Socialization Notes
Courtesy of Stacy Schlepp
 Socialization is the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the
physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society. It seems natural like something you always knew.
It’s these ideas that need questioning. We become human through interaction.
1. (72-73) Human Development: Biology and Society
 Sociobiology is the systematic study of how biology affects social behavior
o Edward Wilson – said that genetic inheritance underlies many forms of social behavior (war and peace,
envy and concern for others, and competition and cooperation.) Some sociologists disagree, though our
physical makeup is determined by genes.
 Social influence: There is hardly a single behavior that is not influenced socially. Except reflexes, most human
actions are social, either in their causes or in their consequences.
2. (73-76) Problems Associated with Social Isolation and Maltreatment
 Isolation and Nonhuman Primates. Harlow Research
o Two baby monkeys were isolated form the population. When they were reintroduced to other members of
their species, they cringed in the corner. They never learned how to relate to other monkeys because they
lost six months of important socialization.
 Isolated Children
o Anna was isolated till the age of 6. She could not speak, walk, had no sense of gesture, could not feed
herself, and no understanding of cleanliness.
 After being placed in a special school she leaned to walk, talk, and care for herself.
o Genie was isolated till the age of 13. She had severe neglect and no socialization.
 She never learned to walk erect. In the 1990’s Genie was living in a board home for retarded
adults.
 Child Maltreatment
o Neglect is the most frequent form of child maltreatment. Occurs when, emotional warmth and security,
adequate shelter, food, health care, education, clothing, and protections, are not met.
3. (76-79) Social Psychological Theories of Human Development
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Freud and the Psychoanalytic Perspective
o Say’s that human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality.
 Id is the component of personality that includes all of the individual’s basic biological drives and
needs that demand immediate gratification. (I want the candy bar, no matter what) Unsocialized
Self
 Ego is the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restriction on the
innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id. (I guess I’ll wait till I have the money to buy the candy
bar.) The Balance of Self between Society and Needs.
 Superego or conscience, consists of the moral and ethical aspects of personality (It is wrong to
steal the candy bar) Generalized others
Piaget and Cognitive Development.
o Jean Piaget was a Cognitive theorist – who are interested in how people obtain, process, and use
information (how we think)
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age two). Learn through the senses during this period, children understand
the world only through sensory contact and immediate action because they cannot engage in symbolic
thought or use language. Toward the end of the second year, children comprehend object permanence; in
other words, they start to realize that objects continue to exist even when the items are out of sight.
2. Preoperational stage (age 2-7) Begin to use words as mental symbols and to form mental images. They
are still limited in their ability to use logic to solve problems or realize that physical objects may change
shape or appearance while still retaining their physical properties.
3. Concrete operational stage (age 7-11) During this stage, children think in terms of tangible objects and
actual events. They can draw conclusions about the likely physical consequences of an action without
always having to try the action out. Children begin to take the role of others and start to empathize with
the viewpoints of others.
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Formal operational stage (age 12 through adolescence) By this stage, adolescents are able to engage in
highly abstract thought and understand places, things, and events they have never seen. They can think
about the future and evaluate different options of courses of action.
Lawrence Kohlberg and the Stage of Moral Development
o Elaborated on Piaget’s theories of cognitive reasoning.
 Preconventional level (7-10) children’s perceptions are based on punishment and obedience. Evil
behavior is that which is likely to be punished; good conduct is based on obedience and avoidance of
unwanted consequences.
 Conventional level (10 – adulthood) People are most concerned with how they are perceived by their peers
and with how one conforms to rules
 Postconventional level (few adults reach this stage) People view morality in term of individual rights;
“moral conduct” is judged by principles based on human rights that transcend government and laws.
Carol Gilligan’s View on Gender and Moral Development
o One of the major critics of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
o In Kohlberg’s story about the man who is thinking about stealing medicine for his wife, male respondents
are more likely to use abstract standards of right and wrong. Female respondents are more likely to be
concerned about what consequences his stealing the drug might have on the man and his family.
o Three stages in female moral development
 The woman is motivated primarily by selfish concerns (“This is what I want…this is what I
need”)
 Stage 2, she increasingly recognizes her responsibility to others.
