《Bridgeway Bible Commentary –
Deuteronomy》(Donald C. Fleming)
Commentator
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Introduction
Deuteronomy
BACKGROUND
After receiving the law at Mount Sinai, Israel spent about forty years in the
wilderness region between Sinai and Canaan. During this time those who were
adults when Israel left Sinai died and a new generation grew up (Numbers
14:28-35). Moses therefore repeated and explained the law for the people of this
new generation before they entered Canaan. This instruction was given during the
last two weeks of Moses’ life, while Israel was camped on the plains of Moab
making
preparations
to
conquer
Canaan
(Numbers
22:1;
Num_35:1;
Deuteronomy 1:1-5).
Because this instruction involved a repetition of the law given at Sinai, the
book that records it is known as Deuteronomy (from two Greek words, deuteros,
meaning ‘second’, and nomos, meaning ‘law’). This was not the original title, but
was given by the translators of the Septuagint, the first Greek version of the Old
Testament. Also Deuteronomy was not originally an individual book, but was part
of one long book that has for convenience been divided into five parts, together
known as the Pentateuch. (Concerning the Pentateuch and the Septuagint see
introductory notes to Genesis.)
Restating the law; renewing the covenant
The book of Deuteronomy is, however, much more than a mere repetition of
the law; it is also an exposition. It restates the commandments of the law but with
a different emphasis. The laws recorded in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers gave
the clearcut legal requirements; Deuteronomy, though it does not lessen those
requirements, adds that Israel’s religion must have more than legal correctness. It
must have spiritual warmth.
Deuteronomy’s style is that of the preacher rather than the lawgiver, and its
audience the people as a whole rather than the priests and judges (Deuteronomy
8:5-6; Deu_10:12-13). Its emphasis is that the people should keep God’s law
because they want to know and love him better, not merely because they are
required to do so by the covenant (Deuteronomy 6:3; Deu_6:5-9; Deu_7:7-8;
Deu_7:11).
The covenant is the basis of Deuteronomy, but the relationship between God
and his people within that covenant should be one of love. The sovereign love of
God towards his people should produce a response of obedient love towards him
(Deuteronomy 5:6-7; Deu_6:1-3). (For the meaning of the word ‘covenant’ see
notes on Genesis 9:8-17. For the specific meaning of the covenant between
Yahweh and Israel see notes on Exodus 19:1-9.)
In his grace God chose Israel to be his people and promised to give them
Canaan as their national homeland (Deuteronomy 7:6-7; Deu_8:1; Deu_9:4-5).
But if the people were to enjoy the blessings of the covenant in loving fellowship
with God, they had to know his law and keep it. The previous generation swore
covenant loyalty to God at Sinai (Exodus 24:7-8), but failed him badly. Now that
the new generation was about to enter Canaan, the covenant was renewed.
Moses repeated the law and the people gave a fresh pledge of obedience
(Deuteronomy 26:17-18).
Ancient covenant documents
The form of Deuteronomy is similar to that of the usual covenant document of
the ancient Near East, by which a sovereign overlord made a covenant, or treaty,
with his subject peoples. Such a treaty was not a negotiated agreement, but a
statement by the overlord declaring his sovereignty over the people and laying
down the order of life he required of them. The people had no alternative but to
accept the overlord’s terms.
Usually the document began with an historical introduction where the overlord
announced himself and recounted all he had done for his people. Then followed a
list of covenant obligations that he placed on the people. Their underlying duty at
all times was to be loyal to him and not to act treacherously by forming alliances
with foreign powers. After the basic requirements came detailed laws that dealt
with specific local issues.
The treaty usually named witnesses. It also contained details of the benefits
that would follow the people’s obedience and the punishments that would follow
their disobedience. The document was then lodged for safekeeping in the
sanctuary of the subject people. It provided, however, for periodic public readings
and for updating of the details from time to time. It may have concluded with a
summary of the covenant’s main requirements or a guarantee to continue the
covenant as long as the people remained faithful to their obligations.
In relation to the covenant between God and Israel, most of these features can
be seen in the accounts given in Exodus, Deuteronomy and Joshua. In the case
of Deuteronomy, not only are the above features obvious, but the entire book
seems to have been written in the form of a treaty document.
OUTLINE
1:1-4:43 Historical introduction
4:44-11:32 Basic requirements of the covenant
12:1-26:19 Detailed regulations
27:1-30:20 Conditions of the covenant
31:1-34:12 Moses’ last days
01 Chapter 1
Verses 1-46
1:1-4:43 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
In style similar to that of ancient treaty documents, Deuteronomy opens by
recounting all that Yahweh, Israel’s covenant God, has done for his people. It
reminds them of his gracious acts on their behalf and calls from them a fitting
response of covenant loyalty. The section summarizes events recorded in greater
detail in Numbers 10:11-32:42.
From Sinai to Kadesh (1:1-46)
It was only eleven days’ journey from Mount Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, and
about the same from Kadesh to the plains of Moab where the people now were,
but they had taken forty years to get there. Moses began his recollections of the
journey by reminding the people that their coming possession of Canaan was
solely because of God’s grace, not because of any virtue in them (1:1-8).
Only through God’s mercy had they grown into a strong and contented people
who enjoyed the blessing (rare among ancient races) of just, impartial and
humanitarian government (9-18). They would have further proof of God’s unfailing
goodness when they saw the rich land God was giving them. God had cared for
them throughout the long and weary journey from Mount Sinai (Horeb), ‘carrying’
them as a father carries his young son who has become too tired to walk. Yet they
complained against him and refused to go with him into the land he had chosen
for them (19-33).
