Mass Media
General Paper Programme
Jurong Junior College English Department
Name: _________________________________
Civics Class: _____________________________
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1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
ESSAY QUESTIONS......................................................................................................................... 3
2
ROLE /FUNCTION/ IMPACT OF THE MEDIA .................................................................................... 6
2.1
Definitions .......................................................................................................................................6
2.2
The Changing Face of The Media ...................................................................................................6
2.3
Functions of The Media ..................................................................................................................6
2.4
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders ....................................................................................................7
2.5
Analysis & Evaluation .....................................................................................................................7
2.5.1 Knowing more about Singapore ............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.6
Reading articles ..............................................................................................................................9
2.6.1 Role and Function of The Media ............................................................................................................................................ 9
2.6.2 Impact of the media ...................................................................................................................................................................... 14
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
MEDIA ETHICS ............................................................................................................................. 26
Definitions ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Ethics of Journalism ...................................................................................................................... 26
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders .................................................................................................. 26
Analysis & Evaluation ................................................................................................................... 26
Reading articles ............................................................................................................................ 27
PRESS FREEDOM ......................................................................................................................... 38
Definitions ..................................................................................................................................... 38
Press Freedom World Wide .......................................................................................................... 38
New Developments, New Challenges ........................................................................................... 38
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders .................................................................................................. 38
Analysis & Evaluation ................................................................................................................... 39
Reading Articles ............................................................................................................................ 40
NEW MEDIA ................................................................................................................................ 52
Definitions ..................................................................................................................................... 52
The Rise of New Media ................................................................................................................. 52
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders .................................................................................................. 52
Analysis & Evaluation ................................................................................................................... 53
Reading articles ............................................................................................................................ 54
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1 ESSAY QUESTIONS
Role/function/impact of the media
1. To what extent do the newspapers and magazines that you read deal with what is trivial, rather than
with what is important? (‘A’ Levels 2006)
2. Discuss the appeal and value of fantasy stories and films. (‘A’ Levels 2004)
3. A film has one purpose - to entertain.' Using examples, consider this view. (‘A’ Levels 2001)
4. ‘Children’s stories do more than entertain.’ Comment. (SRJC Prelim 2006)
5. Is the media responsible for instilling values? (SAJC Prelim 2004)
6. ‘Nowadays, the pleasures of reading can never compete with the pleasures of visual entertainment.’
To what extent do you agree? (‘A’ Levels 2008)
7. How far do magazines or television programmes aimed at young people in Singapore have a positive
effect? (‘A’ Levels 2005)
8. Assess the impact of foreign films or foreign TV programmes on the culture of your society. (‘A’
Levels 2009)
9. Consider the argument that the media exploit more than they inform. (JJC Prelim 2000)
10. ‘Entertainment over information.’ To what extent is this true of the mass media in your society? (CJC
CT 2008)
11. Switching off the television will do more good than harm.’ Discuss. (MJC CT 2006)
12. To what extent does the media dictate our way of life? (PJC Prelim 2010)
13. Has the influence of the mass media been grossly overrated? (JJC Prelim 2001)
14. ‘The mass media possesses too much power.’ How far do you agree? (IJC CT 2010)
15. To what extent is the media playing a destructive role in society today? (MJC Prelim, 2010)
16. ‘To what extent does the media have a negative impact on youths today? (SRJC Prelim 2011)
17. To what extent do the media encourage escapism? (ACJC Prelim 2012)
18. The benefits of the information highway have been overrated.’ Do you agree? (PJC Prelim 2004)
19. Man is growing increasingly lonely in the age of telecommunications. Discuss. (AJC Prelim, 2004)
20. The mass media is the new religion of the millennium. Comment. (NYJC Prelim, 2004)
21. Television has only served to expose Man’s base instincts. Do you agree? (ACJC Prelim, 2004)
22. ‘The mass media is nothing but a profit-making machine.’ Evaluate this claim. (CJC Prelim, 2010)
23. ‘The media works best when it gives the masses exactly what they want.’ Discuss. (RI Prelim, 2010)
24. 'The truth should be told, whatever the cost.' How far should this be the primary concern of the
media? (JJC Common Test, 2001)
25. ‘The media is guilty of misguiding’. To what extent is this true? (TPJC Prelim 2007)
26. ‘Harmony seldom makes a headline.’ Discuss this in relation to the mass media today. (ACJC Prelim,
2008)
27. ‘Sensationalism always sells.’ Is this true? (MI Prelim 2011)
28. ‘The media have exaggerated the importance of sport.’ Do you agree? (RJC Prelim, 2008)
29. Media literacy must be an integral part of the school curriculum. Do you agree? (NJC CT 2009)
30. Movies today are an accurate reflection of the realities in today’s world. To what extent do you
agree? (NYJC Prelim 2010)
31. Is objective reporting ever possible? (SAJC Prelim 2011)
32. Do the media always act in the interest of the public? (VJC Prelim 2011)
33. ‘Celebrities exert an undeserved influence over the young.’ Do you agree? (SRJC Prelim, 2004)
34. 'Far too much attention is given to beauty products and treatments.' Do you agree? (‘A’ Levels 2004)
35. Can the media ever be relied upon to convey the truth? (‘A’ Levels 2003)
36. ‘Journalism should always be about the truth.’ Discuss. (MJC Prelim 2012)
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Censorship/regulation of the media
37. ‘Censorship is now the responsibility of society, not the state.’ Discuss. (IJC CT 2008)
38. In the age of the Internet, why bother with censorship laws? (HCJC Prelim 2004)
39. Self-censorship is the best form of social regulation. To what extent is this true? (SAJC Prelim 2006)
40. Is censorship becoming increasingly necessary in today’s world? (CJC Prelim 2008)
41. ‘The media needs more control, not more freedom.’ Do you agree? (AJC Prelim 2012)
42. Should anyone ever have his access to the Internet restricted? (MJC Prelim 2012)
43. Should any limits be placed upon media freedom? (NYJC Prelim 2012)
Traditional media vs new media
44. With the rise of the Internet, have conventional media become obsolete? (TJC CT 2006)
45. Should it be a cause for concern that the Internet is putting conventional newspapers out of
business? (HCI Prelim, 2009)
46. In the digital age do newspapers still have a role in your society? (‘A’ Levels 2011)
New media
47. To what extent has new media changed the face of human interaction? (RI Prelim 2011)
48. Are blogs a blessing or a curse? (SRJC Prelim, 2006)
49. ‘Everyone is talking but no one is listening.’ Is this a fair comment on the new media? (TJC Prelim
2012)
50. “Citizen journalism is more about ego than it is about impact.” Discuss. (MI Prelim 2007)
51. ‘Access to new media has empowered individuals, but weakened establishments.’ Is this a fair
statement? (NYJC Prelim 2008)
52. Is it true that the social media has created more problems than benefits? (SAJC Prelim, 2010)
53. ‘The success of social media is also its problem.’ Comment. (VJC Prelim 2012)
54. Discuss the impact of new media on social cohesion in your society. (RI Prelim 2012)
55. To what extent has the new media compromised people’s privacy? (NJC Prelim 2012)
56. ‘Only the individual can protect his own privacy.’ How true is this in the age of social media? (YJC
Prelim 2012)
57. Discuss the impact of the Internet on politics in your country. (AJC Prelim 2011)
58. ‘Social media has changed the face of politics.’ Do you agree? (SRJC Prelim 2012)
59. To what extent do the new media promote democratic ideals? (ACJC Prelim 2009)
60. Social media brings more harm than good. What are your views? (MI Prelim 2011)
61. Social media is a curse. Comment. (MI Prelim 2012)
62. Our social needs can never be met online. Is this a fair statement? (PJC Prelim 2011)
63. To what extent should users of social media have the right to decide what goes public? (IJC Prelim
2012)
64. ‘What we say on online social media has no value.’ Discuss. (MJC Prelim 2011)
Advertising
65. 'Advertisements are often entertaining, but they rarely affect consumer choice.' Is this your
experience? (‘A’ Levels 2007)
66. Advertising encourages a desire for products which people do not actually need. Discuss. (‘A’ Levels
2004)
67. ‘Advertising reflects the values of society but does not influence them.’ (David Ogilvy) What are your
views? (RI Prelim 2012)
68. Do you agree that advertising is a necessary evil? (MJC CT 2006)
69. Do you agree with the criticism that most people have been so brainwashed by advertising that they
are unable to appreciate true beauty? (HCI Prelim 2010)
70. ‘Advertisements hinder us from making good decisions.’ Discuss. (SAJC Prelim, 2010)
71. ‘Powerful branding now dictates consumer choice.’ Do you agree? (NJC Prelim 2010)
72. ‘Only advertisers gain from advertising.’ Do you agree? (SAJC Prelim 2012)
73. Should advertising be restricted in any way? (‘A’ Levels 2001)
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General questions
74. There is no such thing as privacy today. Comment. (MJC Prelim 2007)
75. ‘The individual today is powerless in protecting his right to privacy.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? CJC CT 2008)
76. There is no longer a clear cultural distinction between the East and the West. Do you agree? (NYJC
Prelim 2010)
77. Singapore is working towards a more open and liberal society. Discuss the implications. (MI Prelim
2007)
78. ‘Fear always springs from ignorance’ (Ralph Waldo Emerson). To what extent is this true? (TPJC
Prelim, 2007)
79. ‘A celebrity’s life is nothing to be envied.’ Do you agree? (TJC Prelim, 2009)
80. The portrayal of celebrities as ‘larger than life’ does more harm than good. Discuss. (NYJC Prelim
2008)
81. ‘Our fascination with fame and celebrities is having a negative impact on our fundamental values.’ Do
you agree? NJC Prelim 2011)
82. ‘These days anyone can become a celebrity.’ Discuss. (YJC Prelim 2011)
83. ‘The people we idolise are a reflection of our values and character.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? (ACJC Prelim 2009)
84. ‘The next few decades will see the increasing dominance of Asia.’ Discuss. (SRJC Prelim, 2009)
85. Discuss the importance of image. (DHS Prelim 2011)
86. Is fame more of a blessing or a curse? (AJC Prelim 2011)
87. ‘Governments have a right to censor undesirable elements of their nations’ history.’ Do you agree?
(RI Prelim 2011)
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2 ROLE /FUNCTION/ IMPACT OF THE MEDIA
2.1
Definitions


2.2
Mass media is the means of communication designed to reach a very large audience.
Traditional forms of media include print and broadcast media. However, with the improvement in
technology, we have since seen the birth of the new media.
The Changing Face of The Media
During the 1970s
TV
Film
Radio
New Media
2.3
Watching television meant
watching a large, public or
government network
Seeing A new film meant
going to a movie theatre,
repeat run of a film occurs a
few years on a television
network
FM radio starting to spread,
listening to records was the
mainstay
What's a home computer and
what's the Internet?
Present Times
Direct broadcast via satellites
and cable television available
Mass distribution and home
recording available (video
cassettes, laser dics, vcds,
dvds, online video streaming)
CDs, MP3s are the standard
formats with satellite radio
entering the market
Web pages, web sites, web
portals, web blogs, 3G, "TV
Mobile", interactive TV, online
shopping
Functions of The Media


The media is a tool used by different players in society to serve the following functions:
o Advocacy (advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, political and social
communication)
o Education
o Entertainment
o Information/Journalism
o Public Service Announcements
The functions served by any country’s media system will be largely influenced by its government
and culture of society.
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2.4
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders




2.5
Individuals
o Consumers
o Citizen journalists
o Journalists
o Celebrities
Corporations
o Advertising firms
o Advertisers
o Media agencies
o News agencies
o Media owners
Governments
Non-Governmental Organisations
o Human Rights Activists
o Reporters Without Borders
Analysis & Evaluation
1. What impacts does the media have on society?
 Remember to consider the different perspectives (cultural, economic, psychological,
political, social etc.).
 How do the different stakeholders make use of the media to influence others?
 How much influence does the media have over the public today?
2. What are some criticisms of the news that are collected and sold by news agencies? Do you think
these criticisms are valid? Why or why not?
3. Find out more about news agencies. What are their roles? How do they work? What are some
examples of the key players in the industry?
4. Are there any universal journalistic values? If so, what are they? If there are no such universal
values, are there some that are more common than others?
5. Is freedom of speech and expression really universal? Can it be universal? Why or why not?
6. Does the media today need more control or more freedom? Justify your answer.
7. ‘The media should not be completely free.’ Do you agree?
8. Does the rise of new media complement or threaten the role of traditional media?
9. The real vs. the reel life – Is the media a mere exaggeration of reality?
10. ‘The mass media possesses too much power’ vs. ‘The influence of the media has been grossly
overrated.’ Which view are you more in agreement with? Justify your answer.
11. Find out more about media violence.
 Is there really a link between consuming media violence and subsequent aggressive
and violent behaviour?
 What are some criticisms of research into media violence? How valid do you think they
are?
 Other than violence, there are various aspects of the media that are also regulated,
especially with regard to consumption by children. What are these aspects?
12. How does the media reinforce stereotypes?
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2.5.1 Knowing more about Singapore
1. Make a list of characteristics of the Singapore media system. Account for these characteristics.
 Are there any media systems that are similar to Singapore’s? What are some examples?
Are the systems exactly the same? In what ways do they differ? Why do you think that is
the case?
2. How free is the media in Singapore?
3. Does the media serve more as a watchdog or a lapdog in your society?
4. Identify some media regulations specific to Singapore.
 Why do you think these laws are necessary?
 How effective are they?
 Provide some specific examples/ case studies of these laws being exercised.
5. The Singapore entertainment industry has been criticised for not being creative and merely
copying foreign programmes. How valid is this claim?
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2.6
2.6.1
Reading articles
Role and Function of The Media
Reading 2A
Role of Media: No One Size Fits All
1
The traditional liberal theory of media is that it should represent different points of view. That
will encourage open discussion and, as a result, there will be better outcomes for society.
The media should in effect play the role of the Fourth Estate, checking the government.
2
That is the theory. The reality is a little different. Firstly, journalists, like the rest of us, are
human, and subject to influences and vices. They can be biased, unfair and prejudiced. 5
Media companies are also often profit-driven, like other commercial entities. It is not
uncommon for journalistic values to be sacrificed in the pursuit of profit. Consequentially,
media companies and journalists, like other entities, can be bought, suborned and corrupted particularly in developing countries. In addition, competition and the need for the advertising
dollar can compromise ethics.
10
3
The media can have tremendous influence in the political process. It can set the agenda for
discussion, it can shape public opinion about the government, and it can make or break
politicians. As the Fourth Estate, it is an active player in the political process. Yet, it is the
only institution in the political process that is often not subject to any checks and balances.
The answer that the public provides the check and balance is a non-answer.
15
4
The media in America has a wider and freer role than in almost any other country in the
world. That this approach can cause some harm to American society has long been
recognised. The view, however, is that the risk is nevertheless a price worth paying. There is
a fundamental assumption underlying this reasoning - that American society is strong enough
to withstand the possible harmful consequences arising from such an approach. If, however, 20
that fundamental assumption changes, then there has to be a different calculation. That,
precisely, is Singapore's position.
5
Our view is that our small society, with a short common shared history, enclosed within a
small island, cannot withstand the harm that can be caused by giving our media the role that
the United States media has. By the time we have some light, after all the heat, irreparable 25
harm may have been caused - or at least a level of harm that we as a society are not
prepared to accept. Our view on the role of the media is that it should be a neutral medium
for conveying news, with commentary clearly separate from news; it should report fully and
fairly what goes on. It can probe, ask the inconvenient questions and expose wrongdoing; but
it should not join the political fray and become a political actor. It should not campaign for or 30
against a policy position. The media can and should convey the views of opposing political
actors - and people can judge for themselves. But if a journalist or a newspaper owner wants
to take part in the political process, then he or she should join a political party, and not use
the privileged access to the media to push a political perspective.
6
Obviously, our views are not very popular. And unsurprisingly, Singapore gets some negative 35
attention from the international media. But when I look at some of the criticism, I wonder at
the objectivity. Let me give an example: Reporters Without Borders (RSF) comes out with an
annual ranking of countries on press freedom. This year, they ranked Singapore 136th, below
Iraq (130th), Zimbabwe (123rd) and Guinea (113th). Last year, the International Herald
Tribune ran a story headlined, 'Ousting Guinea's brutal junta'. The first paragraph read: 'Over 40
150 people were gunned down by soldiers in the West Africa country of Guinea. Women
were raped on the streets and opposition leaders were locked up. This was the response of a
brutal military junta to a group of brave citizens who dared to hold a peaceful pro-democracy
rally.' Singapore is apparently below Guinea in press freedom, and has been since 2003.
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7
What is RSF's methodology? As I understand it, they go to each country and choose some 45
people to ask what they think about press freedom in that country. The scores thus seem to
depend entirely on who is chosen to be questioned, and how subjective that person is. It is
not the same group of people who assess each country by a defined set of criteria.
8
Contrast all of this with a Gallup poll. In 2005 and 2006, Gallup asked residents in 128
countries whether they had confidence in the quality and integrity of their media. Sixty-nine 50
per cent of Singaporeans polled answered in the affirmative. The figure for the US in the
Gallup poll was 32 per cent. Could Singapore have done as well if our media played the role
that the American media plays? Alternatively, given our current level of development, should
we change? I will give a couple of reasons why I believe that we should stick to what has
worked for us. First, we can look at developing countries that adopted the US model. By 55
comparison to them, we perform better in terms of the human development index and
stability. And the media in these countries is not a model we want for Singapore. Second, we
can look at the US itself. For an outsider like me - and I am an admirer of many aspects of
the US system - it is not so clear any more that every aspect of the US system will work well,
particularly for us.
60
9
The questions that arise for an observer include: Does the media in the US always pursue
the truth and seek to enlighten the readers? Do parts of the US media act as campaign arms
of politicians, peddle half-truths and present biased perspectives? Do viewers get to the truth
or do they rely on their preferred media, seeking to confirm their own prejudices? Is it
financially more lucrative for the media to serve up red meat to a secure base of viewers, 65
rather than seek the middle ground? To what extent does money affect the traditional theory
of a marketplace of ideas? If a particular group can buy more campaign advertisements, will
that group not have an advantage? How does it help democracy if pursuant to the principles
of free speech, large groups can play a big financial role in elections? Can people make
informed choices when campaign ads have little relation to the facts or the serious issues? 70
Would not truth be swift boated, as it were, and distinguished records tarnished through
unfair means?
10 Tom Friedman of The New York Times had a commentary on US politics a few days ago,
which ended thus: 'A dysfunctional political system is one that knows the right answers but
can't even discuss them rationally, let alone act on them, and one that devotes far more 75
attention to cable TV preachers than to recommendations by its best scientists and
engineers.' If the marketplace of ideas is working well, then why this lament? Other
commentators have made similar points: I refer to them not so much to say they are right.
The only point I make is that serious people say this, they are knowledgeable, and these do
not appear to be extreme or fringe views - and we outside America must consider them when 80
considering if the US system will work for us. I don't seek to prescribe for the US.
11 Even from a larger perspective, moving beyond the media, there can be serious questions as
to whether American-style democracy can work for everyone. I refer to the legislative
process, with its earmarks and gridlock; the role of lobbies and vested interests; the amount
of money needed for elections; the time congressmen spend networking and raising money; 85
the deep political divides; and the general aversion of candidates to deal with serious issues
in their campaigns. The system works for America. This is a great country and will remain so.
But can the rest of us adopt this system? My own view is that the US system will impose
costs that a large, rich country like the US can afford - but the cost will be too high for some
of us.
90
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12 We believe that our system works for us, and we don't shut out the world. We have more than
5,500 foreign newspapers and publications in circulation in Singapore. Close to 100 TV
channels are carried on our cable networks. Nearly 200 correspondents from 72 foreign
media organisations are based in Singapore. Also, household broadband penetration is more
than 100 per cent; and our population is English-educated and Internet savvy. Singaporeans 95
rank among the world's most-travelled populations. In 2008, 6.8 million passenger trips were
made, more than the number of Singapore residents.
13 Let me now address the issue of our libel laws - which often excite much interest,
internationally. Our libel laws are based on English common law. If you make a personal
attack of fact against a person's reputation - for example, by alleging that he is corrupt or that 100
he embezzled state funds - then you should be prepared to prove it in court. We do not
believe that public discourse should degenerate to a base level, by allowing untrue personal
attacks. We would like to keep political debate focused on issues. You can attack
government policies fiercely. That will not be defamatory. And let the people choose the
candidates based on alternative policies. America takes a different view. We respect that, but 105
we disagree that that approach leads to a better debate - and in saying this, I am aware of
the 'chilling effect' argument.
14 It is also sometimes suggested that our libel laws are used to perpetuate a one-party system
in Singapore. As proof, commentators will refer to the fact that the governing party has been
in power since independence in 1965. There are several responses to this. I will give just 110
one. Remember that Singapore is a city state. There are no great geographical variations, no
serious economic differences between regions, no great demographic variations. It is one
relatively small city; the comparison should be with city politics in the US. If you consider
cities in the US - for example, San Francisco - you also see uninterrupted hold on power by
one party for decades. So in city politics, it is possible for a party to retain power for a long 115
time.
15 My basic point is that each of us has to choose what works for us. Over time, it is possible
that a set of core values can evolve across countries - but this has to be agreed rather than
imposed.
Source: Straits Times online archive, 6 Nov 2010.
Adapted from speech by Home Affairs and Law Minister K. Shanmugam spoke on 'The Role of the Media: Singapore's
Perspective' at a forum in Columbia University on Thursday.
Food for thought

