write to the landlady confirming your reservation of a room in her house and informing
her of your expected time of arrival and your meal requirements.
I look forward to meeting you in September.
Yours sincerely,
John Smith
J. Smith
Accommodation Officer
(C)
The following letter is a request for information about a course.
University of London
Institute of Education
21 Bedford Way
London WCIH OOK
12 Vernardaki str.,
Ambelokipi
Athens 11555
Hellas
4th March ________
Dear Sir,
I am interested in obtaining the MA in TESOL and attending the respective course for the 2008/2009
academic year.
I hold a University degree plus two years experience of teaching ESL/EFL. I would very much like to
improve my knowledge of methods and raise my overall standard of teaching proficiency.
I would be grateful if you could send me an application form and a syllabus providing details about
course requirements, general qualifications, fees, and so on.
Yours respectfully,
Eva Kaloghirou
Eva Kaloghirou
Writing practice
Task 7
Write the letter Mr Petras wrote to Mr Smith. (letter b)
Task 8
Read the advertisement that follows and write a letter asking for detailed information about
the course content, tuition fees, entry qualifications , requirements, information about
accommodation, dates. Mention why you are interested in attending this course.
90
THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM CITY
Postgraduate training in the Department of Economics at
The University of Birmingham City
A unique one-year MBA programme starting next September in each of the following
specializations:
 Industrial policy and strategic management
 Accounting and finance
 Information systems
 International business (jointly with Maastricht University,
The Netherlands)
Application forms and further information available from: Director of MBA Programme,
Economics Dept., The University of Birmingham City, Birmingham B12&65
STUDY BOX Letters Asking for / Giving Information
 Their style can be either formal or informal.
Introduction
Paragraph 1: Appropriate opening remarks. State the purpose of the letters. If you are
responding to an advertisement, say where you saw it.
Main Body
Paragraph 2: Make a specific request for information or give the appropriate information.
Paragraph 3: Finish the letter politely (offering to send any more information required if it is a
letter giving information).
Conclusion: Appropriate closing remarks.
Useful Language for Letters Asking for Information
Opening remarks: (formal) I am writing to inquire about / in connection with, etc. (informal) can
you let me know / I want you to tell me…, etc.
Introducing first request: (formal) Could you possibly send / I would be grateful if you could/ I
would appreciate some information about, etc.
(informal) Can you send / tell me…, etc.
Introducing further requests: (formal) Could you also please send me / Another matter I also
need information is…
(informal) can you also find out…, etc.
Closing remarks: (formal) I look forward to receiving / I would appreciate it if you could inform
me as soon as possible, etc.
(informal) Please, let me know / Send me the details, etc.
Useful Language for Letters Giving Information
Opening remarks: (formal) I am writing in reply to your letter asking for information about / I am
writing to inform you about / In reply to your query, etc. (informal) You
wanted me to tell you a few things about / This is what I found out, etc.
Closing remarks: (formal) I hope that I have been of some assistance to you / Please inform me
if I could be of any further assistance / Please do not hesitate to contact me
if you need any further information, etc. (informal) I hope this will help you /
Let me know if you need any more help, etc.
___________________________________________________________________________
91
WRITING A MEMO
The memo –short for memorandum- is the most common form of intra-organizational
communication. A memo may be just a paragraph or two, or it may run on several pages. You
might send a memo to a single recipient or to dozens of people.
Memos have many purposes. You can use a memo to announce the hiring or departure of
personnel, to issue a new policy, to report on certain activities, to give instructions , to remind
people about things they must do , and so forth.
Circulating information by memo has certain advantages for companies and for the people who
write them. Unlike verbal communications, memos
-
create a record that may be useful in the future
allow for detailed reporting
give recipients time to think about the content and return to it as necessary
facilitate broad distribution
Here is a sample memo:
EUROMEDICUS DIAGNOSTIC CENTRE
MEMORANDUM
To:
Production Line Employees
From:
Nikos Agelou, Managing Director
Date:
June 2007
Subject:
Reduction in Force
N Agelou
We regret to inform you that sales are down, and the recent downturn in the
economy does not appear to be improving. This means the company must cut
back on production. As a result , all production line employees, including
managers, will be terminated on August 30, 2007.
Unfortunately, your health insurance will also end on August 30, 2007. To
compensate for your loss of wages and benefits, the company will give a
severance check in the amount of $5.000.00 to each employee affected by
this reduction in force.
Please contact me if you have any questions or if you would like a letter of
reference for your next employer.
92
WORKS CITED
Gear, Jolene. Cambridge Preparation for the TOEFL Test. Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Hamp-Lyons, Liz., Ben Heasley. Study Writing. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Leskovich-Chiotis I.International Commercial Correspondence. P.I Publishing, 2008.
Marius,Richard, Harvey S. Wiener. The McGraw-Hill College Handbook. USA: McGraw-Hill ,
Inc., 1994.
Moore, John et al., Reading and Thinking in English. Ed. Swales, John. Episodes in ESP.
Pergamon Press Ltd. 1985.
Parks Franklin A., James A. Levernier , Ida Masters Hollowell. Structuring Paragraphs: A Guide
to Effective writing. USA: St. Martin’s Press, Inc., 1991.
93
94