The constant stubbornness of the people was the reason why they were not
allowed to enter Canaan. More than that, it was the cause of Moses’ not being
allowed. He lost patience with them and in so doing brought God’s punishment
upon himself (34-40; see Numbers 20:2-13). Still stubborn and disobedient, the
people who would not go into Canaan with God then tried to conquer the country
without him. Not surprisingly, they were defeated and driven back into the
wilderness (41-46).
02 Chapter 2
Verses 1-29
From Kadesh to Jordan (2:1-3:29)
God told the Israelites that if they went through the land of Edom, they were
not to seize any territory. This was partly because Edom was Israel’s brother
nation (being descended from Esau), and partly because the Edomites’ territory,
formerly possessed by the Horites, had been given them by God (2:1-7). Similar
restrictions applied to Israel’s relations with the nations of Moab and Ammon, both
of which were also related to Israel (being descended from Lot). Their territories,
formerly the possession of the Rephaim, had also been given them by God (8-23).
In like manner the land of the Amorites would be given Israel by God (24-25).
Although the kings of Edom and Moab refused to sell food or water to the
Israelites and denied them passage through their lands (Numbers 20:14-21;
Num_21:10-20), some of the Edomites and Moabites in outlying regions
apparently did sell to them as they detoured around the boundaries. But the
Amorite king Sihon not only refused all aid, he brought out his army against Israel
(26-32). Israel responded by destroying his army and taking possession of his
land (33-37). Moving further north, the Israelites conquered Og, another Amorite
king, and took possession of the rich pasture land of Bashan that Og formerly
controlled (3:1-11).
All the region east of the Jordan River was now under the control of Israel. It
was divided between the tribes of Reuben, Gad and half-Manasseh (12-17), but
these tribes had to help the other tribes conquer the region west of Jordan (i.e.
Canaan) before they could settle down in their newly won territory (18-22). As the
great day drew near when Israel would occupy the land that God had centuries
before promised to Abraham, Moses longed to cross Jordan and see it. God
refused him permission, but allowed him to view the land from a mountain near
Israel’s camp (23-29).
03 Chapter 3
04 Chapter 4
Verses 1-43
Warning to be obedient (4:1-43)
The reason Moses outlined Israel’s history was to show on the one hand that
God’s promises did not fail, and on the other that his judgment on disobedience
was certain. In view of this, the people were to keep all God’s laws and
commandments without altering them to suit themselves. If they modelled their
national life in Canaan on these laws, they would benefit themselves and be an
example to others (4:1-8).
In order that Israel might not forget his laws, God had written them down and
commanded Moses to teach them. Moses now passed this command on to the
new generation by instructing the people to teach these same laws to their
children, and to make sure that the children passed them on to future generations.
These laws represented Israel’s obligations under the covenant. Moses reminded
the people also of the holiness of God and of the reverence that sinful people
must exercise when approaching him (9-14).
Since they had not seen any form of God, the people could not make an image
of him. Neither were they to use natural objects such as the sun, moon or stars as
visible substitutes for him. To worship any of these things would be idolatry and
would break one of the basic laws of the covenant (15-24). Such idolatry would
bring national disaster, but God would be faithful to his covenant and save those
who were sorry for their sin and returned to him (25-31).
Not only was Yahweh the invisible God, he was the only God. He chose Israel
as his people and saved them by his miraculous power, not because of anything
they had done but solely because of his love for them. Moses therefore urged the
people to love him in return. This would guarantee a long and satisfying
occupancy of the land that they were about to enter (32-40).
Moses then established three cities of refuge in the area already settled east of
Jordan. Three more cities would later be established west of Jordan, after the
conquest of Canaan (41-43; see notes on Numbers 35:9-34).
Verse 44
4:44-11:32 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE COVENANT
In the address just concluded, Moses outlined God’s dealings with Israel in the
past, and on the basis of this urged Israel to be obedient in the future. He now
called a second meeting, this time to ‘renew’ the covenant, not in the ceremonial
sense but in the practical sense. That is, he reawakened the people to their
responsibilities under the covenant. He recalled the events when the covenant
was made at Sinai (4:44-5:5), he repeated the basic covenant commandments,
which were the principles by which the nation was to live (5:6-11:32), and he gave
detailed applications of those principles as they affected the daily lives and
religious exercises of the people (12:1-26:19).
According to ancient custom, when covenants were renewed, adjustments
could be made to bring the laws up to date. On this occasion Moses made
frequent adjustments and explanations in view of the new way of life that the
Israelites were about to enter. They were no longer a vast crowd of travellers
moving through the wilderness, but were about to become a nation of permanent
settlers in an agriculturally prosperous country.
These amendments to Israel’s laws did not mean that the religion given to
them at Sinai was in any way changed. The principles remained the same, but
their application was adjusted to suit the different conditions of Canaan.
Ten commandments (4:44-5:33)
The renewal of the covenant began in the style of ancient covenant documents
by naming the two parties to the covenant and outlining the relation between them.
It also stated the location and time of Moses’ announcement. Many of the people
gathered there were youths when the covenant was made at Sinai, and could
recall the terrifying events of that time (4:44-5:5).
Moses then repeated the ten commandments that Israel had promised to keep
as their part of the covenant. These commandments were the basis of all Israel’s
subsequent laws (6-22; see notes on Exodus 20:1-17). Ten short commandments
were enough to convince the people that they were sinners who could not remain
in the presence of a holy God and live. They therefore asked Moses to receive
God’s instructions on their behalf, and promised that they would do all that God
said (23-33).