Compare and contrast the Singapore and American media systems. How do they differ? Are there
any similarities?
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Reading 2B
All the Propaganda That's Fit to Print
By: Isaac Stone Fish and Tony Dokoupil
Why Xinhua, China's state news agency, could be the future of journalism.
1
For decades Xinhua has been an unavoidable presence in China. It has a monopoly on
official news and the regulatory power to complicate life for other media outfits. But as China
has grown in wealth and international stature, Beijing has tired of feeling overlooked or
maligned by the Western press. So Xinhua's role has been redefined, as a means for China
to wield soft power abroad. In the last year alone, the 80-year-old outlet launched a 24-hour 5
English-language news station, colonized a skyscraper in New York's Times Square, and
announced plans to expand its news-gathering operation from 120 to 200 overseas bureaus
and as many as 6,000 journalists abroad. Not to be outdone by its Western peers, Xinhua has
also released an iPhone app for "Xinhua news, cartoons, financial information and
entertainment programs around the clock."
10
2
With a price tag estimated in the billions of dollars, the new Xinhua is an expensive
megaphone. But it's key "to breaking the monopoly and verbal hegemony" of the West,
according to remarks released last year by Xinhua's president, Li Congjun, who often sounds
like he's channeling Noam Chomsky. Xinhua declined to make officials available for this story,
citing "holiday season." But clearly the effort has to do with the new rules of propaganda, too. 15
Where the game was once about suppressing news, it's now about overwhelming it, flooding
the market with your own information. Airbrushing photos is for amateurs.
3
The challenge is finding an audience for "news" that is best known for its blind spots. The
typical Xinhua sentence is thick on the tongue ("out of which 20 percent were the HIV-infected
persons") and often inaccurate by design. In Xinhua's world, the Tiananmen Square 20
massacre never happened, Falun Gong is an evil cult, and the Dalai Lama is the Guy Fawkes
of Tibet. Xinhua also gathers sensitive news--such as the full heads-rolling horror of the
Uighur riots last summer--and releases it to Chinese officials alone. It's as if The New York
Times were to stamp its scoops "internal reference reports" and file them to President
Obama.
25
4
Nevertheless, Xinhua may be the future of news for one big reason: cost. Most news
organizations are in retreat, shuttering bureaus and laying off journalists. But the former "Red
China News Agency" doesn't need to worry about the inconvenience of turning a profit. As a
result, it might do for news what China's state-run factories have done for tawdry baubles and
cheap clothes: take something that has become a commodity and foist it onto the world far 30
more cheaply than anyone else can. "It gives them an inherent competitive advantage" says
Tuna Amobi, a media analyst for Standard & Poor's, who thinks Xinhua's cheap news "might
fly." A subscription to all Xinhua stories costs in the low five figures, compared with at least six
figures for comparable access to the Associated Press, Reuters, or AFP. For customers who
still can't afford the fees, a Xinhua aid program offers everything--content, equipment, and 35
technical support--for free.
5
It's an alluring deal in the Middle East, Africa, and the developing world, where newsprint
sales are up and there's hunger for non-Western perspectives. Xinhua operates in areas
uncovered by the ratings agencies, so it is hard to gauge audience size. But in recent months,
Xinhua has signed content deals with state-run outlets in Cuba, Mongolia, Malaysia, Vietnam, 40
Turkey, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe, making it a leading source of news for Africa and much of
Asia, with more boots on the ground in those continents than any other organization.
6
It helps, of course, that Xinhua's spin diminishes when the news does not involve China. "I
read them quite a lot," says Daniel Bettini, foreign editor for Yedioth Ahronoth, one of Israel's
largest newspapers. Editors in Pakistan and Turkey also praise Xinhua, noting that the 45
language is simple and the quality has improved. "In the second Gulf war they were very
good," says Kamil Erdogdu, China correspondent for Turkey's state news agency. "They got
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many things first; I used them many times." AFP and the European Pressphoto Agency
recently agreed to sell Xinhua images abroad. "I'm not convinced [censorship] makes a whole
lot of difference" for video and pictures, says Jim Laurie, a former ABC and NBC 50
correspondent who now consults for China Central Television (which is also expanding
abroad). "Bottom line is so important," Laurie continues, that "if you see a source of video that
is reasonably good, reasonably reliable, and reasonably inexpensive, you'll access it."
7
So far the more established wire services seem to be taking a philosophical approach. The
AP declined to comment, and AFP didn't respond to a request for comment by press time. But 55
Reuters sees Xinhua's expansion as a sign of "the viability of the global landscape," a view
shared by many media analysts, who believe Xinhua's popularity in emerging markets will be
fleeting, a stop-gap until private news outlets can afford the higher-quality wires. To help
companies make the jump, all three agencies offer coverage on a more affordable, a la carte
basis (just global sports news, for instance). But this view assumes that Xinhua will be seen 60
as a propaganda outlet for years to come.
8
In recent months, Xinhua has worked to change that image, opening its first bookstore in
London, partnering with the United Nations Children's Fund to cover the well-being of children
on six continents, and installing dozens of public flat-screen televisions around Europe to
show its feed. And even if the agency fails to improve its image, naked bias is not a handicap 65
the way it was for TASS, the Soviet Union's 100-bureau news agency during the Cold War.
True, Xinhua's coverage of the United States is hardly fair and balanced. Earlier this year,
when the Pentagon unveiled a report on China's military ambitions, it was brushed aside by
Xinhua, which called it "'unprofessional', guilty of ambiguities and inconsistencies." But to
many the Chinese perspective now seems like just another ideological choice on the dial, an 70
option as valid as Al-Jazeera, Fox News, or MSNBC. An African or Asian newspaper editor
might find the bias less annoying than the Pentagon does, says Minxin Pei, a senior associate
at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
9
A bigger problem is the fact that Xinhua is often face-rakingly boring, as one would expect
from an organization that believes "news coverage should help beef up the confidence of the 75
market and unity of the nation." For real information, even government officials are known to
read Western outlets. The rest of the world may continue to do the same.
Dokoupil, Tony, and Isaac Stone Fish. "All the Propaganda That's Fit to Print."Newsweek 13 Sept. 2010: 42. Gale Opposing
Viewpoints In Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2012.
Food for thought