05 Chapter 5
06 Chapter 6
Verses 1-25
The power of love (6:1-25)
No matter how strong their determination to do right, the people would be
unable to keep God’s law unless they first had a strong and genuine love for God
himself. Love for him would give them the inner power to walk in his ways (6:1-5).
As well as keeping God’s commandments themselves, they had to teach their
children to do likewise. Their family life was to be guided by the knowledge of
God’s law. Their house was to be known as a place where people loved God’s law
and lived by it (6-9).
Yahweh was the only God. He loved Israel as his specially chosen people and
he wanted them to love him in return. God, on his part, would feel pain and grief if
in their prosperity they forgot him or if they turned away from him to follow other
gods. The people, on their part, would find their full satisfaction through walking
humbly before their God and keeping his law (10-19). God’s mighty acts on behalf
of the Israelite people in the past were for their good, and his desire for them to
keep his law in the future was likewise for their good (20-25).
07 Chapter 7
Verses 1-20
The promised land (7:1-8:20)
Israel’s responsibility was to destroy the people of Canaan along with
everything connected with their religion, so that nothing would remain in the land
that might corrupt God’s people (7:1-5). Israel’s favoured place as God’s chosen
people was not an excuse for them to do as they liked, but a reason for them to
avoid corruption and be holy. If they were disobedient, they would surely be
punished (6-11). But if they were obedient, they would enjoy the blessings of
national growth, agricultural prosperity and good health (12-16).
God would lead his people to victory over enemies in the future as he had in
the past (17-21), but for the present he would give them only that amount of
territory that they could capably control. As their numbers and needs increased,
he would lead them to further conquest and expansion. But at all times they had to
conduct their wars according to God’s laws of holiness (22-26).
The varied experiences of life in the wilderness had taught Israel that life
depends on more than the food people eat. It depends upon spiritual forces that
are found only in God (8:1-4). The Israelites were to keep this in mind when they
settled in Canaan, a land they would find to be rich in natural resources. They
were to fear God and thank him for his gifts, not take everything for granted (5-10).
If in their prosperity they forgot God and ignored his law, he would punish them as
he had punished the Canaanites before them (11-20).
08 Chapter 8
09 Chapter 9
Verses 1-11
Warning against stubbornness (9:1-10:11)
Moses warned the Israelites not to boast about their coming victories. The
conquest of Canaan was by God’s power, not theirs. It was because of the
wickedness of the Canaanites, not because of any goodness in the Israelites
(9:1-5).
Israel, in fact, was a stubborn people, who deserved none of God’s good gifts.
Moses reminded them of their rebellion at Sinai, how they promised to obey God’s
law, but broke it before it was even written down (6-21; see notes on Exodus
32:1-35). There were other occasions when they rebelled against God’s
commands (22-24; see Exodus 17:1-7; Numbers 11:1-3; Num_11:31-34;
Num_14:1-12), but the rebellion at Sinai was a defiance of the freshly made
covenant. Only Moses’ prayers saved the nation from being wiped out (25-29; see
Exodus 32:7-14).
God in his grace renewed the covenant (10:1-5; see Exodus 34:1-35). He
showed his forgiveness of Aaron by allowing his son to be high priest after him
(6-7; see Numbers 20:22-29), rewarded the Levites for opposing idolatry at the
time of the golden calf (8-9; see Exodus 32:25-29), and forgave the people,
allowing them to journey on to the land he had promised them (10-11; see Exodus
34:1-11).
10 Chapter 10
Verses 12-32
What God demands of Israel (10:12-11:32)
In summary, Moses’ instruction to Israel as a people was that they were to fear,
obey, love and serve God, in the assurance that he desired only their good
(12-13). He had chosen them in mercy, and he wanted them likewise to show
mercy to others. They were to have humble purity of heart and genuine love, both
in their relations with him and in their relations with others (14-20). They were not
to be arrogant or boastful, but were to remember their humble beginnings as a
group of aliens in Egypt (21-22).
God’s activity in the past, whether in saving his people from their enemies or in
punishing them for their rebellion, should have meant something to them. At least
it should have prompted them to love God and keep his commandments (11:1-7).
The land the people were going to was not like the land they had come from.
Egypt was a flat country. The climate did not favour agriculture and the farmer had
to pedal a waterwheel pump to irrigate his crops. But Canaan was a land of hills
and valleys with a good rainfall (8-12). This natural blessing, however, could turn
into a curse if the people were rebellious. The God who blessed his people with
good crops could also punish them with famine (13-17).
In view of all that lay before them in Canaan, the people were to be the more
diligent in obeying God’s law and teaching it to their children (18-25; see notes on
Exodus 13:9; Exo_13:16). If they were obedient they would enjoy God’s blessing,
but if they were disobedient they would fall under his curse. This would be
impressed upon them when they entered Canaan and gathered at the mountains
Gerizim and Ebal on either side of the town of Shechem. There, as they heard the
blessings announced from one side and the curses from the other, they would
realize what was involved in pledging themselves to keep the covenant (26-32;
see 27:1-26).
11 Chapter 11
12 Chapter 12
Verses 1-28
12:1-26:19 DETAILED REGULATIONS
In keeping with the pattern of ancient covenant documents, the basic
requirements and principles of the covenant (Chapters 5-11) are now followed by
the detailed regulations (Chapters 12-26). However, Moses does not lay down
these requirements with the harshness or impersonality of a formal law code. He
announces them rather in the pastoral spirit of a preacher, appealing to God’s
covenant family to respond to God’s grace with lives of loyalty to him and justice
to others.
The central place of worship (12:1-28)
God’s covenant with Israel required the people to worship him only. Therefore,
when they entered Canaan they were to remove all trace of foreign religion. In
particular they were to destroy the local Canaanite holy places, lest they be
tempted to use them in the worship of Yahweh (12:1-4).
The Israelites were to carry out their religious exercises only at the place
where the tabernacle (or later the temple) was set up. This centralized worship
would help preserve the unity of the people and the purity of their worship (5-7). In
contrast to their current circumstances, life in Canaan was to be orderly. There
would not be the disorganization at present being experienced because of recent
battles and the rushed settlement program for the two and a half tribes east of
Jordan (8-14).
During the journey through the wilderness, there had been a simple law
concerning the killing of animals for meat. In the case of an animal unsuitable for
sacrifice, the people could kill it and eat it anywhere, but in the case of an animal
suitable for sacrifice, they could kill it only as a sacrifice at the altar and eat it only
as a peace offering (Leviticus 17:1-7). That was a workable rule as long as the
people were all camped close to the tabernacle, but once they were scattered
throughout Canaan they would find it impractical to have to take their animals long
distances to the tabernacle just to kill them for meat. Moses therefore adjusted the
law to suit the new circumstances.
The new law was that, once the people had settled in Canaan, animals
suitable for sacrifice could be killed for meat locally the same as animals not
suitable for sacrifice, such as gazelles and deer. Killing for sacrifice, however,
along with certain other ceremonial practices, had to be carried out at the central
place of worship as formerly taught. As usual, the people were not to eat or drink
the blood (15-28; see Leviticus 17:8-16).
Verse 29
Warnings against idolatry (12:29-13:18)
In Canaan the Israelites would meet many new temptations. Moses therefore
warned them not to be curious about the religious practices of the former
inhabitants, lest they copy them and corrupt their own religion (29-32). They were
also to beware of the person who could apparently perform miracles and predict
events. The test of the genuineness of the person was not whether his predictions
came true, but whether he led people in the ways of God (13:1-5).
Another danger was one that could arise in the family circle when a person
developed wrong ideas about God and tried to lead others in the household astray.
Like the false prophet he had to be stoned to death. As usual, the person making
the accusation had to throw the first stone (6-11).
A danger with much wider consequences could come from open enemies of
God who set out deliberately to turn a whole community against him. If careful
investigation proved that they had been successful, they and their followers had to
be executed, and all trace of their evil removed (12-18).
13 Chapter 13
14 Chapter 14
Verses 1-21
Cleanness and uncleanness (14:1-21)
God’s people were not to follow the superstitious practices of the heathen
(14:1-2; see notes on Leviticus 19:26-28). They were to be ‘holy to the Lord’,
which meant they had to be careful concerning even the food they ate (3-20; see
notes on Leviticus 11:1-23). An animal that died of itself probably contained blood
and therefore Israelites were not allowed to eat it; but non-Israelites, to whom
blood did not have the same ritual significance, were allowed. Boiling a young
animal in its mother’s milk was a superstitious practice to be avoided (21; cf.
Exodus 23:19).
Verses 22-29
Tithes (14:22-29)
All Israelite families had to pay an annual tithe, amounting to one tenth of all
their produce and animals, for the support of the Levites (see notes on Numbers
18:21-32). This tithe was at the same time an offering to God. The offerer
therefore took it to the central place of worship where he presented it to God (and
to the Levites) in a ceremonial meal. If the offerer lived so far from the tabernacle
(or later the temple) that transporting his goods was a problem, he could sell his
tithes locally and take the money instead. The Levites joined in the ceremonial
meal, and so too did the offerer’s family and slaves (22-27; see also
12:5-7,17-19).
Every third year this tithe, or possibly an additional tithe, was to be distributed
in the family’s own locality, so that local poor people could benefit from it as well
as the Levites. In this case the offerer, after he had distributed his tithes, had to go
to the central place of worship and declare before God that he had fulfilled his
obligations according to God’s command (28-29; see also 26:12-15).
15 Chapter 15
Verses 1-18
The year of release (15:1-18)
At the end of every seven years all Israelites were to forgive any debts that
other Israelites owed them. They were to consider themselves one big family
where no one should be driven into poverty or refused a loan in time of hardship,
even if the year of release was approaching. God would reward those Israelites
who were generous to their fellow Israelites. This law of release did not affect
debts owed by foreigners. In those cases normal business procedures applied
(15:1-11). (For further details concerning this seventh or sabbatical year see
Leviticus 25:1-7; Lev_25:18-24.)
An Israelite could not keep another Israelite as a slave for more than six years.
If the slave wished, he could give himself to his master for lifelong service. If he
preferred to go free, his master had to give him enough goods to enable him to
begin his new life satisfactorily. The master had no cause for complaint in giving
this aid, as he had benefited from the slave’s cheap labour for the previous six
years (12-18; see also Exodus 21:1-11).
If the Israelites ignored these and other laws concerning the sabbatical year,
God would punish them by driving them out of their land and into foreign captivity.
This would release those they had kept in their power, and give the land rest
during their absence (Leviticus 26:34-43; 2 Chronicles 36:20-21; Jeremiah
34:13-22).
Verses 19-23
Firstborn animals (15:19-23)
Since the firstborn of all animals belonged to God, people could not use them
for their personal benefit (see notes on Exodus 13:1-16). Every firstborn clean
animal was sacrificed to God and then eaten by the priests, unless it had some
defect. In that case it was used as ordinary meat (19-23; see also Numbers
18:17-18).