According to the passage, why is Xinhua’s rise in popularity worrying? Do you think there
is really a cause for worry?
Xinhua’s rise in popularity is an example of soft power in action. What does ‘soft power’
mean? Other than through the news, in what other ways do we see soft power in action?
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2.6.2
Impact of the media
Reading 2C
1
That violence occurs in real life, no one can deny; and few would argue that the media should
never, under any circumstances, depict or describe an act of deadly or injurious violence.
2
I recently watched “Glory,” a film about the heroic efforts of African American Union soldiers in
the Civil War. I wouldn’t recommend the film for small children, but the film’s graphic violence
was not unnecessary. Many documentaries about the two World Wars of this century have 5
depicted the horror of war. I wouldn’t recommend them for small children, but none depicted
violence in a gratuitous manner. “Private Ryan” and “Schindler’s List” also depict horrific
violence; but again, the purpose is to instruct, not sensationalise.
3
As I see it, however, there are four big problems with media violence. The first problem is that
there is too much of it. Dr. George Gerbner, dean-emeritus of the Annenberg School of 10
Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, has been the most eloquent spokesperson for
the view that, apart from any causal connection to real life violence, the glut of media violence
desensitises viewers and contributes to the mean world syndrome. I would add that the glut of
media violence also robs young people of valuable opportunities to view programs in which
others successfully deal with real life problems without violence and participate in an infinite 15
variety of constructive (or at least not injurious) and often rewarding activities.
4
A second problem with media violence is that much of it can easily be imitated. To help make the
point, I will digress for a few moments to my own childhood. I grew up in a community where
hunting was common and where many people, including my father, had a gun in the home.
Killing each other or our classmates, teachers or neighbours, however, never entered our young, 20
impressionable minds.
5
Today, things are different. Gone are the industry standards that prevented film producers and
directors from glorifying the bad guys; and the bad guys are no longer cowboys, hostile armies
or denizens of the underworld or a black lagoon. They are often troubled, youthful characters
with real life counterparts found in our nation’s troubled homes and communities, and they 25
engage in behaviour kids can readily imitate.
6
A third problem with today’s media violence is the manner in which it is depicted. It is one thing
to show a shooting or stabbing; it is another to show it in sadistic slow motion with the bullet(s) or
knife penetrating the body, the blood spurting and a body part dangling or flying—and to do so,
not for the purpose of showing the horror of violence, but rather to portray it as an exciting, 30
pleasurable and effective way to handle problems.
7
The fourth problem with media violence is Hollywood’s infatuation with guns. Instead of
portraying guns as, at best, a necessary evil (when used as weapons), guns—especially
handguns—are portrayed as a means of empowerment; as a component of being “tough” and/or
a way to be in control of a situation. Why should we be surprised to discover that so many kids 35
want a gun? If Hollywood stopped glorifying possession and use of handguns, there would be far
fewer crimes committed by youth with handguns.
8
The defenders of media violence often say that there is no conclusive scientific proof that media
violence causes real life criminal violence. This may be true, but that doesn’t mean there isn’t a
large body of evidence showing a connection between media violence and real life violence. I 40
often say that when common sense, personal experience, anecdotal evidence and social
science research all point in the same direction, the burden of proof should shift from those who
argue that there is a connection to those who say there isn’t.
9
Clearly, common sense indicates there is a connection. Kids learn not only by observing or
listening to persons who are actually in their physical presence but also from observing or
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14
listening to what they see or hear on film or TV or video or computer. Most of us also know from
personal experiences that kids learn from and imitate what they watch or hear on film or TV or
video or audio recordings; and it wasn’t always good!
10 There is also a mountain of anecdotal evidence, often found in local newspaper accounts of
crimes, which indicates that viewing antisocial behaviour on film, TV or a video/computer game 50
or listening to antisocial behaviour being extolled in music or RAP lyrics negatively affect many
young people. Finally, there is a mountain of social science research showing a link between
viewing antisocial behaviour on TV and real life anti-social behaviour.
11 What then can society do about the problem of media violence? Part of the answer is
unquestionably a greater effort to raise public awareness. In particular, parents, educators and 55
clergy must be made to understand that youth are often negatively affected by what they see
and hear in “popular culture,” and that every reasonable effort must be made to shield youth
from harmful media influences and to educate youth about how media affects them.
12 Every effort must also be made to impress upon those that produce and distribute entertainment
that along with their rights comes a weighty responsibility to exercise those rights in a manner 60
that does not carelessly or recklessly cause harm to others. If efforts at moral persuasion fail, the
finger of public disapproval and, whenever possible, economic persuasion, must also be brought
to bear. While public officials cannot do the whole job, their added voice will strengthen the grass
roots efforts.
13 The last remedy is the law. Personally, I would much rather see the media voluntarily get its 65
house in order, without resort to law. But if the media fails or refuses to accept its responsibility,
then I would suggest legal approaches to address the problems.
14 In conclusion, I am not here to indict the media for all or even most of the violent, antisocial
behaviour that occurs in society. Clearly, other causes are at work—including drugs, the
proliferation of handguns, dysfunctional families and the vicious cycle of poverty. But to go to the 70
other extreme and to argue that “popular culture” is not a factor, is at best a display of ignorance
and at worst a purposeful attempt to deceive the public.
15 As I see it, there is no one easy solution to the problem; but a concerted effort on the part of all
concerned will bring meaningful progress and, in the long run, spare many youth, as well as their
families, peers, neighbours and communities, much heartbreak and tragedy.
75
Excerpted from Robert Peters’ testimony before the New Jersey State Legislature Assembly Task Force on
Adolescent Violence, Trenton, New Jersey, January 20, 2005.
JJ J1 CT 2009 / JJ J1 TCA 1 2010
Questions from Reading 2C
1) Explain in your own words as far as possible why the author feels that “graphic violence was not
unnecessary” (lines 4-5). [1]
2) What does “desensitises viewers and contributes to the mean world syndrome” (lines 13) tell you
about the effect of excessive media violence? [2]
3) According to paragraph 6, what is the author’s criticism towards how violence is presented? Use
your own words as far as possible. [2]
4) What does the phrase “at best, a necessary evil” (line 33) tell us about the author’s attitude toward
guns? Give a reason for your answer. [2]
5) Using your own words as far as possible, explain the author’s intention in employing the rhetorical
question in lines 35-36. [2]
6) “the burden of proof should shift” (line 42).
(a) Identify the literary device in the phrase. [1]
(b) Explain the author’s view in your own words as far as possible. [2]
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7) Using your own words as far as possible, explain the phrase “a mountain of anecdotal evidence”
(line 49). [1]
8) Using material from paragraphs 11 – 15, summarise the strategies proposed by the author to deal
with the problem of media violence.
Write your summary in no more than 120 words, not counting the opening words which are
given below. Use your own words as far as possible. [7]
The author suggests that …
9) The author contends that media violence is often culpable for fostering violence in people, and
suggests solutions to alleviate the proliferation of violent behaviour in society. Do you agree with
his view? In giving your views, explain where you agree or disagree with the author. Support your
answer with examples drawn from your society and your own observations. [8]
Additional Vocabulary Practice
Give the meaning of the following words as they are used in the passage. You may write your answer in
one word or a short phrase.
(a) injurious (line 16)
(b) digress (line 18)
(c) impressionable (line 21)
(d) readily (line 26)
(e) indict (line 68)
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Reading 2D(i)
In this article Daniel W. Drezner writes about Celebrity Activism.
1
Increasingly, celebrities are taking an active interest in world politics. One reason for the
new-found global agendas of celebrities is simply that today’s stars have more autonomy
than previous generations, and many of them recognise the benefits of being a popular
saint. Stars may have always cared about politics, but they have not always been able to
act on these impulses. Entertainers likely feared speaking out in the past, but the 5
entertainment industry is not as authoritarian as it once was. The studio systems of
yesteryear exerted much greater control over their movie stars. In the decades since,
celebrities have acquired more leverage in Hollywood. In some cases, such as in the case
of Oprah Winfrey, they have become moguls themselves. This gives them the autonomy to
adopt pet causes and policy initiatives.
10
2
This leads to another somewhat more selfish reason for celebrities to embrace policy
activism: it distinguishes them from their tawdrier brethren. We now live in a world where
the path to fame can be as fast as a 15-second YouTube clip. In such a world, marquee
celebrities need to take steps to differentiate themselves from the lesser stars of stage and
screen - or distance themselves from past scandals.
15
3
The final reason more celebrities are interested in making the world a better place is that it
is simply easier for anyone to become a policy activist today. An effective policy
entrepreneur requires a few simple commodities: expertise, money and the ability to
command the media’s attention. Celebrities already have the latter two; the Internet has
enabled them to catch up on information-gathering. Several celebrities even have 20
“philanthropic advisors” to facilitate their activism. This does not mean that celebrities will
become authentic experts on a country or issue. They can, however, acquire enough
knowledge to pen an op-ed1 or sound competent on a talk show. And when they look sexy
doing it, all bets are off.
In the current media environment, a symbiotic relationship between celebrities and cause 25
célèbres 2 has developed. Celebrities have a comparative advantage over policy experts
because they have access to a wider array of media outlets, which translates into a wider
audience of citizens. Superstars can go on soft-news programmes like The Today Show or
The Late Show to plug their latest movie and their latest global cause. Because of their
celebrity cachet, even hard-news programmes will cover them - stories about celebrities 30
can raise ratings. With a few exceptions, most politicians cannot make the reverse leap to
soft-news outlets. Non-celebrity policy activists are virtually guaranteed to be shut out of
these programmes.
4
5
The growth of soft news gives celebrity activists enormous leverage. The famous and the
fabulous are the bread and butter of entertainment programmes. Covering celebrity do- 35
gooders provides content that balances out, say, tabloid coverage of Nicole Richie’s
personal and legal troubles. MTV will cover Amy Winehouse’s on-stage meltdowns, but
they will also follow Angelina Jolie in her trips to Africa. They covered Live Earth for both
the music and the message.
6
The power of soft news is not limited to television. Vanity Fair let Bono guest-edit a special 40
issue about Africa. Without intending to, those perusing the pages might form opinions
about sending aid to sub-Saharan Africa in the process. Similarly, celebrity blogs can
garner higher amounts of traffic. We may only speculate why Internet users flock to Pamela
Anderson’s website - but we know that while they are there, they can learn about
Anderson’s stance against animal testing.
45
1
An op-ed is abbreviated from opposite editorial due to the tradition of newspapers placing such material on the page opposite the editorial page.
It is similar in form and content to an editorial, but represents the opinion of an individual writer.
2 A cause célèbre is an issue, generally political, that attracts great public attention.
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Reading 2D(ii)
In this article Darrell M. West writes about American Politics in the Age of Celebrity.
1
Politicians love to draw on athletes, musicians, and actors because they come from outside
the political world. In many cases, celebrities are seen as white knights, not tainted by past
partisan scandals or political dealings, who can clean up the political establishment and bring
new ideas to public policy-making. Plus, they are seen as too rich to be bought. Their fame
attracts press coverage and campaign contributors. Even though they lack detailed 5
knowledge on issues of foreign and domestic policy, they have a platform that allows them to
participate in civic discourse.
2
Politicians form alliances with celebrities and use them to raise money, attract media
attention, and persuade recalcitrant voters, but celebrities also need politicians. In today's
rapidly changing world, celebrities feel pressure to keep their names in the news, and it is a 10
long time between movies or concert tours. Having a charitable or political cause is one way
to keep one's name before the public and gets one a spot on talk and entertainment shows.
While celebrities generally prefer non-controversial causes such as more money for children
living in poverty or breast cancer research, increasingly entertainment figures are taking
stances on controversial subjects, such as the Iraq War and election campaigns.
15
3
But a system based on celebrityhood raises a host of problems. Our fascination with
celebrities raises the risk that there will be more superficiality and less substance in our
political process. Celebrities have contributed to the circus atmosphere that has arisen in
American politics; increasingly, politics has become a matter of public performance.
Politicians get judged more by their ability to deliver crisp sound bytes than by their 20
substantive knowledge. With journalists interested in celebrity quotes and good copy, experts
with detailed knowledge about public policy are more likely to become marginalised. It is
easier to go to the famous and get their opinion than to seek out voices of less prominent
people who may actually know more.
4
Both democracy and culture depend on deliberation, participation, and engagement. But what 25
we have now is a system where star power is weighted more heavily than traditional political
skills, such as bargaining, compromise, and experience. Conventional politicians are being
replaced by famous, media-savvy fund-raisers. The quality of civic deliberation is becoming
trivialised. The gossip quotient has increased, and politics has become a 24-hour
entertainment spectacle. With attention spans for important stories dropping precipitously, the 30
system rewards celebrity politicians with famous names. Unless these individuals provide
citizens with proper information, it short-circuits our system of governance. Without quality
information, voters cannot make informed choices about their futures.
5
American politics has never placed a strong emphasis on substance. Compared to other
Western democracies, fewer people vote at election time, and many appear not to be very 35
informed about their decisions. As celebrity politics takes root, there is the long-term danger
that citizens will become even less knowledgeable about policy choices, and they may
become content to watch and be entertained. But elections are a key device by which
representative democracy takes place. Citizens must feel engaged in the process, must be
able to think about their options, and must feel they have a stake in the important decisions 40
that get made. Without serious deliberation and discourse, politics becomes mere
entertainment. Without experience and knowledge, society may lose its ability to confront
pressing problems and resolve social conflict.
ACJC Prelim 2008
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Questions on Reading 2D(i)
1) According to paragraph 1, why do celebrities now have more autonomy to champion their causes?
Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
2) In paragraph 3, of the three factors that enable a person to become a successful policy activist,
which one do celebrities lack, and how do they overcome this shortcoming? Use your own words
as far as possible.[1]
3) Explain the writer’s use of inverted commas in “philanthropic advisors” (line 21). [1]
4) Explain the “symbiotic relationship” (line 25) between celebrities and their causes. [2]
5) According to paragraph 4, what advantages do celebrities have over policy experts and politicians
in policy activism? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
6) Why does the writer refer to the examples of celebrities like Nicole Richie, Amy Winehouse and
Angelina Jolie in paragraph 5? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
Questions on Reading 2D(ii)
7) Why are celebrities described as ‘white knights’ (line 2)? Use your own words as far as possible.
[2]
8) According to paragraph 2, why is it difficult for celebrities to maintain their presence in the media
limelight? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
9) Using material from paragraphs 3 to 5 of Passage 2, summarise the problems associated with
celebrity politics in no more than 120 words, not counting the opening words which are printed
below. Use your own words as far as possible. [8]
Celebrity politics causes…
10) In Reading 1C(i), Drezner argues that celebrities are more successful than politicians in promoting
their causes, while in Reading 1C(ii), West suggests that celebrity activism can backfire.
By referring to their views, discuss whether celebrity activism has been successful in reaching out
to young people and whether it will become more effective in bringing about political and social
change in the future. [8]
Additional Vocabulary Practice
Give the meaning of the following words as they are used Readings 1C(i) and 1C(ii). Write your answer in
one word or a short phrase.
From Readings 2D(i)
a. impulses (line 5)
b. pet (line 10)
c. cachet (line 30)
d. garner (line 43)
From Reading 2D(ii):
e. platform (line 6)
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Reading 2E(i)
Advertising and its impacts
1
If the reader were seated in front of a VCR, I would insert a selection of advertisements that
urge safe sex practices to avoid AIDS, that promote literacy, and that encourage racial
tolerance and environmental improvement. Then I would ask the reader to find equally
powerful advertisements reaching mass audiences that promote the opposite of these
causes and values or any other advertising that truly does damage to our way of life, fosters 5
racism, or promotes pollution. I would guess that the reader would have difficulty with that
assignment.
2
Of course, I am not so silly as to argue that all advertising is elevating and socially
responsible, any more than I would make the case for all printed and electronic
communication. Some advertising is misleading, unsavoury, and generally reprehensible, 10
but the vast majority of it is not, and if one really believes in freedom of expression, we take
the good, the bad, and the ugly as part of the package, while hoping, of course, that positive
social forces will reward responsible communicators and shun those who are not. In the
case of advertising, ads that make fraudulent claims are subject to legal penalties, just as
writers who libel others can be sued and thus punished. But that really is not the point.
15
3
I believe that the value of advertising is principally in providing consumer information to the
public. Advertising is the means by which we learn about new products, services, and
causes. Discerning people look at advertising with a somewhat sceptical eye because
advertising is advocacy for a product and there are simply too many products for any of us
to know, understand, use, or for that matter, afford. However, probably no one - not even 20
young children - accepts literally everything in an advertisement, even though it may be true,
because there is something called "consumer choice," and we make our choices based on
our own needs, interests, income, and other factors. Advertising thus provides an
educational service.
4
Advertising stimulates the economy. It expands consumer choice and promotes diversity. If 25
it were otherwise, someone would have to make arbitrary choices about which products
would be manufactured and which ones would not be allowed to develop. In socialist
economies, this is done by the government. In our system, ultimately the consumers
choose, and they are aided by advertising. Consumers are not the only factors to consider. The entrepreneurs want to create and sell products. They can do so efficiently
and can try their wares on the public - sometimes successfully, sometimes not - 30
because of advertising.
5
Modern advertising is not indiscriminate shotgun messages sent out over the mass
media. It is carefully calibrated and controlled communication. It is aimed at a
particular segment of the market or audience. A particular ad, for example, may target
only black Americans or only persons in a particular income bracket or with a given
educational background. This factor also encourages diversity and even stimulates the
number and range of media organisations in the marketplace. The magazine industry, for
example, exists mainly because of advertising aimed at specialised audiences. There
are women's magazines, for example, mainly because there are products and services
that are for women only. It is an efficient way to see that appropriate people know
about certain products and issues that will influence them.
6
The fact that there is so much discussion about the content of advertising suggests
that people are paying attention to it. When ads have been sexist, there has often been
an outcry against them. Fairly often, these ads are dropped and new ones come on in
their place. Is the net result here negative? No, not at all. The sexist ad, which
probably was prepared to appeal to people's predispositions, was challenged and
brought to public attention, thus unwittingly doing a service to the feminist cause. It is
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40
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through this kind of criticism and response that attitudes and public images do change
over time. At one time, minorities and women were portrayed in a denigrating fashion
in the ads, or not at all. Now that practice is changing, reflecting changing social
attitudes. That is for the better.
7
There will always be some offensive and potentially damaging advertisements, but in
our system they can be challenged, criticised, and protested. That process is not a bad
one and probably reflects the advancement of civilisation generally. After all, our
culture was not created in a day, and it will continue to mature with the help of
advertising, which is, of course, a positive social force.
50
55
Adapted from Media Debate: Great Issues for the Digital Age by Everette E. Dennis, John
C. Merrill
Reading 2E(ii)
Advertising and its impacts
1
Advertising now infects just about every organ of society, and wherever advertising gains a
foothold, it tends to slowly take over, like a vampire or a virus. When television broadcasting
began about 50 years ago, the idea of a network that would air nothing but commercials was
never seriously considered, not even when single-sponsor shows were produced straight
out of the sponsor's ad agency. But today, by the grace of cable, we have several such 5
channels, including MTV that would run only ads.
2
From the cradle to the rocking chair, American life marches to the steady beat of
commercialism. Even older, far statelier cultural institutions have had their original values
hollowed out and replaced by ad values, leaving behind the merest fossil of their founders'
purpose. Modernist masters enjoy art museum blockbusters only when they can be 10
prominently underwritten by an oil company or telecommunications giant; new magazines
are conceived, not on the basis of their editorial content but on their ability to identify
potential advertisers and groom their copy to fit marketing needs.
3
The real master work of advertising is the way it uses images to seduce the human soul.
Virtually all of modern experience now has a sponsor, or at least a sponsored accessory,
and there is no human emotion or concern — love, lust, war, childhood innocence, social 15
rebellion, spiritual enlightenment, even disgust with advertising — that cannot be reworked
into a sales pitch. The transcendent look in a bride's eyes the moment before she kisses her
groom turns into a promotion for Du Pont. The teeth gnashing humiliation of an office rival
becomes an inducement to switch to AT&T.
20
In short, we are living the sponsored life. From Huggies to Maalox, the necessities and little
luxuries of an American's passage through this world are provided and promoted by one
advertiser or another. The sponsored life is born when commercial culture sells our own
experiences back to us. It grows as those experiences are then reconstituted inside us,
mixing the most intimate processes of individual thought with commercial values, rhythms,
and expectations.
25
4
5
To lead the sponsored life you do not really have to do anything. You do not need to have a
corporate sponsor as the museums or the movies do. You do not even have to buy anything
— though it helps, and you will. You just have to live in America and share with the nation,
or at least with your mall-intercept cohorts, certain paid-for expectations and values, rhythms
and reflexes. The chief expectation of the sponsored life is that there will and always should 30
be regular blips of excitement and resolution, the frequency of which is determined by
money. We begin to pulse to the beat, the one-two beat that moves most ads:
problem/solution, old/new, BrandX/Hero brand, desire/gratification.
6
In order to dance to the rhythm, we adjust other expectations a little here, a little there: our
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7
notions of what is desirable behaviour, our lust for novelty, even our vision of the perfect 35
love affair or thrilling adventure adapt to the mass consensus coaxed out by marketing.
Cultural forms that do not fit these patterns tend to fade away, and eventually everything in
commercial culture comes to share the same insipid insistence on canned excitement and
neat resolution.
40
What is all the excitement about? It is anything and nothing. You know you have entered the
commercial zone when the excitement building in you is oddly incommensurate with the
content dangled before you. Through the sympathetic magic of materialism we learn how to
respond to excitement. It is less important that we purchase any particular product than that
we come to expect resolution in the form of something buyable. In our excitement to own
products, we have forgotten the importance of real extended families, real human empathy, 45
and real rebel prowess.
Adapted from The Bribed Soul: Ads, TV and American Culture by Leslie Savan
IJC J1 CT 2006
Readings 2E(i) and 2E(ii) examine the positive and negative impact of advertisements in American society
respectively. Dennis and Merrill in Reading 2E(i) claim that advertising stimulates social and economic
development, while Savan in Reading 2E(ii) argues that advertising deceives and seduces people into
abandoning real lasting principles for commercial values that equate instant excitement and gratification
with material acquisition.
To what extent do the authors’ views on the influence of advertising reflect your country’s situation? With
reference to what you have read in the passages and your own experiences, what can your country do to
minimise the negative impact of advertising?
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Reading 2F
Many Advertisements Are Sexist
By: Portia, "Sexist Advertising," Muse Feminist Magazine, October 2005
1
Sexist advertising—the definitive example that society is still laden with masculine values
and that people accept sexist advertising as a legitimate form of commercial communication.
Sexist advertising comes in all shapes and forms, such as reinforcing gender stereotypes
and gender roles, using gratuitous female nudity or sex to sell unrelated products, and by
marginalising women from advertising and its industry.
5
2
Sexist advertising and the sexualisation of women's bodies emanates from both problems
with the advertising industry and society. These problems stem from a wee institution called
patriarchy. Our society has sexism so ingrained in it that advertising simply follows suit.
Therefore, images that objectify and degrade women's bodies are accepted as legitimate for
advertising, under the guise of portraying a particular product (and therefore the consumer) 10
as simply sexy, seductive and attractive to the opposite sex.
3
There are serious social impacts from this kind of advertising back on society—unrealistic
expectations of women's bodies and resulting body image problems, sexual and domestic
violence, and sexism being reinforced as an acceptable form of behaviour. Many forms of
media such as magazines and television stations financially benefit from these sexist 15
advertisements, as they gain the majority of their revenue from the companies who place ads
with them. A major concern with sexist advertising is the simple fact that it becomes so
normalised that we don't even notice it (either because it's subconscious, dressed up as
artistic or because it's so widespread).
4
Now I'm a fan of calling a spade a spade, so I'm going to go out on a limb here and say that 20
sexist advertising is simply a form of propaganda. Let's look at this from an academic point of
view—in the book Propaganda and Persuasion, propaganda is defined as disseminating or
promoting particular ideals, with the objective of endeavouring to reinforce or modify the
attitudes or behaviour of a particular audience. In fact, they argue that advertising campaigns
are by definition "systematic propaganda", and label it "ubiquitous". In any case, it can 25
certainly be said that advertising is a form of communication, and a form of dissemination of
ideas (whether commercial or political ideas). Advertising aims to convince consumers of the
worth of the company and its services or products, with the goal of persuading the consumer
to buy the services and products of that company. Essentially, to reinforce the "brand" and
modify the behaviour of the consumer to choose that particular brand.
30
5
The images that get used in advertising are therefore chosen for a reason, because they 35
either symbolise a particular message or idea the advertiser wishes to promote, or because
they reflect the consumer in some way—their image, their attitude, their style. Advertising
seeks to draw consumers in a number of ways, but generally makes the product desirable by
using images that trigger something in the consumer's mind so that they remember it
favourably. As authors Garth Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell explain, it is "a series of appeals, 40
symbols and statements deliberately designed to influence the receiver of the message
toward the point of view desired by the communicator and to act in some specific way as a
result of receiving the message...."
6
Here in lies the rub—we are being subconsciously enticed to buy products by companies
who believe that it is okay to use women's bodies in a sexual way to make their brand cool, 45
hip and sexy. And not only are men buying into these products because they are identifying
with the product or brand, because the sexist 'propaganda' echoes their own perceptions
about women, women's roles, and the proper image a woman should have, but women are
too. Often women don't realise their sexual appeal is being exploited by the company to their
detriment in society and to the company's financial benefit.
50
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7
Sexist advertising and the sexualisation of women's bodies in advertisements is extremely
common now. The images accompanying this article are some examples that
the Muse [magazine] team photographed on billboards simply walking around Wellington
one afternoon. The images mostly promote dance parties or music events, and the one I
found most offensive was the "Fire Ho's" which used the play on words 'ho' (short for 55
"whore") and "hose," i.e. fire hose. The image depicts a woman dressed in a skimpy
firefighter's outfit holding a hose with legs suggestively spread. And what does this have to
do with the gig we asked? We should have read the byline—"the girls are turnin' up the
heat"—it all makes sense now (???!!). Another was for a medical-themed dance party, or
that's the impression we got from the poster, which featured a porn-star nurse sitting on the 60
amp. These advertisements are a pretty weak excuse to use a picture of a sexed-up woman.
8
On a further inquiry, I looked into some magazines, and out of one issue of Marie
Claire alone, I found fourteen advertisements that used women's bodies in a sexual way
(either unrelated to the product or barely related by dint of it being 'skin care'). The ads
in Marie Claire that I particularly found offensive were two Elle MacPherson lingerie ads 65
which were part of a campaign featuring photos taken from angles imitating a peeping tom,
voyeur or stalker. These images never showed the female model's face (but always the male
model's), and involved dynamics of power imbalance. This included the female model being
placed in a vulnerable or sexual position.
9
The use of women's sexuality and the use of gratuitous female nudity in advertisements has
been labelled "porno chic" by a Paris media watchdog group, and even within the advertising
industry in France it is accepted that "nudity is invariably an excuse for bankruptcy of ideas".
However, porno chic has been seen to represent economic optimism and liberation from
confining societal (advertising) stereotypes. Advertisers argue they should be allowed to
shock their audience, make their campaigns a bit raunchier and show that ultimately their
brand is edgy and at the front of fashion and culture. They probably don't even think about
the consequences of using naked or semi-naked female bodies in sexual or suggestive
positions to advertise shoes (just look at the Overland shoes ads on their Web site), or jeans
(Levi's is pretty bad at doing this), or perfume, cosmetics or skin-care products like tanning
oil and soap. You can be certain advertising executives don't wake up in the morning and
say, "I wonder how my advertising campaign for Brand X beer impacts women's body image
or men's view of women?" But when they pick images of women that are sexual they do so
because it is what has always been done, because our patriarchal society dictates that the
advertising industry employs male values of beauty and attractiveness and male ways of
communicating or portraying people.
70
75
80
85
10 Each day we are faced with advertisements of a sexual nature, regardless of the product.
The goal of this kind of propaganda, this commercial communication, is that if we buy this
product we can look like the model, we will experience fulfilment by partaking in that brand's
experience, we will be sexy and seductive like the woman in the ad. Why should we swallow
that crap? We need to realise that this advertising is plain old sexist, and that in some 90
countries there are rules about these kinds of images. In New Zealand, the Advertising
Standards Authority has a set of codes for all forms of advertising and all subject matters. Of
particular importance is its code for advertising using people—specifically, "Advertisements
should not employ sexual appeal in a manner which is exploitative and degrading of any
individual or group of people in society to promote the sale of products or services. In 95
particular people should not be portrayed in a manner which uses sexual appeal simply to
draw attention to an unrelated product".
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11 If you see advertising that you think is offensive because it uses a nude or semi-nude woman
in a sexual way, then make a complaint. The company can be forced to remove the
advertisement if your complaint is upheld, and one complaint can be enough to do this—you 100
don't need ten people to complain about the same thing (although this probably helps!). Take
action, challenge sexist advertising. Take notice of your surroundings and analyse the
advertisements—the only way to change the attitudes of advertising companies is if we tell
them that sexist advertising is not okay, and that we are tired of the objectification of our
bodies in order for companies ... to make a profit.
105
"Many Advertisements Are Sexist." Advertising. Ed. Laura K. Egendorf. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2010. Opposing
Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2012.
Food for thought