16 Chapter 16
Verses 1-17
Three annual festivals (16:1-17)
Each year all the male adults in Israel were to gather at the central place of
worship for the three great annual festivals: Passover-Unleavened Bread at the
beginning of the year (16:1-8; see notes on Exodus 12:1-51; Leviticus 23:4-14);
Firstfruits-Weeks, or Harvest Festival, seven weeks after Passover (9-12; see
notes on Leviticus 23:15-22); and Tabernacles-Ingathering, or Festival of Shelters,
six months after Passover (13-17; see notes on Leviticus 23:33-44).
Verses 18-20
Justice and government (16:18-17:20)
A collection of miscellaneous laws deals with a variety of civil and religious
matters. The courts had to administer justice impartially (18-20); the worship of
Yahweh was not to involve any symbols or sacred objects taken from other
religions (21-22); people were not to offer sick or lame animals in sacrifice (17:1);
the testimony of at least two witnesses had to be in agreement before an accused
person could be punished (2-7); and when local judges found a case too difficult
to decide, they had to take it to the central place of worship where a higher court
of judges and priests could decide it (8-13).
God foresaw that the people would later want a king like other nations, so he
gave them in advance some of the qualifications and duties of an Israelite king
(14-17). The man who became king was to make his own copy of God’s law and
study it constantly, so that he might govern the people according to God’s
standards (18-20).
17 Chapter 17
18 Chapter 18
Verses 1-22
Spiritual guides, good and bad (18:1-22)
Further information is given concerning the support of priests (18:1-5; see
notes on Numbers 18:8-20). If a Levite from the country sold his local possessions
to move to the central place of worship, he could retain the money from the sale of
his goods and still be financially supported by the people, the same as other
Levites (6-8; see notes on Numbers 18:21-32).
Israel’s law prohibited all forms of witchcraft and magic, whether cruel
practices in which children were burnt on the altar or made to walk through fire, or
common everyday practices such as fortune-telling (9-13). Israelites would have
no need to look for help and guidance from those who practised soothsaying,
used spells and charms, or consulted the spirits of the dead. God would give the
people his specially sent messengers, or prophets, to make his will known to them
just as Moses had done (14-19). He would punish those who were not sent by him
but set themselves up as prophets (20-22; see also 13:1-5).
Jesus Christ was the supreme prophet, the perfect messenger of God, whose
life and ministry gave full meaning to the promise given here (cf. v. 18-19 with
Acts 3:22-23; Act_7:37).
19 Chapter 19
Verses 1-21
Justice for the accused (19:1-21)
Three cities of refuge had already been established east of Jordan (see
4:41-43), and three more were to be established west of Jordan (19:1-2). In each
of these two regions one city was to be in the north, one in the centre and one in
the south, so that a city of refuge was within easy reach of every person in the
land, no matter where he lived. All six cities had to have well marked roads
leading to them so that the refugee could reach safety quickly (3-7; see also
Numbers 35:9-34). The Israelites could add more cities later as their territory
expanded beyond its original borders (8-13).
While dealing with matters of land allocation, Moses warned land-owners not
to shift boundary markers that they had already agreed upon. Such action was
clearly a case of stealing a neighbour’s property (14).
In legal matters, because agreement between two or three witnesses was
necessary in order to bring a conviction, a person might be tempted to lie so as to
ensure an opponent’s defeat. If the witness’s honesty was in doubt, the case had
to be brought before the higher court of priests and judges. If they found that the
witness had made a false confession, he was to suffer the punishment he had
tried to bring upon his opponent (15-20). The basis of justice was that the
punishment had to fit the crime (21). (For other relevant details see the comments
before and after the notes on Exodus 21:1-27.)
20 Chapter 20
Verses 1-20
Rules for war (20:1-20)
God’s people were to have confidence in the wars that lay before them,
knowing that God was on their side. That did not mean they could be half-hearted
or inefficient in the way they planned and fought. All had to give themselves fully
to the task before them. Nevertheless, the law temporarily excused some people
from military service, such as those who had recently committed themselves to
something that could be ruined if they were suddenly called away to the battlefield
(20:1-7). If people were cowardly or too afraid to fight, they were to be sent home
(8-9).
Israel was not to act with the brutality that characterized other nations. Though
they were to destroy the people of Canaan and their cities (for this was God’s
judgment on the wicked Canaanites), Israel’s soldiers were not to destroy
non-Canaanite cities unless the people refused Israel’s terms of peace. They
were to attack only when all else failed; but even then they were to attack only the
soldiers, not the women and children (10-18). Also they were to be careful in
choosing which trees to cut down for building siegeworks, to avoid destroying the
orchards and forests (19-20).
21 Chapter 21
Verses 1-23
Respect for human life (21:1-23)
Murder made the land unclean, and the uncleanness could be removed only
by the execution of the murderer (see Numbers 35:29-34). Where the murderer
could not be found, the elders of the town nearest the place of the murder had to
go to an unpolluted stream nearby and carry out the ritual slaughter of a young
cow instead of the unknown murderer. The blood of the cow washed away in the
stream symbolized the removal of uncleanness caused by the unlawful bloodshed
(21:1-9).
An Israelite had to treat with respect any woman taken captive in war. If he
wanted to marry her, he had to realize that, because she had just been suddenly
removed from her former home, he had to treat her with special consideration.