What is the goal of sexist advertising, as stated by the author?
"Our society has sexism so ingrained in it that advertising simply follows suit." How far do you
agree with this statement?
What other stereotypes are apparent in the media?
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3 MEDIA ETHICS
3.1
Definitions

3.2
Ethics of Journalism


3.3
It is the most well-defined branches of media ethics. There is even a code of ethics – Society of
Professional Journalists Code of Ethics – which voluntarily embraced by thousands of journalists,
regardless of place or platform, and is widely used in newsrooms and classrooms as a guide for
ethical behaviour.
Some of the topics include:
o News manipulation. News can manipulate and be manipulated. Governments and
corporations may attempt to manipulate news media; governments, for example,
by censorship, and corporations by share ownership. The methods of manipulation are
subtle and many. Manipulation may be voluntary or involuntary. Those being manipulated
may not be aware of this.
o Truth. Truth may conflict with many other values:
 Public interest.
 Privacy.
 Entertainment, which is a legitimate goal of media content. Journalists may
sensationalise news stories, with resulting ethical dilemmas.
o Conflict with the law. Journalistic ethics may conflict with the law over issues such as the
protection of confidential news sources. There is also the question of the extent to which it
is ethically acceptable to break the law in order to obtain news.
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders




3.4
Media ethics refer to the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast
media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet.
Individuals
o Consumers
o Citizen journalists
o Journalists
o Celebrities
Corporations
o Advertising firms
o Advertisers
o Media agencies
o Media owners
Governments
Non-Governmental Organisations
o Human Rights Activists
o Reporters Without Borders
Analysis & Evaluation
1. Is objective reporting ever possible?
2. Can the media ever be relied upon to convey the truth?
3. The majority of the western mainstream media is owned and controlled by a handful of very rich
individuals.
 How far do you think we can trust what we read/ see in the news?
 Who should be responsible in ensuring that reporters and editors do not manipulate the
news?
4. How effective do you think the defamation law is in ensuring that people speak the truth?
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3.5
Reading articles
Reading 3A(i)
1
News does not just happen but is the product of judgements concerning the social relevance of
given events and situation based on assumptions concerning their interest and importance. The
‘reality’ it portrays is always in at least one sense fundamentally biased, simply in virtue of the
inescapable decision to designate an issue or event newsworthy and then to construct an account
of it in a specific framework of interpretation.
5
2
In a global media age, news providers are often drawing on the same sources and more
importantly, upon the same implicit value systems and same understanding of what constitutes
‘news’. The reality put together in the global media following the 9/11 attacks was shared across
far more disparate and geographically dispersed communities than coverage of any previous
event, except perhaps the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. The 9/11 attacks, though, saw the 10
creation of a reality reflecting global security concerns, certainly a first for the media. The scale
and unexpectedness of the events of 9/11 meant that any differences that usually separated local
news from national global news collapsed, as coverage was shared across media and news
organisations. Al-Jazeera aside, this was a global news story, for which a common narrative
rapidly evolved. In the minutes following the attacks news organisations – together with their 15
sources – lacked a readymade ‘script’ to tell their stories, a frame to help them and their
audiences comprehend the seemingly incomprehensible. In the ensuing hours, a common
framework was clearly established and the gendered myth of 9/11 began to develop.
3
The characters chosen to represent heroes and victims demonstrate the gendering of 9/11
reporting most clearly. Male deaths from the attacks outnumbered female deaths by a ratio of 20
three to one. All of the fire-fighters who died in the attacks were male and of the 50 police officers
who died, only two were female. Logic would suggest that, while women would not necessarily be
the heroes, the injured and the dead of 9/11 were largely men. This was not the way the narrative
developed. It evolved instead along two trajectories. On one of these, what we could term the
iconic, the male hero and the female victim emerged. On the other, on what could be termed an 25
invisible trajectory, men dominated the official responses and women were largely absent.
4
This is not to suggest that the news producers made conscious decisions to frame 9/11 in
gendered terms or set out to create a stereotyped myth of male-female relations more redolent of
1950s suburban American than of the twenty-first century. As stated by Hall, just as the mythmaker may be unaware of the basic elements out of which his particular version of myth may be 30
generated, so broadcasters may not be aware of the fact that frameworks and classifications they
were drawing on reproduced the ideological inventories of their society.
5
In the case of 9/11, the media helped to depict the courage of America by juxtaposing its female
population – feminine, maternal, nurturing – with its male – vigorous, strong and heroic. The
gender myth built up in media reporting of the attacks was of action man and passive woman, 35
restoring, in theory at least, one element of social imbalance.
Adapted from Jayne Rodgers, Icons and Invisibility: Gender, Myth, 9/11
Reading 3A(ii)
1 News does not just merely happen. Even ‘breaking news’, apparently unfolding as it happens in
front of our eyes requires tremendous efforts of organisation and discrimination in order to create
and present a vivid and convincing reality. Paddy Scannell’s concern with ‘liveness’ as a long-term
and fundamental aspect of the very nature of broadcasting is important here. Real-time news is as
much a product of broadcasting practices as it is a consequence of the compulsion to present 5
news, any news, faster and ‘hotter’ than previously. Indeed, news reality is now so sophisticated
and so much part of our experience that its capacity to weave together the components of an
event into a single account is barely appreciated.
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2
News is how we know ourselves and the world. It can be ruthless in pursuit of a story. When a
news ‘feeding frenzy’ is running it can seem to bystanders, or those subject to its attentions, more 10
like a mob. To be on the inside of news-hunt is appalling. News has become more savage over
the last twenty years. Newsrooms and journalists construct stories that may be completely
misleading – may in fact be lies – out of fragments of veritable fact. Most news is about
destruction, assassinating character and undermining futures.
3
News is also a commodity, subject to market pressures, and is always changing. The fact that 15
there is a public interest in news being well made – that the realism of political estimates depends,
at least in part, on its comprehensiveness and accuracy – is only one, increasingly weak element
in the manufacture of news.
4
News is often routine and weary, repeating and inventing stories rather than finding and showing
us what we need to understand. Some news is well made, curious and full of integrity. Other news 20
is badly, lazily or corruptly made, while much is technically proficient but panders to what we
would like the world to be like. Such news comforts us and confirms our complacent prejudices
rather than alerting us to our conditions of that of others. Much of the time this does not matter, but
sometimes it can be dangerous. When news only tells us what we want to hear, it displays a
contempt for audiences, and when we collude with it we display a kind of contempt for our own 25
possibilities.
5
But in order for news to do either its fruitful, alerting work or its numbing, malevolent work, it has
also to entertain us. At the very least it has to attract our attention. In this way the political
explanation of the role of news in democracies as mobilising publics around their own interests
ought never be opposed, as it often is, to a quite different tradition: that of public amusement. 30
Entertaining audiences is not a bad thing. Indeed, democracy requires news to be popular and
good. But in any case, entertainment and political expressions are not antithetical; they simply
cannot be separated.
Adapted from Jean Seaton, Understanding Not Empathy
VJC Promo 2005
From Reading 3A(i)
1) In what ways is news ‘fundamentally biased’ (line 3)? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
2) In your own words as far as possible, explain why 9/11 represented a ‘first for the media’ (line 11).
[3]
3) What does the author mean by ‘the gendering of 9/11 reporting’ (line 19)? Use your own words as
far as possible. [3]
4) What is implied by the phrase ‘invisible trajectory’ (line 26)? [1]
5) How does the writer show that media reporting of 9/11 restored ‘one element of social imbalance’
(line 36)? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
From Reading 3A(ii)
6) Explain why the phrase ‘breaking news’ (line 1) is in inverted commas. [1]
7) Summarise the negative aspects the author sees in news reporting.
Using material from paragraphs 2-4, write your summary in no more than 120 words, not counting
the opening words which are given below. Use your own words as far as possible. [8]
The author believes….
8) According to paragraph 5, why does the author feel that we cannot separate entertainment and
political expressions when news is reported in democracies? [2]
From both passages
9) Jayne Rodgers feels that news reporting reflects deep-seated attitudes of male-female differences.
Alternately, Jean Seaton feels that news is a commodity giving readers what they want. Which is a
more accurate reflection of news reporting in Singapore? [8]
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Additional Vocabulary Practice
Give the meaning of the following words as they are used in Readings 3A(i) and 3A(ii). You may write
your answer in one word or a short phrase.
From Reading 3A(i):
a) in virtue of (line 3)
b) ensuing (line 17)
c) redolent (line 28)
From Reading 3A(ii):
d) weave (line 7)
e) numbing (line 27)
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Reading 3B
Journalists Should Be Careful in Deciding What Becomes News
By: Stephen J.A. Ward
1
As America approached, nervously and disunited, the ninth anniversary of the 9/11 [2001]
terrorist attack, the pastor of a small Florida church bathed in a global media spotlight. Rev.
Terry Jones and his small Dove World Outreach Center had announced in July [2010] their
plan to burn copies of the Koran to proclaim the evil of Islam. By September, the pastor's
unholy plan was top of the news around the world, sparking riots and prompting widespread 5
criticism. On one day alone, Jones's blatant media manipulation garnered front page coverage
in over 50 USA daily papers. Moderate Christians and Muslims can only dream of such
widespread coverage of their ideas.
2
The questions asked repeatedly on media programs were: "How did this little-known pastor
get so much news coverage? Should the media have given him a global platform for his 10
questionable views and potentially harmful actions?" Let's ask a larger question: How does
any story become top of the news? How is news selected? Media scholars have itemized
many factors, such as: the event's novel or dramatic nature; involvement of prominent people;
cost of doing the story; editor's judgments about what is interesting for readers; and whether
the story connects with larger trends. To this list we can add two relatively new factors: 15
creation of a global media world inhabited by countless online websites, bloggers, and
commentators; and the existence of many political groups that will use this global media to
attack opponents and provoke riots. Many of these factors elevated the Koran-burning plan to
global status.
3
Besides these factors, there is an ethical side to news selection: What events should receive 20
extensive coverage? What guidelines can help newsrooms respond responsibly to a Terry
Jones and a soon-to-follow host of copycats?
4
In the Jones story, the question of responsible news selection must consider two different time
periods: In the summer, when the plan was first announced; and in late August, when the story
had gone viral. In the early weeks, newsrooms should have ignored Jones's plan. And there 25
was no justification for selecting Jones's announcement as an important news story. At the
very most, the announcement merited an initial item on the controversial pastor from
Gainesville, Florida. However, the decision to run a small, initial item needs to be balanced
against the fear that even modest coverage might spark a global reaction....
5
But what should responsible editors do when the media system turns the story into an ugly 30
global incident, with leaders predicting that a Koran burning would incite violence? Caught
inside this media maelstrom, responsible editors cannot ignore the story. So, what guidelines
can help the beleaguered editor who resents giving Jones more publicity?
6
There are no easy answers. Yet editors can consult the following principles: Democracy needs
intelligent news selection. A democracy whose media is distracted by sensational events is 35
headed for trouble. A media that does not—or will not—distinguish between trivial and
essential news, or between genuine news makers and media manipulators, creates a society
that is under-informed on the crucial issues that define its future. It is not the job of journalists
to provide unthinking coverage of events that are gratuitously manufactured to provoke and
cause harm. Journalists should ask to what degree their news selection is based on a sober 40
assessment of what really is important—developments in the political, economic, legal, and
social arenas of the body politic.
7
When a Terry Jones gets too much air time, or when [socialite] Paris Hilton's latest faux pas
trends on Twitter—and the blogosphere is abuzz—this is exactly the time when journalists
must push back in the opposite direction. They must question a news selection that feeds this 45
media circus. Of course, media should cover pop culture and the merely novel; but the media's
news selection should not be hostage to alleged news events or entertainment values.
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8
News selection should be guided by who is seeking media attention and why. Jones guessed
correctly that a book burning would get attention. He loved appearing before the cameras and
toying with reporters. Editors have every right to work against a manipulator's media strategy. 50
It is not the job of journalists to provide unthinking coverage of events that are gratuitously
manufactured to provoke and cause harm.
9
Even if a story is too big to ignore, journalists and newsrooms are not helpless victims of a
faceless "media world." They can do three things when confronted by a Terry Jones. First,
avoid the drama: Reduce the quantity of coverage and reduce the prominence of the story. For 55
example, in the lead up to Sept. 11, the Associated Press announced that it would reduce the
number of stories it would do on the Jones affair, and would not distribute images or audio that
specifically showed Korans being burned. Next, widen the story by avoiding a narrow focus on
the event in question. For example, in the case of Jones, do not follow his every move. Also,
explain who Jones is and the size of his church. Note his previous attempts to get media 60
attention and question whether his views are affirmed by many Americans. On a number of
days, the New York Times reduced the impact of the Jones story by folding the event into
larger explanatory stories of how Americans were approaching the 9/11 anniversary. Also,
deepen a story like the Jones plan by including other voices, such as moderate Muslim
leaders and interfaith associations that are rallying against Jones. Use this moment to bring 65
intolerant views about Islam out into the open for rigorous review. Rather than try to pretend
that people like Jones don't exist, use this shabby affair as an opportunity to spark a more
reasoned and intelligent discussion of religion. Meet intolerant, uninformed speech with
tolerant, informed speech.
10 Are these principles of responsible news selection too old fashioned to operate in a world of 70
global media and instantaneous online commentary? They better not be. Our pluralistic
democracies will be neither informed nor peaceful unless a core of journalists and newsrooms
remain committed to responsible news selection. In a media-linked world, this is no time for
journalists to play follow the leader—or follow the most irresponsible.
11 I say, let's follow our principles.
75
Ward, Stephen J.A. "Journalists Should Be Careful in Deciding What Becomes News."Media Ethics. Ed. Noël Merino. Detroit:
Greenhaven Press, 2013. Current Controversies. Rpt. from "Terry Jones Syndrome: Guidelines for Responsible News Selection."
2010. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2012.
Food for Thought
 What do you consider “responsible news selection”?
 According to the reading and your own research, what are some factors affecting
“responsible news selection”?
 Which is more important─“get it first” or “get it right”? Can a balance be struck? How so?
 Consider the different ways in which news can be manipulated. Who does the
manipulation?

Is it always possible to report the truth? (What are some values that truth may conflict
with?)
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Reading 3C
In this article, Edward Wasserman writes about the threats to journalism ethics in the digital age.
1
Journalism has always been a deeply troubled practice, prone to excessive deference to
authority and a reliance on fixed formulas. It is, moreover, subject to an industrial
environment in which coverage is consistently guided by an imperative to be an effective
vehicle for advertising. So by criticising the present and raising concerns about the future, I
do not intend to glorify the past. The arrival of the new media, however, has certainly 5
challenged conventional doctrines in journalism ethics.
2
There is an eagerness by existing media to view common online practices as constituting an
ethical standard. In other words, if it is widely done, it is acceptable. Because blogging
typically involves casual and undisclosed incorporation of observed actions and overheard
quotes, we accept these as features of online journalism. More alarmingly, there is a 10
consistent refusal to think about one of the things ethics should worry the most about: the
problem of harm. Who is hurt in the process, is it necessary, can it be avoided, can it be
minimised?
3
An important question we need to ask is whether journalistic truth means something
different online from what it previously meant, and whether it is appropriate to discard 15
traditional standards of verification. In 2008 CNN's iReport.com, a citizen journalism site that
encourages the public to offer information and commentary, ran a posting from someone
called "johntw" reporting that Steve Jobs, chief executive of Apple Inc., had suffered "a
major heart attack." It was not true but the stock market was already jittery. Apple's share
price dropped to its lowest point in a year and a half during the 12 minutes it took for another 20
blogger to phone Apple, find out Jobs was fine, and quash the report.
4
Traditional journalists are asking why CNN, a powerful and respected news organisation,
was letting an affiliated Web site publish information that did not meet its most elemental
standards of veracity. What was illuminating was the counterattack from Web news fans.
Notably, Jeff Jarvis, an influential Web commentator and columnist, reiterated his view that 25
online news represents a new species of journalism, both more widely participatory and
more frankly tentative. He went on to commend the online commentators for being honest
enough to admit that what they post is not the last word, something that traditional
journalists, wedded to a haughty myth of perfection about their own work, would not
acknowledge. Shockingly, this is an extraordinary suggestion that publishing falsehoods is 30
actually progressive. (More to the point, it's also cheap, since you don't have to pay anybody
for the laborious work of verification, which used to be integral to journalism.)
5
The unstated premise is that once the corrected version is run, falsehood is wiped out by the
truth, and any damage that is done can be undone. Cognitive and psychological research
has found that this is almost completely wrong: corrections do not catch up with errors. In 35
fact, errors have a half-life of forever.
6
In the digital age, the race is on for online news supremacy, and it is being fought on the
familiar terrain of “getting the story first.” I do not know why "being first" is so important,
when readers repeatedly claim that they want news sources which they can believe and
trust. Instead, we see a feverish emphasis on breaking news, updated frantically and 40
frequently throughout the day. Reporters come back from a news event, file immediately for
the web site, then provide new versions before filing a version for the print editions. This
degrades the journalists' working environment. It also leads us to ask what standards govern
this work. When is a story complete enough, true enough, to publish? And if the answer is
that the internet allows work to be corrected later, are we now in the business of publishing 45
before we edit? Is that morally acceptable, once you consider the harm that half-truths and
untruths can cause?
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7
Another concern that has to be raised is how online media is bought into the idea that robust
discourse requires anonymity, that people are entitled, indeed have the right, to make
whatever comment they like without having to identify themselves. In the bad old days, 50
letters to the editor were carefully edited. Responsible papers generally did not run unsigned
letters and immense pains were taken to make sure the authors were who they claimed to
be. Somehow, when news organisations went online, that scrupulous insistence on
authentication fell away. Obviously, there is a world of difference between a source whose
identity the reporter knows and has agreed to conceal, and a source whose identity is 55
known to nobody. In my view, unrestrained, anonymous speech actually discourages
participation and leads people who might honestly have things to say to sit down and shut
up.
8
The change in employment structure of news corporations aggravates the ethical issues that
journalism is facing. News media, especially on the Internet, are developing greater reliance 60
on producers of content who are not full-time employees. This poses a huge challenge to
traditional ways to ensure that there are no conflicts of interest. Professional codes almost
universally discourage or prohibit "moonlighting" - the practice of journalists taking second
jobs. And it is for a good reason: the temptation is almost irresistible to allow loyalties and
obligations the journalist incurs by accepting employment and money from elsewhere to 65
influence his or her work.
9
Remember, the reader is still entitled to honest, independent reporting from people who are
not secretly being paid to tilt their work one way or the other, or whose judgment is impaired
by the influence of invisible constituencies that are both important to him and unknown to his
or her readers. In the waning years of the Bush administration, some news organisations 70
relied on military "analysts" who, unknown to the news outfits, were financially dependent on
the Pentagon. I think that is almost an exemplar of the problem we will face in the future,
with many of the most talented journalists and commentators working for multiple masters.
10
The promise of advertising revenue has always undermined ethics in journalism, but the
situation is worsened with the appeal of Internet advertising. With technical features that 75
allow the online activity of individuals to be tracked, recorded and used with great precision,
what people do online - their browsing, their reading habits, even their e-mails - is being
noted and monetised. Tacked to the newsroom walls in Business Week’s downtown
Manhattan headquarters are pages and pages of internet traffic data. The numbers tell the
journalists who work there how well their articles are performing and - thanks to the 80
advertisements that appear alongside them – who is paying the bills. Plainly, the temptation
will be huge to favour coverage that can draw desirable audiences to please willing
advertisers. But a journalism that is deliberately used to nurture and harvest
demographically desirable markets on behalf of advertisers is the latest frontier of
corruption, and the one that we must be most vigilant about fighting.
85
11
If there is a bottom line to this, it is that journalists have an overriding obligation to do right to
their viewers, their readers, those they communicate with and those who rely on them.
People trust journalists, and that means more than relying on journalists for accuracy. It
means they trust journalists to tell them what they need to know, even if they hate the
journalists for it. It is nothing less than expected from a journalist’s job and duty.
90
Adapted from Threats to ethical journalism in the New Media age.
SAJC Prelim 2011
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Questions from the passage
1. According to paragraph 1, why is journalism a deeply troubled practice? Use your own words as far
as possible. [3]
2. According to paragraph 3, what does the example of Steve Jobs illustrate about the author’s
argument? [1]
3. ‘wedded to a haughty myth of perfection’ (line 29).
What does the word ‘haughty’ suggest about the attitude towards traditional journalists? Explain your
answer.
4. What is the author’s intention in using parenthesis in lines 31-32?
5. (a) Explain what the author means by ‘errors have a half-life of forever’ (line 36). Use your own words
as far as possible. [1]
(b) Suggest a reason why ‘errors have a half-life of forever’ (lines 36). [1]
6. From paragraphs 6-8, what are the challenges and concerns facing journalism in the digital age?
Write your summary in no more than 120 words, not counting the opening words which are printed
below. Use your own words as far as possible.
One of the challenges the digital age poses to journalism…
7. Why does (a) “unrestrained” (line 56), and (b) “anonymous speech” (line 56) discourage participation?
[2]
8. Explain why the word “analysts” (line 71) is in quotation marks. [2]
9. How far do you agree with the author’s criticisms of journalism in the digital age? Illustrate your views
by referring to your society’s experiences with the new media. [8]
Additional Vocabulary Practice
10. Give the meaning of the following words as they are used in the reading. You may write your answers
in one word or a short phrase.
a) vehicle (line 4)
b) jittery (line 19)
c) quash (line 21)
d) illuminating (line 24)
e) extraordinary (line 30)
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Reading 3D
Media Ethics: Publishing Graphic War Photographs
By Kenny Irby
1
The decision to publish dramatic and tragic photographs that depict the horrors of war is never
easy. Perhaps even the cave dwellers of ancient times felt unsettled as they drew detailed
battle images on their walls. We do know that throughout the modern era of warfare and
photography, journalists have struggled with achieving a balance between maximising truthful
reporting and minimising unnecessary harm, and the graphic images from Iraq have ignited 5
that struggle anew.
2
Newspapers across the country have made different decisions about whether to publish the
new images that show abuse and even death, and they are likely to face more difficult
decisions if new photographs and videotapes of even worse brutality become public.... Yet by
and large the U.S. media's principle is this: Citizens can make their own best choices when
armed with honest information.
10
3
Consider the impact of certain iconic photos of past conflicts. There was the 1968 photo of
South Vietnamese National Police Chief Brig. Gen. Nguyen Ngoc Loan executing a Viet Cong
officer with a single pistol shot to the head in Saigon, as reported by Eddie Adams. There was
also the photo of the napalm-seared 9-year-old Kim Phuc seeking help, documented in 1972
by Nick Ut. More recently, recall the countless "Highway of Death" photographs from the 1991 15
Operation Desert Storm, especially one that showed an incinerated Iraqi soldier at the wheel of
his vehicle. And lest we forget: a U.S. soldier's limp body being dragged through the dusty
streets of Mogadishu, Somalia, by angry anti-American protesters, recorded in 1993 by Paul
Watson.
4
These photos earned journalistic recognition. Yet the greatest prize was informing the public on 20
matters of world interest. All expanded public consciousness or in some way impacted policy:
The Vietnam photos helped galvanise the anti-war effort and also encouraged other citizens to
support the troops. The Somalia photo influenced President Bill Clinton's decision to withdraw
troops from the African nation. The Highway of Death photos sullied the image of a quick, clean
war.
25
5
Fast-forward to the war in Iraq. We've seen photos showing the murders of four contractors,
the burning of their bodies, and the repugnant dismembering and hanging of torsos on a bridge
in Al-Fallujah. And the photos of the melancholy garden of coffins draped in red, white, and
blue in a plane's cargo area.
6
Decisions about compelling and often disturbing photographs will never satisfy all of the people 30
all of the time. And the disgusting treatment of Iraqi prisoners of war by a few of America's
soldiers.... The images of brutality have been broadcast and published around the world: Iraqi
prisoners piled naked in a pyramid, a wired and hooded Iraqi, an inmate pinned under a
stretcher, a female soldier holding a leash tied to the neck of a naked prisoner. Such images
are articles of visual information that convey messages of truth and report authentic facts in 35
immeasurable ways. Journalists know that, citizens understand this, the American government
tries to control this (the Pentagon acknowledged it had asked CBS to delay initial broadcasting
of the prison images), and terrorists seek to abuse this.
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7
Thus, decisions about compelling and often disturbing photographs will never satisfy all of the
people all of the time, and that is not the role of the messenger. Newsroom leaders and 40
decision-makers agonise over "doing the right thing" when trying to decide whether to show
visual truths—and not just write about those truths—because the visual images are more
searing.
8
"We are not taking a particular side" by publishing photos, said Michel duCille, picture editor
of The Washington Post, after making the decision to publish prison photographs [in May 45
2004]. As Marcia Prouse, director of photography at the Orange County Register put it, "Does
the news value of the photograph outweigh the taste factor?"
9
How is "taste" defined? A dictionary definition might describe it as a form, style, or manner
showing propriety. Newsrooms use less abstract tests, such as: How would a person react to
this image over a bowl of Cheerios or a glass of orange juice? Does the photo show dead 50
bodies? Does the photo show blood? Does the photo show people naked? What if my child
saw this?
10
In many newsrooms around the country, some of the Iraq [prison] photos failed the litmus test.
Many journalists argued against running the photos, just as many argued it was important to
run them, but in the end certain images were not published. Indeed, many editors—reflecting 55
the generally stricter litmus tests of the past 10-to-15 years—argue that viewers and readers
don't want to see such pictures. But, the primary role of photojournalism is to visually document
and report on the significant events of the day. On the other hand, some observers might say
that newsroom leaders are too concerned with being besieged by calls, letters, and e-mails, or
with facing subscription cancellations or channel changing.
60
11
Complicating decisions these days are technological innovations and the ubiquitous digital
cameras. Everywhere you look there are citizens with cameras challenging historic notions of
who is a journalist. In recent weeks we have seen a former Maytag Aircraft cargo worker—not
a journalist—take photos of soldiers' coffins being loaded onto aircraft bound for the United
States. She said she wanted to shed illumination on the care and integrity being rendered to 65
America's fallen soldiers. It was a citizen with a cause and a website—not a journalist—who
filed a Freedom of Information Act request that led the Department of Defense to release
several hundred photographs of dead soldiers' caskets arriving at Dover Air Force Base. And it
is ostensibly a U.S. soldier—not a journalist—who documented the interrogation tactics and
objectionable actions in the Abu Ghurayb prison near Baghdad. Prouse of the Orange County 70
Register notes that "there are fewer embedded photographers in the region and that the
activities now are so spread out that the violence is more random," thus leading to more
dependence for images on freelancers and civilians. She also is concerned that throughout this
war there have been "a lot more images of the conflict" and thus the powerful iconic images are
fewer and farther between.
75
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12
Whether it is with powerful still or video images, the primary role of photojournalism is to
visually document and report on the significant events of the day and on the varied viewpoints
in our common world. As Americans sift through lots of images from Iraq, they ought to be able
to trust that photographers and editors have thought enough about their choices to give them
ones that, while they may be upsetting, will illuminate what they need to know about the impact 80
of war on the people involved.
Lewis, Anthony. "The Press Should Not Be Censored During Times of Crisis."Censorship. Ed. Andrea C. Nakaya. San Diego:
Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from "Law and Journalism in Times of Crisis." The Advocate 61 (Nov.
2003): 817. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 3 Dec. 2012.
Food for Thought
 “Pictures don’t lie.” Is that really true?
 Other than deciding whether to publish graphic war photographs, what other ethical
concerns do photojournalists and news editors face?
 Is it unethical for a photojournalist to stand by and merely capture photographs while the
subjects of the photographs are in need of help?
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4 PRESS FREEDOM
4.1
Definitions


4.2
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the freedom of communication and expression
through mediums including various electronic media and published materials.
While such freedom mostly implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state, its
preservation may be sought through constitutional or other legal protections.
Press Freedom World Wide






4.3
How free the media of a country is, is very much dependent on a country’s political and social
landscape (Refer to Four Theories of the Press)
Every year, Reporters Without Borders (RSF) establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their
freedom of the press.
The Worldwide press freedom index list is based on responses to surveys sent to journalists that
are members of partner organisations of the RSF, as well as related specialists such as
researchers, jurists and human rights activists.
The survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other
indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups.
In 2011-2012, the countries where press was the most free were Finland and Norway followed
by Estonia, Netherlands, Austria, Iceland, and Luxembourg.
The country with the least degree of press freedom was Eritrea, followed by North
Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, Iran, and China.
New Developments, New Challenges



4.4
With the advancements in technology, many traditional means of delivering information are being
slowly superseded.
Almost every conventional mode of media and information dissemination has a modern
counterpart that offers significant potential advantages to journalists seeking to maintain and
enhance their 'freedom of speech'.
With this new development comes new challenges, where regulation of the information that is
spread is becoming an almost impossible task.
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders




Individuals
o Consumers
o Citizen journalists
o Journalists
o Celebrities
Corporations
o Advertising firms
o Advertisers
o Media agencies
o Media owners
Governments
Non-Governmental Organisations
o Human Rights Activists
o Reporters Without Borders
o Article 19
o Freedom House
o World Press Freedom Committee
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4.5
Analysis & Evaluation
1. What are the implications of having a free press?
 Consider different stakeholders’ perspectives? Who will encourage greater press freedom
and who will discourage it?
2. Are governments doing enough to encourage greater press freedom?
3. What types of conduct by the news media can lead to intrusion claims?
4. The Wikileaks scandal is one of the biggest global issues in recent years. Under what laws can
Julian Assange be prosecuted?
5. Is the media in your country a watchdog or a lapdog?
6. Does ‘freedom of the press’ mean the news media can say or write anything they want?
7. Is ‘the truth’ a defence in libel lawsuits?
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4.6
Reading Articles
Reading 4A
Lewis Thomas writes…
1
Among the most important ethical dilemmas journalists face today are problems to do with the
public’s right to know. Journalists often confront conflicting responsibilities in this regard: on
one side is the journalist’s human relationship with the subject or source, and her duty not to
exploit people or treat them contemptuously. The duties on the other side are more difficult to
describe, or even to identify. Journalists sometimes speak of their obligation to tell a story as 5
they see it, or their obligation to the truth or to the public interest. Or they talk about “the
public’s right to know.” Indeed, the Society of Professional Journalists asserts that the public’s
right to know is “the overriding mission of the mass media” and that “journalists must be free
of obligation to any interests other than” promotion of this right.
2
Clearly, however, there can be no general right to know – a right to know anything and 10
everything. The question is what factors are relevant to deciding whether information
damaging to an individual ought to be published. In the film Absence of Malice, a crime
suspect’s friend provides an alibi for him to a reporter, claiming the suspect accompanied her
to an abortion during the time when the crime was being committed. The friend is emotionally
unstable and a devout Catholic, and commits suicide when the story, including her name, is 15
published the next day in the local newspaper. The reporter claims that the credibility of the
source, in which another innocent person’s reputation is at stake, depended on printing the
woman’s name. Another example is that of a prominent conservative businessman
vacationing on Florida when his hotel burns down. The wire service story lists him among
those who escaped uninjured and identifies the hotel as a gay resort. The businessman 20
threatens suicide if his name is published in the story run by his hometown newspaper.
Should the newspaper publish the story as it is, or without his name, or omitting the gay
angle? Or should it kill the story?
3
To decide such cases, several issues are relevant: the importance of the story; the likelihood
and magnitude of harm to the individual; the relevance of the disputed information to the story 25
(can the story be usefully told without it?) and, finally, the extent to which the person in
question has chosen the limelight or is responsible for finding himself in it. Each of these
questions may be difficult to answer.
4
When we complicate the issue by asking about the appropriateness of reporting ostensibly
private behaviour (such as sexual activity) of a public official or public figure, the questions 30
become even more difficult. We may agree that the answer to the question “When should
reporters write about the private lives of public officials?” is “When the behaviour is relevant to
their fitness for office.” But agreement about when that condition is fulfilled is difficult to
achieve. There is profound disagreement in Western society about whether, or to what extent,
a person’s private character, and character flaws, reveal something significant about his 35
ability to lead and to govern.
5
Nothing is simplified by the fact that the publicity journalists create by their reports radically
changes the public environment and may therefore also alter the answer to the fitness
question. So, for example, one might believe that a political leader’s sexual peccadilloes are
not in and of themselves relevant to his fitness for office. However, once these become public 40
knowledge or the object of public obsession, what was formerly private behaviour can no
longer be considered as such. When US presidents Franklin Roosevelt and John Kennedy
carried on with women who were not their wives, it was not public knowledge – at least partly
because journalists of the time chose to exercise discretion about what they knew. Some
might still argue that these indiscretions were not only moral flaws but that they undermined 45
the presidents’ public success and greatness. But unless their sexual escapades interfered in
a direct way – say, by taking up too much time or distracting the men from important public
business – it is implausible to maintain that such acts, unknown to the public, could be
relevant to evaluating their public success. We may wish for a kind of moral unity in the
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universe – according to which all the virtues go together and all the vices do too – but, alas, 50
there is no necessary connection between private morality and public greatness.
6
Unlike their predecessors, contemporary journalists have chosen to report on the sexual
activities of politicians. So they must assume responsibility for their own considerable role not
only in helping to determine the course of historical events, but also in making some things
true that might not have otherwise been true – such as whether a politician’s sexual practices 55
are relevant to his ability to lead.
7
Of course, journalists and news organizations are likely to argue that, as long as other
journalists cover these issues, they have little choice but to report them if they hope to remain
in business. The competitive pressures defense is widespread. It is also quite persuasive. At
the very least, even if only one media outlet reported a seamy story (one that would have 60
remained unknown in earlier times), once reported such stories often take on a life of their
own that make it hard for journalists to ignore them.
8
Thus far, we have considered journalistic practices that overstep the bounds – these
generally suggest behaviour that is harmful or offensive to someone covered by the media.
But they can also include practices that offend audiences, such as the use of profanity or the 65
publication of shocking pictures. In some cases, we may find both at once: the photographer
who pushes himself on the grieving family, taking pictures of dead children that shock
newspaper readers or the viewing audience. Perhaps then, the right to know needs to be
balanced against the possible harm that can be caused by such reports.
9
Yet it can be argued that the more common problem confronting journalists is not the betrayal 70
of sources and subjects but rather the opposite: a too-cozy relationship in which both
journalist and source have an interest in remaining on good terms, even at the cost of other
values that are supposed to serve. To be effective in their respective positions, the journalist
needs the source, especially when the source is a politician, public official, or some other
figure with an enduring role, and the politician or public official needs the journalist. But such 75
symbiotic relationships can endanger the journalist’s role as truth-seeker and watchdog of the
public interest. This tension between the journalist’s need to cultivate sources and the
importance of detachment from them can result in a profound conflict of interest and a bias in
the way in which events are reported – or, equally important, not reported.
Adapted from “Media Ethics” in A Companion to Applied Ethics, R.G. Frey & C.H. Wellman (ed.), 2005 Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
CJC J1 CT 2008
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Questions from the passage
1) In paragraph 1, what is the ethical dilemma or conflict confronting journalists today? Answer in your
own words as far as possible. [2]
2) a) What issues in paragraph 3 must be considered before deciding on what to publish? Answer in your
own words as far as possible. [4]
b) How do the examples in paragraph 2 illustrate any 2 of the issues you have identified above?
Answer in your own words as far as possible. [2]
3) In paragraph 4, what is the disagreement in Western society? Answer in your own words as far as
possible. [2]
4) Explain the author’s attitude in his choice of the word “obsession” in line 41. [2]
5) a) Explain in your own words as far as possible what the writer means by “We may wish for a kind of
moral unity in the universe” (lines 49-50) [2]
b) “We may wish for a kind of moral unity in the universe… but alas…” What is the author implying
with reference to the words in bold? [1]
6) Why do the journalist and the public figure need each other in order “to be effective in their respective
positions” (line 73)? Answer in your own words as far as possible. [2]
7) The passage discusses the media’s insistence on the public’s right to know. What are the potentially
harmful effects of this? Summarise in no more than 110 words, using material from paragraphs 2 to 8.
Use your own words as far as possible. [7]
8) The writer explores the potentially harmful effects of journalism arising from the public’s right to know.
To what extent should people in your country have the right to know? Justify your answer with
reference to the ideas in the text and to your own ideas and experience. [6]
Additional Vocabulary Practice
Give the meaning of the following words as they are used in the passage. You may write your answer in
one word or a short phrase.
(a) overriding (line 8)
(b) fitness (line 40)
(c) undermined (line 45)
(d) implausible (line 48)
(e) symbiotic (line 76)
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Reading 4B(i)
Christelle Chua writes…
1
The furore over cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad, published in a Danish newspaper as a
satirical comment, is becoming more widespread. Incidences of violence may be isolated,
but verbal barbs have been flying from all sides and in all directions. Everyone seems to
have something to say about either the cartoons themselves, or about the response to the
publication of the cartoons, and even the response to the responses. Some are offended by 5
the irreverence of the cartoons. Others are indignant that the newspaper, a bastion of free
speech in Denmark and many other countries, is being criticised for simply expressing the
cartoonists’ “personal opinions”. Still others are dismayed that supporters of the Danish
newspaper view the expression of potentially inflammatory comments as an entitlement.
2
While many would view this issue as another clash between Islamic radicals and 10
Western/European societies, there is also a larger issue that is swirling here – that of the
right to free speech versus the respect for others. Flemming Rose, culture editor of
Denmark’s Jyllands-Posten newspaper, said that he decided to recruit Danish cartoonists
with the challenge: “Draw Muhammad as you see him”, because he wanted to make a stand
against what he felt was “self-censorship of the art world out of a fear of retaliation from 15
Islamic radicals”. He also said that “Asking me (if I regret publishing the cartoons) is like
asking a rape victim if she regrets wearing a short skirt at the discotheque on Friday night”,
in essence implying that it was his right to express himself as he pleased. Denmark’s Prime
Minister, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, also said, “… the principle of freedom of expression is
the most important principle for us. This is our priority number one.” Evidently, many support 20
the notion that “Everyone is entitled to expressing their own beliefs”.
3
And so it should be … in a perfect world. But the world we live in now is not perfect. We are
quick to judge, and we form hasty and generalised opinions before we can get the facts.
And so, the freedom of the Danish cartoonist to represent a Muslim prophet as a terrorist
resulted in a transgression on truth, because, of course, terrorism is not representative of 25
the religion as a whole. Likewise, protesters around the world storming the Danish
embassies exercise the freedom to express their view that Danes are pro-Western, antiIslamic enemies, which again is an unfair generalisation. As one Dane rallying outside the
Jyllands-Posten office said, “I don’t want to live in a country that in order to love itself must
look down on others”, proving that not all Danes share the opinion of the cartoonist.
30
4
Freedom of speech is an individual right, and has its basis in the fact that people are
individuals and hence have an entitlement to individual thoughts and opinions. Yet often,
people use this right to express their opinion about generalised groups of peoples. It is ironic
that a right that is so fundamentally grounded on individuality can so often become abused
in making general, across-the-board statements about people. Freedom of speech is often 35
damaging when sweeping statements are made, because oftentimes they do not apply to
the majority.
5
So the first step towards “safe speech”, is to acknowledge that the right to an individual
opinion entails the right to be seen as an individual, which comes hand in hand with the
need to see others as individuals as well. Of course, one has to take one’s own advice and 40
acknowledge that the issue of free speech is not so simplified and cannot be distilled into a
single overarching generalisation. Many other things must be considered, not least of which
is the trite but true statement that one person’s freedom is likely to always encroach on
another’s. Free speech insulting someone, even if just an individual, will always recruit
retaliation, which is merely the other person’s right to express himself. Freedom of speech is 45
likely to be an enigmatic concept for some time yet.
Freedom of Speech – For Individuals, About Individuals
Lesser Administrator, 18 Feb 2006
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Reading 4B(ii)
SM Goh Chok Tong writes…
1 I regard newspapers as more than just the usual commercial products. The media disseminates
information, news, analyses and commentaries. It influences and shapes public opinion. Hence
ideally, its corporate interests should converge with the core interests of its home country. The
media also provides an important channel for the government and national leaders to
communicate with the people. And by reporting key events as they occur, the media serves as an 5
authoritative record of a nation’s significant moments for future generations. The media, therefore,
occupies a privileged position in society. Editors and journalists shoulder a heavier moral and
social responsibility beyond that of CEOs and executives of other commercial companies.
2
3
4
5
In reality, of course, there is no such thing as unfettered press freedom. Even the most liberalminded person would acknowledge the necessity of some form of regulation or code to ensure 10
responsible reporting. Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th American President, once said, “The power
of the journalist is great but he is entitled neither respect nor admiration because of that power
unless it is used right.” Newspaper editors must always be mindful of the powers wielded by their
pens or nowadays, keyboards. They have a greater responsibility to society than merely
publishing a sensational story, scooping the news or turning in a bigger profit for shareholders. 15
There are larger national and societal interests at stake. I suppose that is what Roosevelt meant
when he said that the journalists should use their power in a right way. Reputable international
news organizations also face this consideration every day. Although their conditions may be
different, foreign editors have also exercised restraint and censorship when necessary.
You would recall that about a year ago, an Al-Qaeda-linked group in Iraq kidnapped and 20
beheaded an American contractor, Nick Berg. The editors of several major US news agencies,
including CNN, ABC and CBS, were confronted with the stark dilemma of whether to capture
viewership by broadcasting the unedited video of Berg’s ordeal or censor it and risk being
outdone by a competitor. The video was already circulating freely and widely on the Internet.
Despite this, most networks decided to report the news without broadcasting the gruesome video. 25
Others simply showed the initial seconds of the video when Berg was still alive. Broadcasting the
full video would have served the terrorists’ objective of sparking public fear and accentuating
public opposition to continued US presence in Iraq. Contrary to concern that such self-censorship
might diminish the standing of a network in the eyes of the public, the networks earned praise for
their responsible actions. Even Al-Jazeera decided not to air the footage as it felt that to show the 30
actual beheading would have been “out of the realm of decency”.
Do not get me wrong. I do not favour a subservient press. An unthinking press is not good for
Singapore. But press freedom must be practised with a larger sense of responsibility and the
ability to understand what is in or not in our national interests. Editors need to understand what
their larger responsibilities entail and to demand them of their journalists. Editors and journalists 35
must have high personal integrity and sound judgment – people who understand Singapore’s
uniqueness as a country, our multi-racial and multi-religious make-up, vulnerabilities and national
goals. By this, I mean that our editors and journalists must be men and women who know what
works for Singapore and how to advance our society’s collective interests.
Our editors and journalists must work for the public good in a practical rather than idealistic way. 40
They must report the news and present viewpoints with the aim to educate and inform without
pursuing any personal or political agenda. Capturing readership is an important goal but to do so
through sensational coverage is not the right way. Opinions and analytical pieces on salient
issues are important for giving readers varying perspectives. However, editors should take a
balanced approach so as not to allow the commentary and opinion pages of their newspapers to 45
reflect only biased or partisan views. More importantly, news should not be slanted to serve a
hidden agenda. The media is free to put across a range of worthy different viewpoints to
encourage constructive social and political discourse. It should not parrot the government’s
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position. It would lose its credibility if it tries to be the government’s propagandist. A discredited
media would not serve our national interests.
50
Excerpt adapted from How Free Should A Free Press Be?
The Straits Times, 1 Nov 2005
TJC Prelim 2007
Questions on Reading 4B(i)
1)
From paragraph 1, identify the word which indicates that a religiously insensitive act has occurred.
[1]
2)
From lines 6 to 9, describe two opposing ways in which people responded to the publication of
cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad in a Danish newspaper. Use your own words as far as
possible. [2]
3)
a) From paragraph 2, explain the stand that Flemming Rose was trying to make. Use your own
words as far as possible. [1]
b) Explain the analogy he used to justify his publication of the cartoons. Use your own words as far
as possible. [2]
4)
From paragraph 3, what does the writer mean by “And so it should be … in a perfect world.” (line
22)? Explain her reasons for saying this, using your own words as far as possible. [3]
5)
What point is the writer making in the last sentence of the passage? [2]
Questions on Reading 4B(ii)
6)
“…ideally, [the media’s] corporate interests should converge with the core interests of its home
country.” (lines 3). From paragraph 1, suggest two reasons why this may not happen in reality.
Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
7)
Using material from paragraphs 3 – 5, summarise the challenges that editors and journalists face
when they strive to be responsible and credible.
Write your summary in no more than 130 words, not counting the opening words which are printed
below. Use your own words as far as possible. [8]
One challenge that editors and journalists face is…
Questions on Readings 4B(i) and 4B(ii)
8)
The writers of both passages raise social, economic, political and moral issues which relate to
freedom of expression.
Identify and discuss at least one issue from each passage and explain why these issues would be
of particular concern to your own society.
How far do you agree with the opinions of both writers in relation to the issues you have chosen to
discuss?
Justify your answer by drawing information from the passages and referring to your own ideas and
experiences. [9]
Additional Vocabulary Practice
Give the meaning of the following words as they are used in Passages A and B. You may write your
answer in one word or a short phrase.
From Reading 4B(i):
a. dismayed (line 8)
b. grounded (line 34)
c. trite (line 43)
From Passage 4B(ii):
d. unfettered (line 9)
e. parrot (line 48)
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Reading 4C
Adapted from Keynote speech by Ms. Navi Pillay (United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights),
Geneva, 3 May 2011
1
I am very pleased to welcome you to this special event to mark World Press Freedom Day,
organized by the United Nations Information Service here in Geneva with UNESCO and my
Office. The focus of today’s discussion is the role of the media in the development of
democracy and freedom. This is a very timely subject given current events.
2
Rarely has the interface between the role of the media and fundamental human rights been 5
as clearly demonstrated, on so many fronts, and in such a short space of time, as it has been
in country after country during the so-called Arab Spring. The media – old and new, local and
international – have been playing a vital role and also paying a heavy toll in the political
upheavals in the Middle East and North Africa over the first four months of 2011.
3
When people’s rights are not realised and their voices are silenced, they will at some point 10
rise up to assert those rights. The recent protests in North Africa and the Middle East have
been all about human rights: economic, social and cultural rights, as well as civil and political
rights such as the right to genuine democracy, the right not to be persecuted by the state, and
the rights to freedom of expression and assembly.
4
The media has paid a heavy price for its sustained and courageous efforts to inform local and 15
international populations about the events as they have unfolded. By the end of April, four
journalists had been killed in Libya, two in Bahrain and one each in Yemen, Egypt, and
Tunisia. Another three had been killed in Iraq, continuing the appalling toll on journalists in
that country since the 2003 conflict. In all, three-quarters of all the journalists killed so far this
year have lost their lives covering news stories in North Africa and the Middle East. 20
Journalists across North Africa and the Middle East have also been subjected to torture, other
forms of violence, mock executions and sexual assault. They have been intimidated,
obstructed, harassed, deported, arbitrarily detained and disappeared. In all, according to the
Committee to Protect Journalists, there have been at least 450 attacks on journalists in this
region alone since the beginning of the year.
25
5
The killing or maltreatment of foreign journalists rightfully results in an international outcry,
and diplomatic services are mobilised to win the freedom of those who are kidnapped or
detained. However, every year, the plight of many more local journalists and bloggers goes
relatively unnoticed. Of the more than 850 journalists killed over the past 20 years, the great
majority have been journalists killed in their own countries. Many of them paid the ultimate 30
price for reporting on issues such as corruption, organised crime, politics and human rights.
6
On this World Press Freedom Day, I would like to pay tribute to their courage and their
determination to exercise their right to freedom of expression. In so doing, they enable the
rest of us to monitor and defend the realisation of many other human rights. Today is the 20th
anniversary of the adoption of the Windhoek Declaration, a statement of free press principles 35
assembled by a group of African newspaper journalists. While the Declaration focused mainly
on print media, World Press Freedom Day is now dedicated to supporting freedom of
expression across all media, including new means of communication as they emerge.
7
The problems facing media in North Africa and the Middle East are covered by the
Declaration and remain widespread all across the world. Journalists are murdered, arrested, 40
detained, intimidated and censored to a greater or lesser degree on all continents. Media
organisations are constrained by economic and political pressures such as restrictions on
newsprint, licensing systems which restrict the opportunity to publish, visa restrictions
preventing the free movement of journalists, and restrictions on the exchange of news and
information. They are also hampered by limitations on the circulation of newspapers, and 45
control of broadcast frequencies within countries and across national borders. In some
countries, one-party States or other forms of authoritarian government strive to control the
totality of information.
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8
Although the roles of human rights defenders and the press are different, both are crucial and
can be mutually reinforcing in the way they promote accountability and 50
transparency. Freedom of expression means an open space not only for the media, but also
for whole societies. The free flow of information empowers people to claim their rights in the
public arena. While ways and means of communication may differ and evolve, this fact
remains a constant. Despite the determined efforts of more than a few States to suppress the
dissemination of information that is inconvenient to them, brave individuals have always found 55
ways, using existing technologies, to bypass obstacles and press for change.
9
Some of you may remember the samizdat, or underground, publications that became the
symbol of dissent in Eastern Europe during the Cold War. These homemade pamphlets were
the clandestine vehicles that conveyed the ideas, thoughts, and cries for freedom of
countless intellectuals, journalists, and activists striving to achieve positive change in their 60
repressive societies. The vitality of samizdat literature was the antithesis of the official line
parroted by State-controlled publications. The existence and availability of these pamphlets,
despite all the efforts to suppress them, kept alive hopes that a political transformation
respectful of human rights could be attained.
10
Many of the children of those campaigners are now active users of social media such as 65
Facebook and Twitter, and make full use of mobile phones’ capability to record and transmit
graphic video evidence and SMS messages, as well as to allow direct interviewing from a
distance. These platforms have been masterfully employed by young protestors in the Middle
East and North Africa to disseminate information and mobilize the population, as well as to
keep the international and national media abreast of developments.
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11
In Tunisia and Egypt, where the national media was to varying degrees under the control of
the State, the protesters’ messaging began initially in social media. Then, when the
governments began to suppress protesters assembling on the streets, the messages spread
to transnational media, including radio, satellite TV and the Internet, which governments
struggled, and largely failed, to block. Television in particular showed it still has an 75
unparalleled ability to make us see for ourselves the full horror of atrocities and violence as
they unfold.
12
During the past two weeks, as the suppression of protests in Syria has grown more violent
and deadly, much of what is going on there has been coming out in the form of mobile phone
video footage published anonymously on YouTube, after conventional media were expelled 80
from the country or otherwise prevented from reporting from the affected Syrian towns and
villages. Similar footage is also continuing to emerge to give us a clearer idea of what went on
during the last few months of the conflict in Sri Lanka – another situation where a government
successfully prevented conventional media from having direct access to a situation where
very serious human rights violations were taking place.
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13
The significance of the impact of new technology and internet applications cannot be
overestimated. By allowing individuals to share information and ideas of all kinds
instantaneously and inexpensively across national boundaries, the Internet and other forms of
new media have rapidly developed into extraordinarily powerful communication tools to inform
us of the facts and expose injustice.
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14
It is worth recalling that the right to freedom of expression, as laid down in article 19 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, was drafted in such a way as to accommodate new technological
developments through which individuals can exercise this right, including the Internet and
social media. Article 19 states that “everyone shall have the right to seek, receive and impart 95
information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in
the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.”
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15
Yet in too many countries around the world, governments continue to impose undue
restrictions on the right to freedom of expression to silence dissent and criticism under the
pretext of seemingly benevolent goals, such as maintaining stability, economic development 100
and counter-terrorism.
16
I strongly believe that the Internet should remain as open as possible, and stress that any
restriction that may be imposed on an exceptional basis – for example to prohibit the
dissemination of child pornography or material that amounts to incitement to commit serious
crimes or to racial hatred – must be done in strict compliance with the requirements set out 105
under international human rights law. This means that any conditions for restricting the flow of
information must be provided by law, which is unambiguous and understandable to everyone;
the restriction must be justified as being necessary for one of the purposes established under
international human rights law, mainly to protect the rights of others; and any measure taken
must be proportionate to the aim it seeks to achieve.
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17
Many authorities are seeking to restrict the free flow of information via the Internet, using
increasingly sophisticated legal and technical controls. We must keep in mind two broad
issues: the importance of facilitating access to Internet connections in all countries; and
keeping the Internet as open as possible and free from undue restrictions, such as arbitrary
blocking or filtering measures, imposition of intermediary liability, criminalization of legitimate 115
expression, and inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection. Tthis work
is of immense importance and offers many elements for further reflection.
18
The fight for media freedom, the risks journalists take to better inform us, and the use of new
technologies all provide particular challenges. Even in open societies we must continue to
remain vigilant so that media laws or regulatory regimes are not enacted which place undue 120
limits on freedom of expression and freedom of the press.
19
As I conclude, let me underscore that the right to freedom of expression also means
empowering more and more people to have access to means of communication, including the
Internet. Illiteracy is still widespread, and the electronic age has created even deeper
inequalities between those who can propagate their ideas globally and those who have no 125
public forum at all to manifest their thoughts and needs. Established media, such as radio
and TV, are still vital to those who cannot read or write. But the Internet is also a wonderful
medium for education, and – with considerable help from Governments and donors – should
become the principal tool to blast through the obstacles to its own accessibility for millions of
people worldwide. We must all work to ensure that the broadest possible plurality of voices is 130
heard.
Food for Thought
 According to the text, what are the obstacles to freedom of expression of the press?
 According to the text, what are the similarities between the roles of human rights defenders and
the press? How far do you agree?
 Based on your own research, what are some recent examples of press freedom being hampered?
 Is it ever justified to restrict press freedom / freedom of expression?
 To what extent has technology played a role in facilitating or hampering press freedom?
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Reading 4D
Adam Garlock and Bradley Steffens write about censorship.
1 Censorship may be valid in some circumstances: protect the vulnerable, advance a political
agenda, prevent social unrests… However, to regard it as a panacea for social ills would be a
grave mistake. In fact, when deprived of new ideas and opinions, individuals stagnate. Their
judgement becomes impaired. Their decision-making ability falters. They make poor choices
or succumb to apathy, both of which weaken the entire society. The free flow of information is 5
so vital to an open society that its importance almost goes without saying, yet many people
fail to grasp its true value. They view free speech and a free press as a kind of frill –
something that is nice to have but ultimately expendable.
2 Those who are obsessed with teen violence want to censor violence in television, movies,
and video games. People determined to end racism often seek to remove racist language 10
from books, classrooms, and the media. However, what do-gooders fail to realise is that
censorship poses a greater danger to society than the worst speech possibly can. Their
causes are just, but their remedy is evil. ”Wherever they burn books they will also, in the end,
burn human beings,” wrote German author Heinrich Heine in 1823. A society willing to
suppress ideas in print and other media is more likely to go down the slippery slope in their 15
pursuit to censor those ideas wherever they appear.
3 Admittedly, not all speech is uplifting and enlightening. Coarse, degrading, and offensive
speech does exist. However, the best way to deal with evil speech is not to censor it but to
counter it with better speech. Indeed, the only way to separate good ideas from bad ideas is
to allow them to compete in a free marketplace of ideas. Some good ideas, such as women’s 20
rights, were at first considered by many to be bad. Some bad ideas, such as the right to
practise human slavery, were at one time accepted as good. Only through debate did the
better ideas prevail and the worse ones disappear. A society that censors speech runs the
danger of freezing all ideas – good and bad alike – in one place. How can even the best
ideas emerge if there is no debate? How can evil ideas be defeated if they cannot be 25
challenged?
4 Whatever attraction censorship may hold in theory also disappears when it is put into
practice, because all censorship requires one person or group to impose its values on
another. The question always remains: Who is to decide which ideas are to be allowed and
which are to be censored? Those who endorse censorship say that it is to protect minors 30
from access to harmful or objectionable materials. This is a noble, but impractical point of
view, as it raises too many unanswerable questions. Who will decide what is indecent or
objectionable? How do you censor only the explicit materials used as pornography versus
explicit materials used to educate? How can one country censor something that is global?
Where does censorship stop – explicit materials, political opinions, religious beliefs?
35
5 Sex, violence, explicit language, drugs… Some people consider these subjects to be
extremely inappropriate, while some people find nothing wrong with them. Still others do not
think twice when they read about sex crimes in the newspapers, or when they hear Bart
swearing at Homer on The Simpsons3. Most people do not feel one way or another about
these allegedly inappropriate materials because it has become a part of life. Those few who 40
would choose to act upon their dislike try to censor these materials, be it on television, in
movies, on the Internet, or anywhere else. But what these proponents of censorship fail to
realise is that although people have a right to decide for themselves what is and is not
inappropriate, censoring materials pertaining to these subjects would be unfair to those
people who enjoy them.
45
3
American cartoon series that comments on social issues.
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6 Ethics are often a matter of social culture. What is ethical in one culture may be unethical in
another. It would be nearly impossible to set one standard. In today’s digital age where the
information superhighway of the internet reaches almost all corners of the world, this poses
yet more problems for those who advocate censorship. Besides, what would become of the
Internet if censorship were allowed? The major commercial sites will still be readily available 50
as they will have the resources and inclination to self-rate, and third-party rating services will
be inclined to give them acceptable ratings. People who disseminate quirky and idiosyncratic
speech, create individual home pages, or post controversial news, will be among the first
Internet users blocked by filters and made invisible by the search engines. Controversial
speech will still exist, but will only be visible to those with tools and know-how to penetrate the 55
dense smokescreen of industry “self-regulation.”
7 The question of Internet censorship is becoming a global concern, but what countries fail or
refuse to acknowledge is that the global society that is the Internet, has its own rules and
ethics and its own methods of enforcing them – rules and sanctions which have been
developed over the decades of the Net’s existence and which reflect technological and social 60
realities in a way alternatives imposed from outside cannot. Additionally, it is common
knowledge that the Internet interprets censorship or blocking as damage and routes around it.
So, how do you censor something that is intrinsically designed to prevent and circumvent
blocking? The answer is that you cannot.
8 In sum, allegedly offensive materials should not be censored. Attempts at censorship are 65
often hypocritical; it is not uncommon for governments to denounce censorship in a few
instances, but later seek to eliminate materials labeled “inappropriate” to enhance their own
image. Experience should teach us to be most on our guard to protect liberty when the
government’s purposes are beneficent. Men born to freedom are naturally alert to repel
invasion of their liberty by evil-minded rulers. The greatest dangers to liberty lurk in insidious 70
encroachment by men of zeal, well-meaning but without understanding.
AJC JC1 Common Test 2011
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Questions from the passage
1) What do the authors intend you to understand by the three dots (…) at the end of the first sentence?
[1]
2) Using your own words as far as possible, explain what this means: “However, to regard it as a
panacea for social ills would be a grave mistake” (lines 2-3) [2]
3) What do the authors mean by “…go down the slippery slope” (lines 15-16) [2]
4) What is the authors’ intent in using “admittedly” in line 17? [1]
5) What is the dilemma the authors raise concerning the censorship of “explicit materials” (line 33)? Use
your own words as far as possible. [1]
6) What is the authors’ purpose in asking so many questions in paragraph 4? [1]
7) Explain how, according to paragraph 5, the majority of people feel about materials containing sex,
violence, explicit language and grugs. Why do they feel this way? Use your own words as far as
possible. [2]
8) Why, according to paragraph 6, would today’s digital age pose yet more problems for those who
advocate censorship? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
9) “People so disseminate quirky and idiosyncratic speech…will be among the first internet users
blocked…” (lines 54-55). Suggest why this is so. [2]
10) According to paragraph 7, what are the characteristics of internet rules? Use your own words as far as
possible. [2]
11) Why do the authors regard the government’s attempts to censor offensive material as “hypocritical”
(line 68)? Use your own words as far as possible. [3]
12) What does “lurk in insidious encroachment” (line 73) suggest about the dangers posed by the men of
zeal? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
13) Using material from paragraphs 1-3, summarise the arguments for and against censorship. Your
summary should not be more than 120 words, excluding the opening words below. Use your own
words as far as possible. [8]
One argument for censorship is…
14) Garlock and Steffens see censorship as something that harms the society. Do you think that
censorship is broadly beneficial or harmful in your society? [8]
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5 NEW MEDIA
5.1 Definitions