Therefore, he could not take her as a wife till enough time had passed for her to
mourn her parents and adjust to the new way of life. Neither could he sell her as a
slave if he later decided he did not want her. He had to let her go free (10-14).
In the case of a man who had several wives, the firstborn son was always the
heir, whether he was son of the favourite wife or not. This protected the rights of
the firstborn against family jealousies and prejudices (15-17).
Where both parents agreed that their son was so uncontrollable as to be
criminally dangerous, they could take him to the rulers for a legal judgment on
what to do with him. If the rulers judged the young man to be a danger to the
community, he was to be stoned to death (18-21). The body of a person stoned to
death was hanged on a tree till evening as a mark of disgrace (22-23).
22 Chapter 22
Verses 1-30
Laws of love and purity (22:1-30)
A collection of miscellaneous laws reminds the people of some everyday
responsibilities. They had to go out of their way to help others (22:1-4); they were
not to dress in a way that would encourage immorality (5); they were to be
thoughtful for the safety of others, birds and animals as well as people (6-8); and
they were not to restrict the productivity of their crops through wrong practices, or
shorten the lives of their working animals through cruelty (9-11). They were to
wear tassels on their clothes to remind them to keep God’s commandments (12;
see Numbers 15:37-41).
If a man tried to find an excuse for divorcing his wife by accusing her (falsely)
of unchastity before marriage, he was to be whipped and fined for his cruel
accusation and prevented from divorcing her (13-19). If, however, a woman had
been guilty of unchastity before marriage, she had to suffer the penalty, which
was death by stoning (20-21). The engaged as well as the married were
considered adulterers if they had sexual relations with third parties, and had to be
stoned to death. The one exception was the case of a woman who had been
raped (22-27). People not engaged who had sexual relations were to marry each
other, but the man was to be fined for his folly and had to pay the bride price to the
young lady’s father (28-30; see Exodus 22:16-17).
23 Chapter 23
Verses 1-25
A holy nation (23:1-25)
Various laws prohibited foreigners, eunuchs and people born through
immorality from joining fully in Israel’s public worship. This discouraged Israelites
from copying heathen practices or marrying heathen people. At the same time it
impressed upon them the holiness God required (23:1-8). Holiness also
demanded high standards of cleanliness in the camp, particularly in matters
concerning discharges from sexual organs and treatment of human excrement
(9-14).
Other features of life in surrounding nations that the Israelites were not to
follow were the practice of sending back runaway slaves for the sake of gaining a
reward, and religious-sexual fertility rights with temple prostitutes (15-18). God’s
people were to be faithful to him by doing what they promised and by loving one
another, such as in helping the needy with money and food (19-25; see notes on
Exodus 22:21-31; Leviticus 25:35-46).
24 Chapter 24
Verses 1-4
Protection for the disadvantaged (24:1-25:4)
Various laws guaranteed protection for defenceless people who might
otherwise be exploited. A woman who had been divorced was free from
interference by her previous husband. He had to respect the decency of marriage,
and had no right to send her away then take her back as he pleased (24:1-4; cf.
Matthew 5:32; Mat_19:3-9). A newly married man could not be forced into the
army till at least one year after marriage (5; cf. 20:7). A poor person who borrowed
money could not be forced to give his creditor a millstone as guarantee for the
debt, as he would be left with no means of providing flour for his family’s food (6).
There was to be no mercy for a kidnapper (7) and no relaxation of the laws
concerning leprosy, no matter how important the infected person was (8).
However, people were to show mercy to debtors and not to trample on the rights
of the poor. Clothing taken as guarantee for a debt had to be returned by evening,
so that the person would not have to sleep in the cold (9-13). Employers were to
be considerate to their employees, and pay wages daily to those who had no
reserve savings (14-15).
Justice was not to favour the rich and powerful. At all times Israelites were to
be merciful to the oppressed, remembering how they felt when they were
oppressed in Egypt (16-18). When farmers harvested their cereals and fruit,
whatever they missed at the first reaping or picking was to be left for the poor
(19-22).
Whipping was never to be used to force confessions from suspected
lawbreakers, but only to punish those who had been proved guilty. The number of
lashes was to be in proportion to the offence and was never to exceed forty
(25:1-3). Farmers were to be kind to their animals and allow them to eat as they
worked (4).
25 Chapter 25
Verses 5-19
Family and business relationships (25:5-19)
If a man died having no son, his brother was to have a temporary marital
relation with the widow for the purpose of helping her produce a son. Legally, this
son would be considered son of the dead man and so would receive his
inheritance and carry on his name. If the brother refused to cooperate, he was to
be publicly disgraced for allowing the dead man’s name to die out (5-10). (If,
however, there were surviving daughters, they could receive the father’s
inheritance; see Numbers 27:1-11.) This desire to protect even the closest of
relatives was no excuse for indecency, and the person guilty of indecency had to
be punished (11-12).
People were not to act dishonestly in business dealings, such as through using
undersized measures when selling grain and extra heavy weights when weighing
the buyer’s money (13-16). In commanding Israel to destroy the Amalekites, God
showed that he would surely punish those who brutally attacked the weak and
defenceless (17-19).
26 Chapter 26
Verses 1-19
Declarations by Israel and by God (26:1-19)
The first harvest season after the Israelites settled in Canaan would be of
particular importance, bringing to a climax the fulfilment of God’s promise to Israel
of a permanent homeland (26:1-4). The harvest firstfruits offered to God on this
occasion would have special significance as the people recalled their humble
beginnings, their slavery in Egypt, and the miraculous release that allowed them
to possess the land God had prepared for them (5-11).