5.2
New media refers to on-demand access to content anytime, anywhere, on any digital device, as
well as interactive user feedback, creative participation and community formation around the
media content.
Most technologies described as ‘new media’ are digital, often having characteristics of
being manipulated, networkable, dense, compressible, and interactive.
Some examples may be the Internet, websites, computer multimedia, video games, CD-ROMS,
and DVDs .
Social media: Social software which mediate human communication. When the technologies are
in place, social media is ubiquitously accessible
In the year 2012, social media became one of the most powerful sources for news updates
through platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Google+.
The Rise of New Media
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





5.3
New media technologies have forced mainstream print media to transform themselves into
supposed new media organisations, which integrate digital mediums like the internet and television
It is supposed to bring people closer together and revolutionise the world.
Many have started leveraging on its popularity to fulfil functions which used to be fulfilled by
traditional media.
Yet many have criticised that it has led to greater distractions.
o Quoting Obama, “Information becomes a distraction, a diversion, a form of entertainment,
rather than a tool of empowerment, rather than the means of emancipation,"
There are also criticisms of how privacy is threatened with new media gaining greater popularity.
Online information can be obtained easily; people’s whereabouts can be easily tracked with all the
online “check-ins”.
There is also a view that blogging or tweeting is publication without responsibility or accountability
and that, in this sense, the internet is beyond the reach of the law
With all these potential harms, there are even talks about the need for new laws to govern the use
of the internet.
Some Key Players/ Stakeholders
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