Besides offering the firstfruits to God, the people had to make an annual
offering of tithes. Every third year this tithe (or an additional tithe) was not taken to
the central place of worship, but was given to the Levites and the poor in the
offerer’s own locality (see 14:28-29). This meant that the distribution of this tithe
was not under the general supervision of the priests. The law therefore laid down
a special requirement to prevent dishonesty and ensure that people kept in mind
the religious nature of the offering. According to this requirement, the offerer, after
distributing his tithe, had to go to the central place of worship and declare before
God that he had carried out his responsibilities fully (12-15).
Moses had now finished his instruction on the covenant’s detailed
requirements. The two parties to the covenant then made declarations that bound
them together. The people declared that Yahweh was their God and they would
keep his commandments, and God declared that they were his people and he
would exalt them above all nations (16-19; see also 29:10-15).
27 Chapter 27
Verses 1-26
27:1-30:20 CONDITIONS OF THE COVENANT
The listing of blessings and curses at the end of the covenant document is
again in keeping with the form of ancient Near Eastern treaties. God in his
sovereign grace had chosen Israel as his people and preserved them. In gratitude
the people were to be obedient to God’s commands, and in doing so they would
enjoy fellowship with him and blessing in their national life. Disobedience, on the
other hand, would bring his judgment upon them, so that they might see their sin,
change their ways, and return to him in renewed covenant loyalty.
Blessings and curses (27:1-26)
After the Israelites moved into Canaan, they were to go to the valley between
Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal to declare their loyalty to the covenant. There also they
were to write the law on plastered stones and display it publicly where people
could read it, and so be reminded constantly of their covenant obligations
(27:1-10).
Six tribes were to gather on each of the two mountains, while the Levitical
priests, who read the blessings and curses, gathered in the valley between. As
the priests read each blessing, the tribes on Mt Gerizim would give their
acknowledgment by answering ‘Amen’. In the same way the tribes on Mt Ebal
would answer ‘Amen’ after each curse, acknowledging the justice of God’s
punishment if his people broke his law (11-14; see Joshua 8:30-35).
For some reason only the curses are listed here, though the corresponding
blessings were in fact read when Joshua later carried out the ceremony (Joshua
8:34). The curses mainly concerned sins done in secret, emphasizing that no area
of life was hidden from the watchful eye of God. The accursed sins included
idolatry (15), disrespect (16), cheating (17), lack of sympathy (18), social injustice
(19), sexual perversion (20-23), murder (24), plotting (25) and defiance of God’s
law in general (26).
28 Chapter 28
Verses 1-68
Obedience and disobedience (28:1-68)
Further blessings and curses are now listed. These were connected more with
the life of the people as a whole and were directly dependent on the people’s
obedience or disobedience. The blessings mainly concerned agricultural
prosperity, family happiness, victory over enemies and honour in the eyes of other
nations (28:1-10). God’s assurance that he would supply their needs was linked to
a warning. They were not to look for family increase or agricultural productivity by
worshipping the Canaanite nature gods (11-14).
Corresponding to the blessings for obedience were the curses for
disobedience. In general these would take the form of diseases and plagues upon
their families, flocks, herds and crops (15-24) and repeated defeat in war (25-35).
Finally, the nation that God had chosen to be the leader of all nations would go
into humiliating captivity (36-46).
The cruelty of foreign invaders and the horrors of siege warfare are vividly
described. People would be so desperate for food that they would eat even their
own children (47-57; cf. 2 Kings 6:25-29; Lamentations 2:19-22; Lam_4:4-10).
Eventually, the nation would be destroyed and the people taken captive into
foreign countries. There they would be treated worse than animals and meet
horrible deaths. Many would be shipped as slaves to Egypt, where they would so
flood the slave market that no one would want to buy them (58-68).
29 Chapter 29
Verses 1-20
The covenant renewed (29:1-30:20)
Israel’s lack of understanding of God and his ways meant that the people
needed constant reminders of the covenant’s purpose, meaning and
requirements. Moses gave them such a reminder in this his farewell address to
the nation, acting as God’s representative in the renewal of the covenant as he
had done at the establishment of the covenant at Sinai (Horeb) (29:1-9). The
renewed oath of allegiance that the people swore before entering Canaan was
binding on future generations (10-15).
If, after they had seen the greatness of Yahweh and the worthlessness of idols,
the people stubbornly rejected Yahweh and worshipped other gods, the whole
nation (‘moist and dry alike’) would be in danger of destruction (16-21). In
judgment for their breaking the covenant, the land would be devastated and they
would be driven from it in shame (22-28).
No person knows everything, but each person must be obedient to whatever
knowledge he or she has. The Israelites did not know all that God would do in the
future, but they had his revealed will for them in the present in the form of the
covenant law, and they had to be obedient to that (29).
Although God might punish his people, in his grace he would forgive them and
bring them back to their land if they repented of their sins and turned to him with
all their hearts. He would cleanse their hearts and give them the desire to love him
afresh. In response to their renewed obedience, he would bless them with
renewed prosperity (30:1-10). The command to obey God was not something
difficult to hear or understand, but was clear and simple. The people had to act
upon it (11-14). Love and obedience would lead to true life and prosperity; self-will
and disobedience would lead to disaster and death (15-20).
30 Chapter 30
31 Chapter 31
Verses 1-29
31:1-34:12 MOSES’ LAST DAYS
Arrangements for the future (31:1-29)
Knowing he had only a few more days to live, Moses handed over the
leadership of Israel to his divinely appointed successor, Joshua. He reminded
both Joshua and the people that fearless commitment to the task ahead,
combined with total trust in God, would guarantee victory over the Canaanites and
possession of the promised land (31:1-8,14-15,23; see notes on Numbers
27:12-23).
Moses then made three separate arrangements to ensure that people did not
forget their covenant obligations. First, he commanded the priests and leaders to
make sure that the entire law was read publicly every seven years (9-15). Second,
he himself wrote a song that would stick in people’s minds as a constant warning
and reminder (16-23. The song is recorded in Chapter 32). Third, he put his own
written record of the law in a safe place beside the ark, as a witness against the
people when they turned away from it. This copy of the law beside the ark was an
absolute standard of reference in all matters of life and conduct (24-29).
These arrangements were again consistent with ancient practices concerning
a covenant between an overlord and his subject people. The covenant document
was kept in the people’s sanctuary, and the leaders conducted periodic public
readings to remind the people of their covenant obligations.
Verses 30-47
The song of Moses (31:30-32:47)
Being aware of the people’s tendency to rebellion against God (see v. 29),
Moses left with them a song that he wanted everyone to take notice of (30). The
song reminded the people of God’s loving care for them and of the need for
faithfulness on their part towards him. It dealt with the future as well as the past,
and reminded the people that in justice God would punish them and in mercy he
would forgive them.
As rain benefits young grass, so Moses’ words should benefit Israel (32:1-3).
Like a rock, God gave Israel (Jeshurun) protection and stability; as their Father,
he gave them an honoured place among the nations and a land for an inheritance;
but through stubborn selfishness they ruined themselves and disgraced their
Father (4-9). God cared for Israel with love and tenderness, giving his people all
they needed for a life of contentment; but instead of being thankful, they treated
him with contempt. Instead of worshipping him, they worshipped other gods
(10-18). Therefore, in his righteous anger, God punished them (19-25).
However, God would not allow the nation to be completely destroyed, lest
people thought that they, and not God, controlled Israel’s destiny. If they had any
understanding, these nations would realize that they could have no victory at all
over Israel unless Israel’s God allowed it (26-30). Israel’s God was just and mighty;
the enemies’ gods were wicked, immoral and cruel (31-33).
Yahweh was still the supreme ruler. Even when he used other nations to
punish his people, he would also punish those nations, along with their gods, for
their own wickedness. Then Israel too would see the uselessness of false gods.
They would return to Yahweh, and he would heal them (34-43).
The people were to memorize and sing this song, so that it would remind them
to keep God’s law and warn them of what would happen if they ignored it. God
gave the law for their good, and by keeping it they would enjoy life in the land he
had given them (44-47).
32 Chapter 32
Verse 48
The blessing of Moses (32:48-33:29)
As God had announced earlier, the time for Moses to die had come (48-52;
see Numbers 27:12-14). The prophetic blessings that he gave Israel before he
died foresaw the favours that God would give the various tribes. But first Moses
recalled the giving of the law at Sinai. God appeared in flaming majesty, bursting
forth in glory brighter than the rising sun. Accompanying him were multitudes of
heavenly servants who carry out God’s purposes in the lives of individuals and
nations. This one, Israel’s King, was the one who gave his law to his assembled
people (33:1-5).
The tribe of Reuben, though it had lost the rights of the firstborn, was not to
allow itself to become weak (6; cf. 1 Chronicles 5:1). Judah was the most powerful
tribe, but besides protecting itself from enemies, it was to help other tribes when
they were in trouble. (Simeon, not mentioned here, became absorbed into the
tribe of Judah) (7). Levi, the tribe to which Moses and Aaron belonged, had
responsibility for religious services and the teaching of the law. Men of this tribe
had passed God’s test at Massah and proved their covenant faithfulness at Sinai,
but had rebelled at Meribah (8-11; cf. Exodus 17:1-7; Exo_32:25-29; Numbers
20:10-13). (For the Urim and Thummim see notes on Exodus 28:15-30.)
Benjamin had its special blessing when the temple in Jerusalem was later built
in its territory, though the rest of Jerusalem was in Judah’s territory (12). The
Joseph tribes, Ephraim and Manasseh, were to inherit the best part of Canaan.
The God who once appeared in the burning bush would give them special power,
so that they would become the leading tribes in the northern kingdom (13-17).
Zebulun and Issachar would prosper through the commercial activity and
agricultural richness that characterized their region (18-19). The people of Gad
chose their land east of Jordan, but they kept their promise to help other tribes
conquer Canaan. They were fierce fighters (20-21). Dan would prove to be a
treacherous tribe (e.g. 18:1-31), but Naphtali would be content with a quiet life in
the fertile highlands around the Lake of Galilee. Asher would live in a well
protected fertile area that would become famous for its olives and the high quality
oil they produced (22-25). Protected and blessed by God, all Israel would enjoy
victory, prosperity and happiness (26-29).
33 Chapter 33
34 Chapter 34
Verses 1-12
Death of Moses (34:1-12)
Before Moses died, God allowed him to climb to the peak (Pisgah) of Mount
Nebo in the Abarim Range (near the Israelite camp on the plains of Moab) and
view the full extent of the magnificent land his people were soon to possess
(34:1-4).
The editor responsible for this final chapter adds the note that the exact
location of Moses’ grave was unknown (5-8). Joshua was the new leader, but
neither he nor any who came after him had the unique experience of Moses, who
met God face to face, who knew his thoughts and who performed his mighty
works (9-12).