Individuals
o Consumers
o Citizen journalists
o Journalists
o Celebrities
o Politicians
Corporations
o Advertising firms
o Advertisers
o Media agencies
o New media owners
Governments
Non-Governmental Organisations
o Human Rights Activists
o Reporters Without Borders
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5.4
Analysis & Evaluation
1. What are some implications with the rise of new media?
 Consider different stakeholders’ perspectives? Who do you think will support the rise and who
do you think will be apprehensive of it?
2. With the rise of new media, is print media really obsolete?
3. To what extent is the internet a force for good?
4. How far has the rise of new media empowered the people?
5. More than 800 million users visit YouTube each month, 800 million active Facebook users, 156
million QQ users, more than 500 million Twitter users. All these are indicators of the popularity of
social media.
 How can we leverage on their popularity? Consider the different stakeholders’ perspectives.
 Has social media created more problems than benefits?
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5.5
Reading articles
Reading 5A
Facebook, Google and privacy
Google and especially Facebook should change the way they look after people’s personal information
1
In the space of a week two of the best-known internet companies have found themselves in a
pickle over privacy. Facebook faces criticism for making more information about its users
available by default. Meanwhile Google has been castigated by a bevy of privacy regulators for
inadvertently collecting data from unsecured Wi-Fi networks in people’s homes as part of a
project to capture images of streets around the world.
5
2
Although the two cases are distinct, they have revived fears that online privacy is being
trampled underfoot as internet behemoths race to grab as much data as possible. And they
have provoked calls for tougher action by regulators and governments to prevent web firms
from abusing the mountains of personal data they now hold. Danah Boyd, a social-networking
expert, has even argued that Facebook, with its hordes of members around the world, is now 10
so embedded in people’s lives that it should be regulated as a utility.
3
The firms have fought back. Facebook claims that most of its users are comfortable with the
changes it has introduced, including one that lets it share detailed customer data with some
external sites. It has blamed the furore on media hysteria; only a few privacy activists have
publicly committed “Facebook suicide” by closing their accounts. As for Google, it has 15
apologised for its “mistake” and says that leaders of its Street View project knew nothing about
the software that allowed its roving vehicles to capture snippets of e-mails.
4
At its most extreme, the attack on Facebook and Google makes little sense. Treating them as
utilities seems excessive, for two reasons. They are not essential services that enjoy a local or
national monopoly; people who feel their privacy is being violated are free to hop to other web 20
services (remember AltaVista and MySpace?), though many sites deliberately make it hard for
them to take their data with them. A second reason to tread carefully is that strict regulation
could stifle the rapid innovation in business models that has thrived on the internet. Instead,
officials should concentrate on enforcing existing privacy rules—something they seem
reassuringly keen to do. Canada’s privacy commissioner, Jennifer Stoddart, has given warning 25
that her organisation may take action against Facebook for violating a deal reached last year
requiring the network to seek users’ permission before sharing their data.
5
However, even if, like this newspaper, you both distrust government intervention and believe
the world has gained from the sharing of information on the web, there are plainly real grounds
for concern. For instance, Google claims it discovered that its software had been accidentally 30
recording private information for several years only after privacy officials in Germany
demanded that it come clean about the data being collected. That is a stunning admission from
a technology giant—and privacy watchdogs are right to investigate that.
6
Facebook’s problem is more fundamental. True, the social network has some of the most
extensive privacy controls on the web, but these have now become so complex—and are 35
tweaked so often—that even privacy experts find them bamboozling. The company also has a
powerful incentive to push people into revealing more information. Facebook generates most of
its revenue from targeted advertisements based on users’ demography and interests, so the
more data users share publicly the more money it can mint from ads. It may well be betting that
users are now so hooked that they are unlikely to revolt against a gradual loosening of privacy 40
safeguards.
7
The worst thing is Facebook’s underlying prejudice against privacy. Sign up and it assumes
you want to share as much data as possible; if not, you have to change the settings, which can
be a fiddly business. The presumption should be exactly the opposite: the default should be
tight privacy controls, which users may then loosen if they choose. If Facebook fails to simplify 45
and improve its privacy policy, it will justly risk the wrath of regulators—and many more
Facebook suicides.
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May 20th 2010 | From The Economist print edition
Food for Thought
 To what extent should technology be blamed for all privacy threats?
 "Privacy is dead – get over it." How far do you agree?
 Consider the implications of internet privacy on people’s real lives.
 How far should people be worried about online privacy?
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Reading 5B (i)
Professor George Brock speaks about the changing scene in the news industry.
1 Debate about news is almost exclusively doom-laden. There is economic gloom: print
advertising income falling in newspapers, online publishing failing to find a business model,
the financing of local television news uncertain. Voices start to ask: is news over? To answer
that question head on, we have to start by asking once again what journalism actually is.
Perfectly easy to recognise, you might say: a person equipped with anything from a spiral- 5
bound notebook to a handycam reporting events to the rest of us. But anyone can now do
that if they choose. Can anyone relaying news to anyone call themselves a journalist?
Journalism has now become a word wandering around in search of a definition. In the past
decade and a half, the ability of very small computers to swop, replicate and link vast
quantities of data at high speed and at almost no cost has changed more than news, but also 10
human communication, the public sphere, privacy, the division of work and play and the
distribution of power. Distilling the effects on news, we can separate out three irreversible
shifts.
2
3
First, in the quantity of information available. When journalism began, reliable information
was scarce; despite the inaccuracy of much you can find nowadays, news is in glut. Perhaps 15
the most dramatic effects of this explosion of information are still to be felt in regions like
Africa and South Asia where the internet’s riches arrive on a mobile phone, equipping the
poor with information which they have not had before. Second big change: the instant
alteration of information. The internet allows news to be updated, nuanced, corrected
continuously from many different directions. Those who enjoy this say that news has become 20
a ‘process’ or ‘conversation’. Those who do not enjoy it say that news is losing at least some
of its authority, clarity and coherence. The third, most profound change is the decentralisation
of news. The ability for anyone to produce something called ‘news’, circulate it, discuss it and
edit it brings an oligopoly to a brutal end. With the internet, the barrier to entry into the
journalist’s world has been removed. Disclosure can now be done by anyone, experienced or 25
not, with a bundle of motivations or none. The key functions of traditional journalists – to
verify, make sense of, witness and investigate – can be done, and are being done by
thousands of others who neither count themselves as news organisations or journalists.
Two issues exacerbate the current shift: a loss of trust and interest. When distrust in news
was expressed, it was because people felt that their expectations of the news were not 30
shared by the news producers, that they were being told stories that were not adequately
explained, that their lives were being reported in ways that were not adequately researched,
or that new, communicative spaces were opening up in which useful, reliable and amusing
information could be accessed without having to subscribe to the authority of the instream
media.
35
4
Imagine a common enough event in any large city. It is Friday evening and a young woman
is robbed and attacked on her way home. The attack is not fatal but serious enough to put
her in hospital overnight to involve the police. By the next morning, her social network has
been alerted. She may have triggered this by tweeting, posting on Facebook or simply by
blogging, sending emails or texts from a phone. Before 24 hours have gone by, anything up 40
to several hundred people will have read and discussed the details. What does the local
paper do? A routine police check which might put a few paragraphs on the website on the
Saturday’s and Monday’s evening editions. It was not a murder after all. In print, more
potential readers but less engagement. The formal, one-size-fits-all ‘news’ arrives in less
satisfying form. The private, more personal version will be swifter, richer, and more detailed 45
and authentic to the reader. Thus, the conventional pales in stark comparison to the newer,
more ‘authentic’ way of reporting. Where are we headed?
5
We are entering a new communications age and no one can accurately predict what exactly
the needs of this age will be. We can only equip ourselves better to navigate change. Making
the case for ‘journalism’ needs a little more self-critical appraisal by the journalists 50
themselves, as for the worth of ‘journalism’ is real and its case will need to be made often in
the next few years.
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Reading 5B(ii)
Tom Alderman argues that social media is not much of a threat to the news industry.
1
2
3
4
5
“Citizen Journalist broke Obama Story," reads the headline in the Los Angeles Times. The
'citizen' is Huffington Post blogger, Mayhill Fowler. The story is the exclusive recording and
article about Obama's 'bitter' bite from his speech about small towns - which became as
ubiquitous on TV screens as "Law and Order." Citizen journalism is as old as our democracy.
Early American news purveyors were citizens with a printing press in their basements putting
out information about bad King George and helped create a nation. Over a couple of
centuries, these citizens eventually morphed into a small handful of media companies which
currently own over eighty percent of all news outlets. However, the modern explosion of the
Internet has re-created citizen journalism and, this time, not everyone is chirping with delight
about it - especially journalists.
The people who promote this process hail it as the power of citizen involvement. Mainstream
media commits censorship by omission, goes the thinking. Voices of the poor, the
disenfranchised and minorities often go unheard and citizen participation is an opportunity to
get them heard, says Leonard Witt, one of the main architects of citizen journalisms'
structure. Citizen reporters provide independent, accurate, reliable information that the
traditional media does not provide, goes the argument. Independent? Perhaps. Accurate
and reliable? Cannot be sure, say concerned professionals. Citizen journalism really is not
journalism, says Prof. Hazinski. It is gossip. Where are the training, experience, standards
and skills essential to gather and report news? It opens up the news flow to the strong
possibility of fraud and abuse, he says.
This is what makes media mavens very nervous. If a reporter goes off the reservation, like
the New York Times' Judith Miller, editors have standards and safeguards to call her to task.
However, with a story generated by Everyman, where is the protection, the accountability?
Where are the professionals to validate or vet the story? A significant percentage of the
public believes Barack Obama is a Muslim and John McCain sired an African-American baby
- both the result of some citizen putting it out on the Internet as a legitimate story. That is
scary. Readers who shop for books on Amazon understand the pitfalls of citizen
participation. When looking at reviews that accompany every title, critical thinkers wonder
who is the citizen writing this review? Is this a thoughtful opinion from a reader, or from a
friend, or foe, of the author trying to influence sales?
The question around this re-emerging trend might be, who benefits from citizen journalism?
For starters, profit-oriented news organisations potentially do. As they cut costs and chop off
hordes of staff, they might increase their information sources - at no cost. The so-called
reporter benefits by the simple act of creating a story and seeing it published - somewhere.
Ego boost. What about the news consuming public at-large? There are benefits. Government
or corporate whistle blowers have unlimited outlets for their horror stories - stories that might
not see the light of day without the Internet. More citizens keeping an eye on more things is
like open-source news gathering - another possible benefit.
But if citizen journalism is a product of our democracy, the answer may lay there.
Democracy, pure democracy, is unworkable and does require parameters - which is why the
Founding Fathers created representative democracy. We, citizens, chose other qualified
citizens to examine, set standards, represent and execute our views and interests in the
governing process. It is a vetting process - the same vetting process that all reporters have
to go through with editors. That means it is necessary to have qualified people representing
our interests when it comes to gathering and delivering news - and that would be our current
media companies, the ones who own over eighty percent of all news outlets.
5
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15
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25
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MI Prelim 2011
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Questions from Reading 5B(i)
1. Explain what the writer means by ‘journalism has now become a word wandering around in search of
a definition’ (line 8). [1]
2. Using material from Paragraphs 2 and 3, summarise the shifts and issues faced by the news industry.
Write your summary in no more than 120 words not counting the opening words which are printed
below. Use your own words as far as possible. [8]
The first shift would be that…
3. ‘It was not a murder after all’ (line 43). What was the writer’s tone and what does this suggest about
the way the local paper treats the news? [2]
4. Why does the writer place inverted commas around ‘news’ (line 44)? [2]
Questions from Reading 5B(ii)
5. What does the phrase ‘citizen journalism is as old as our democracy’ (line 4) suggest about the
relationship between citizen journalism and the USA democracy? [1]
6. Why is ‘citizen journalism’ (lines 17-18) not considered journalism? Answer in your own words as
far as possible. [2]
7. Explain in your own words as far as possible, the differences between the reporter and the
‘Everyman’ (line 23). [2]
8. According to the writer, what are the benefits to ‘the news-consuming public at-large’ (line 35)?
Explain in your own words as far as possible. [2]
9. Explain how the idea of ‘representative democracy’ (line 41) is practised during the vetting process.
Answer in your own words as far as possible. [2]
10. Prof. George Brock feels that the news industry is challenged by technological changes. Tom
Alderman feels that the challenges are of no significant consequence to replace the news industry.
Who do you agree with more and why? Explain your view, with reference to observations and
experiences from your society. [8]
Additional Vocabulary Practice
Give the meaning of the following words as they are used in the passage. Write your answer in one word
or a short phrase.
(a) distilling (Reading 5B(i), line 12)
(b) stark (Reading 5B(i), line 46)
(c) ubiquitous (Reading 5B(ii), line 4)
(d) purveyors (Reading 5B(ii), line 5)
(e) pitfalls (Reading 5B(ii), line 27)
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Reading 5C(i)
1 Until very recently, the mainstream media had a monopoly on the dissemination of information to
large numbers of Americans. News was what the mainstream media said it was, and nothing
more. This began to change in the late 90s, when the earliest blogs appeared on the web. 2004
saw a spectacular demonstration of the coming-of-age of blogs. Dan Rather, anchorman of the
CBS Evening News since 1981, was forced into retirement when right-wing bloggers discovered 5
that a potentially damaging report about President Bush's National Guard service, for which
Rather was in part responsible, had apparently been based on forged documents. The
mainstream media initially chose not to cover this story, but the blogosphere decided that it was
news — and thereby made it news.
2
Rather's professional demise was one sign of the breakup of the big-media information 10
monopoly. Another can be seen in the fast-declining circulation of American newspapers. Even
when Americans read print-media stories, they tend to find them by going to blogs and other
websites whose proprietors pick and choose at will from the mainstream media's offerings, linking
to some stories and ignoring others according to their political inclinations.
3
Rupert Murdoch, the founder and chairman of News Corporation, recently summed up the 15
implications of these developments in a speech to the American Society of Newspaper Editors:
"[Young people] don't want to rely on a godlike figure from above to tell them what's important.
And to carry the religion analogy a bit further, they certainly don't want news presented as
gospel."
4
From the early blogs, it was evident that bloggers wrote as much or as little as they pleased, 20
answered to no editors, and obeyed no rules save for the infinitely malleable ones they made up
themselves. Above all, they wrote about whatever they liked and published it whenever they liked.
They disdained the artificially detached voice of the professional journalist, choosing to write in
the confessional manner of the familiar essayist, often using anecdotal material drawn from their
private lives to illustrate their commentaries on public affairs. Blogging, young as it was, had 25
already evolved into an end in itself, a medium whose distinctive properties arose from the
opportunities for personal expression that it offered.
5
So what we now have is a "balkanised" group of subcultures whose members pursue their
separate, unshared interests in an unprecedented variety of ways. Instead of staying to fight the
loss of a common culture, Americans have withdrawn from the battleground, and gone home to 30
cultivate their own cultural gardens — through blogging. The effect of this is a blogosphere that is
decentralized to the point of atomization. Its "citizens" rarely meet face to face, nor do they read
mass-circulation newspapers and middlebrow magazines. Instead, they pursue their own
specialised interests, intensely but also narrowly, making use of web-based electronic media that
are available, as the saying goes, "24/7."
35
6
Without question, the most significant aspect of blogging, as of web-based media in general, is its
democratization of the means of distributing information to large numbers of people. This has
made possible what media bloggers call "open-source" or "citizens' journalism," in which amateur
journalists use the web to disseminate reportage and commentary that in many cases has proved
superior to the product of so-called professional journalists. And now that bloggers can make 40
money through web-based advertising, we are also seeing the appearance of the first "standalone journalists", a term that refers to self-publishing, self-supporting professional journalists
who are unaffiliated with the mainstream media.
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7
However, the day of the information middleman is not yet over. Blogs alone are incapable of
replacing newspapers, or even magazines, notwithstanding the triumphalist fantasies of certain 45
bloggers with overactive imaginations. Blogs, after all, have their own built-in limitations. Chief
among these is a tendency toward superficiality. While a blogger can write at any length, few
seem inclined to post the kind of full-length essay that is expected of an intellectual magazine.
Most favour brief, suggestive postings that imply more than they state, and they no less typically
prefer hit-and-run assertion to detailed argument, verbal slugfests to coolly reasoned refutations. 50
Moreover, for all the contempt in which they affect to hold the mainstream media, too many
bloggers complain about what the media do wrong instead of figuring out how to do things right.
Adapted from Culture in the Age of Blogging by Terry Teachout
1
Reading 5C(ii)
Henry Clarke Wright was an American reformer who inveighed against war, corporal punishment
in the home, slavery, loveless marriage, church and state, traditional medicine, and much else.
Wright shared several traits with the prototypical blogger — his eccentric range of interests, his
resolution "to write down what I see and hear and feel daily," his use of journals to "let off" rants
of "indignation," his utopian conviction that writing might change the world, and his practice of 5
spending the "greater part of the day writing in his room." Wright was an inveterate journal keeper
who mailed pages and even whole volumes to his friends or read them excerpts, and many
pages were later published in his numerous books. Wright died in 1870, already a relatively
forgotten reformer. Yet, his reflections on writing are eerily evocative of what it is like to blog. Was
Wright a blogger? Are not his journals the fossilized originals of a species?
10
2
Are blogs really just another turn of history’s wheel? Yes and no. Three years ago, the New York
Times declared that the "ancient art of haranguing" — practised so well by political philosophers
in the 18th and 19th centuries — has moved to the Internet, belligerent as ever. But treating
highly influential writers as analogues for bloggers serves a particular understanding of blogging
as primarily political. Moreover, it perpetuates a picture of the blogosphere that is skewed toward 15
elite and highly visible blogs. When historical analogies to blogging are offered, they usually
reinforce the idea that blogging is mainly a political enterprise, dominated by a few leading
figures. Even blogging analysts who focus on the elite poliblogs are likely to see their aspirations
for influence as defining features of blogging itself, as if most blogs exist primarily to act as
moulders of public opinion.
20
3
Although famous poliblogs receive the lion’s share of attention from bloggers and journalists alike,
most blogs go largely unnoticed by the mainstream media. The vast majority are not concerned
primarily with political influence or alternative journalism but with various personal or professional
interests. The full history of blogging, then, cannot be told simply as a story of how the poliblogs
rose into mainstream consciousness or acquired political influence, because that story fails to 25
account for the size and heterogeneity of the blogosphere as a whole.
4
Major transformations in printing and reading took place in the United States between 1750 and
1850. At the beginning of this period, print remained scarce — those with power controlled the
flow of knowledge, and access to print and public information required deference to them. The
shift from a scarcity of print to abundance was therefore accompanied necessarily by a measure 30
of increased democratization. The growth of the empire of newspapers created prime conditions
for the emergence of reading practices similar to blogging. As individual readers freely made
choices about what information to acquire, they also freely came together as groups of likeminded readers. Whereas earlier private reading choices had governed vertical relationships
between elites and non-elites, reading choices in the early nineteenth century became public 35
matters, defining horizontal relationships among individuals who met on a more equal footing.
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5
The basic practice that underlies most blogging is therefore not unprecedented. Historically, when
an abundance of public information is conjoined with democratized ideas about the flow of
information, something like blogging usually results. Indeed, blogging demonstrates the
persistence of a key truth in the history of reading — that readers, in a culture of abundant 40
reading material, regularly seek out other readers, either by becoming writers themselves or by
sharing their records of reading with others. This process, of course, requires cultural conditions
that value democratic rather than deferential ideals of authority. To explain how new habits of
reading and writing develop, those cultural conditions matter as much — perhaps more — than
economic or technological innovations. The explosion of newspapers in America was not just a 45
result of their cheapness or their means of production, any more than the explosion of blogging is
just a result of the fact that free and user-friendly software is available. Perhaps, instead, blogging
is the literate person’s new outlet for an old need.
Adapted from Blogging in the Early Republic by W. Caleb McDaniel
ACJC Prelim 2006
Questions on Reading 5C(i)
1. In paragraph 1, how does the Dan Rather incident illustrate the changing relationship between the
blogosphere and the mainstream media? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
2. Why did Murdoch refer to news as ‘gospel’ (line 19)? [2]
3. Explain in your own words what the author means when he says that Americans have ‘withdrawn
from the battleground’ (line 30). [2]
Questions on Reading 5C(ii)
4. Why does the writer use the word 'eerily' (line 9) when commenting on the similarities between Wright
and present-day bloggers? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
5. From paragraph 4, explain how an abundance of print led to increased democratisation. Use your
own words as far as possible. [3]
6. What does 'an old need' (line 48) refer to? Use your own words as far as possible. [1]
7. Caleb McDaniel objects to the popular perception that blogs are primarily political. Using material from
the first three paragraphs, summarise how blogs can be both political and non-political in no more
than 140 words, not counting the opening words which are given below. Use your own words as far
as possible.
Blogs are seen as primarily political because…
8. Both passages deal with the evolution of blogs and their changing influence on society. Has blogging
played a positive role in your society? How will blogging shape your society in the future?
Draw appropriate information from both passages. You must also rely on your own ideas and
knowledge of your society.
Additional Vocabulary Practice
From Reading 5C(i):
a. unprecedented (line 29)
b. intensely (line 34)
From Reading 5C(ii):
c. belligerent (line 13)
d. deference (line 29)
e. governed (line 34)
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Reading 5D (i)
Andy Ho writes about the impact of social media on the new generation.
1 In December 2009, for the first time ever, Facebook made the personal data of its users public
and thus publicly searchable. An outcry among privacy groups ensued but users remain
undeterred. Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg said, “People have really gotten comfortable…
sharing information… more openly with more people. That social norm… has evolved.” Do the
young really regard privacy differently? Mr Zuckerberg, 26, belongs to Generation Y, also
dubbed the “Millennials”, which William Strauss and Neil Howe defined, in their influential book,
Millennials Rising: The Next Generation (2000), as people born from 1982 to 2001. For
Millennials, their social motivations “to Facebook” seemingly override any privacy concerns their
baby boomer parents might have.
5
2
Why? One clue lies in the other label for Generation Y, namely “Trophy Kids”. This moniker 10
reflects the way they were brought up to regard everyone a winner and no one the loser.
Everyone who takes part wins; everybody gets a trophy for just participating. Speaking up is to
be valued in itself. So are the approbation, affirmation and recognition. For them, no win-lose
divide exists.
3
At just the right moment too, this peer-oriented, relationship-valuing generation finds human 15
communication amplified by a whole slew of new technologies – mobile internet on 3G phones,
mobile broadband on laptops, texting, instant messaging, and social networking on Facebook
and Twitter. Millennials have taken to these technologies like fish to water. They stay connected
to their peers, sharing the minutiae of and trivia about their daily lives, complete with photos and
videos. This is a platform Millennials use to manage peer-to-peer impressions by sharing 20
information about themselves. This impression management promotes mutual ties, forges one’s
self-identity and allows one to be recognized as a valued member of various communities.
4
On Facebook, you display your individuality – music preferences, political and social causes
supported and so on. Just as importantly, you are the centre of your own social universe.
Everybody exists relationally. Your social ties are a major part of who you are. Sociologists have 25
long noted that identity, relationship and community are central to human flourishing. For
Millennials, this is as true on Facebook as it is offline. Offline in the real world, people wear
masks which become their “real” identities. In this way, their true selves are suppressed. Today,
those true selves can be outed anonymously on, say, an online forum. Where there is no
accountability, the masks can safely come off.
30
5
By contrast, Facebook relationships are usually tied to a user’s real identity – his legal name,
institutional affiliation or shared friends. Still, there is some leeway here to stretch the truth a little.
In such situations, people strive to project plausible selves as known by online friends. Mindful of
being socially ostracised offline if friends consider their hoped-for selves on Facebook too way
off the mark, people do not stray egregiously. According to a 2007 University of Texas study, 35
Facebook profiles tend to be true to their real selves. In sum, Facebook users set social norms
for themselves, abide by and mutually enforce them. That is, they police their own behaviour,
watching one another and acquiescing to being watched by their peers. Nevertheless, the study
also showed that they object to surveillance by the government.
6
Thus, Millennials value social cohesion in ways that the more individualistic baby boomers and 40
Generation X do not. They do not find it menacing that peers can track them online, though this
does not mean they embrace any monitoring by the authorities. Sociologists say all this suggests
that what is considered public or private is not set in stone. Instead, it can change with the
generations. Baby boomer parents of Millennials might see their Facebook behaviour as
excessive public self-display, paradoxically admixed with a docile acquiescence to being under 45
surveillance but their offspring find this neither perverse nor submissive, for it is all between
friends. However, what is public between friends is not necessarily open to the authorities.
Millennials may value people more, but Big Brother is still to be rejected.
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Reading 5D (ii)
Steven Johnson writes about social media bringing more promise than peril.
1 In the late 1990s, at the height of the dotcom boom, an Internet tycoon named Josh Harris
persuaded his girlfriend to spend a few months with him under unceasing Web surveillance,
each bowel movement and lover’s quarrel accompanied by live chats among strangers all
around the world. A documentary about Harris called We Live in Public, which won the Grand
Jury Prize for documentaries at Sundance in 2009, holds him out as a kind of holy fool, a 5
demented visionary who managed to anticipate the new normal of constant public exposure. Yet
watching the 10-year old footage, you cannot help but notice how much of Harris’ vision has
failed to come true. Despite the rise of Youtube and high speed connections, almost no one
chooses to go on display in such an extreme way. What we do online is something quite
different. We curate our private lives, editing out certain bits and highlighting others. We fiddle 10
with the privacy controls on Facebook. We define the circles of exposure.
2
There used to be a large crevasse separating the intimate space of private life and what is
exposed by the klieg lights of fame. But in the Facebook age, that crevasse has broadened into a
valley between the realms of privacy and celebrity, and we are starting to camp out there and get
the lay of the land. What happens in the valley should not be mistaken for fame. When you sift 15
through the birthday-party pictures of a friend’s, you are not equating her with Lady Gaga. This is
not her 15 minutes of fame. This is your private life colliding with that of a person you could
imagine being friends or colleagues with but are not. Call it the valley of intimate strangers.
3
We are discovering in this new realm that public exposure is not just a matter of egotism or idle
voyeurism. People have blogged their way through their battles with cancer. By taking their 20
ordeal to the valley, they got valuable advice from strangers who posted comments and helped
form an online support group – and an archive that could help future patients who happen upon it
via cancer-related queries on Google. Writer Jeff Jarvis, now happily living in good health, talked
about his experience as a lesson in the virtues of publicness. The United States Constitution may
not contain an explicit reference to the right to privacy, but the notion that privacy is worth 25
cherishing and protecting needs little justification. What Jarvis suggests is that the opposite
condition needs its defenders: over-sharing, in a strange way, can turn out to be a civic good.
4
There is an oft tweeted axiom called Zuckerberg’s Law. It is based on Facebook CEO Mark
Zuckerberg’s prediction that each year, we will share twice as much information as we did the
year before. It is unlikely we can keep doubling our disclosure rate in the long run, but there is no 30
doubt that five years from now, when today’s children are teenagers, they are comfortable living
in public in ways that will astound and alarm their parents. It is not difficult to imagine how
powerful the instinct to worry about predators and compromising photos will be. Nonetheless, it
will be our responsibility to keep that instinct in check and recognize that their increasingly public
existence brings more promise than peril. We have to learn how to break with that most 35
elemental of parental commandments: Do not talk to strangers. It turns out that strangers have a
lot to give us that is worthwhile, and we to them.
5
Still, talking to strangers is different from handing over a set of your house keys. We are learning
how to draw the line between the extremes, and it is a line that each of us will draw in different
ways. That we get to make these decisions for ourselves is a step forward; the valley is a much 40
richer and more connected place than the old divide between privacy and celebrity worship was.
The fact remains that it is going to take some time to learn how to live there.
TJC J2 CT 2011
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Questions from Reading 5D (i)
1) Why did Facebook users “remain undeterred” (lines 2-3) when their personal data were made public?
Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
2) Why did the author label Generation Y “Trophy Kids” (line 10)? Use your own words as far as
possible. [1]
3) Explain what the writer means by “Millennials have taken to these technologies like fish to water” (lines
18). [1]
4) Using material from paragraphs 3 – 6, summarise the impact of social media on the lives and views of
Millennials.
Write your summary in no more than 120 words, not counting the opening words which are printed
below. Use your own words as far as possible. [8]
Social media enable Millenials to…
Questions from Reading 5D (ii)
5) a) Explain why Josh Harris was viewed as a “demented visionary” (line 6). [2]
b) Why did Harris’ vision fail to come true? Use your own words as far as possible. [2]
6) How do the metaphors “crevasse” (line 12) and “valley” (line 14) explain the change in the idea of
privacy and celebrity? [2]
7) a) In what way is public exposure more than just “a matter of egotism and idle voyeurism” (lines 19 20)? Answer in your own words as far as possible. [1]
b) Explain why the writer uses the phrase “in a strange way” (line 27). [1]
8) What is the author implying when he says “Still, talking to strangers is different from handing over a
set of your house keys” (line 38)? [2]
9) Both Ho and Johnson suggest that social media are constantly redefining social norms today. How far
have social media influenced or changed people’s lives? In your answer, assess some of the issues
raised by both authors and support your views with examples and observations. [8]
Additional Vocabulary Practice
Give the meaning of each of the following words as they are used in the passages. You may write the
answer in a word or short phrase.
From Reading 5D(i)
a) suppressed (line 28)
From Reading 5D(ii)
b) unceasing (line 2)
c) colliding (line 17)
d) axiom (line 28)
e) astound (line 32)
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