 Stage 3, she makes a decision based on her desire to do the greatest good for both herself and for
others.
o Men are socialized to make moral decisions based on a justice perspective (What is the fairest thing to do)
o Women are socialized to make decisions on a care and responsibility perspective (“who will be hurt
least?”)
4. (79-83) Sociological Theories of Human Development
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Self-concept is the totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves.
 This sense of self is not present at birth; it arises in the process of social experience.
 1. The physical self (I am tall)
 2. The active self (I am good a soccer)
 3. The social self (I am nice to others)
 4. the psychological self (I believe in world peace)
o Self identity is our perception about what kind of person we are.
 According to Symbolic Interactionist we do not know who we are until we see ourselves as we
believe that others see us.
Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self (S.I. Founder)
o Each to each a looking-glass - Reflects the other that doth pass.
o Looking glass self refers to the way in which a person’s sense of self is derived from the perceptions of
others.
 1. We imagine how our personality and appearance will look to other people
 2. We imagine how other people judge the appearance and personality that we think we present.
No evaluation or judgment of information
 We develop a self-concept. If we think the evaluation of others is favorable, our self-concept is
enhanced. If opposite, the self-concept diminishes.
Mead and Role-Taking (S.I. founder)
o Role-taking is the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in
order to understand the world from that person’s or group’s point of view.
o Self Foundation
 Preparatory stage – Interactions lack meaning, and children largely imitate the people around
them
 The Play stage – Meanings are attached to some symbols
 The game stage - Conception of roles by assuming them in the imagination. Generalized others.
A child play’s at being a doctor, teacher, mother, etc.
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Significant others are those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who
are most important in the development of the self.
o Generalized other refers to the child’s awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a
whole or of the Childs subculture. (i.e. police officers)
o Believes that socialization is a two way process. Where society shapes the individual, the individual has
the ability to shape certain aspects of society.
Self Concept and Child Maltreatment
o If a Childs self-concept is defined and evaluated through interaction with significant others, who are
assumed to have the best interests of the child in mind, then that child is not likely to imitate the
significant other.
(83 – 88) Agents of Socialization
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Agents of socialization are the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in
order to participate in society. An individual has one agent which is stronger than the rest.
The Family
o It is the most important agent of socialization in all societies.
o They are also the primary source of emotional support.
o Functionalist perspective says that the passing of social class helps in the stabilization of society.
o Families socialize their children differently based on race, ethnicity, and class.
 Melvin Kohn - Social class is one of the strongest influences on what and how children teach
their kids.
o Conflict theorists believe that this perpetuation of social class from generation to generation inhibits the
challenging of conditions, which they believe is needed for society to grow.
The School
o Studies have shown that day-care and preschool programs have a positive effect on the socialization of
children.
o Functionalist perspective says schools are responsible for (1) socialization, or teaching students to be
productive members of society; (2) transmission of culture; (3) social control and personal development;
and (4) the selection, training, and placement of individuals on different rungs in a society.
o Conflict theorists say that students have different school experiences based on class, race, and
neighborhood. Bowles and Gintis say that much of what happens in school amounts to teaching a hidden
curriculum in which children learn to be neat, on time, quiet, wait their turn, and remain attentive to their
work. Those who are destined for leadership or elite positions acquire different skills and knowledge.
Peer Groups
o Peer Group is a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually)
similar age.
 Peer groups are agents of socialization because they contribute to our sense of belonging.
 Peer pressure is when individuals must earn their acceptance by their peers by conforming to a
given groups norms, attitudes, speech patterns, and dress codes.
Mass Media
o Mass media are large scale organizations that use print of electronic means (i.e. radio, TV, film, and the
Internet) to communicate with large numbers of people. The media socializes as follows
 The inform us of events
 They introduce us to a wide variety of people
 They provide an array of viewpoints on current issues
 Make us away of new products that will supposedly help us to be accepted by others.
 They entertain by allowing us to live vicariously (through other people’s experiences).
Religion
(88-89) Gender and Racial-Ethnic Socialization
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In nearly every culture in the world, most parents prefer male children to female.
General Socialization is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the
nature of being female or male in a specific group or society.
o Limited knowledge because most studies have focused on white, middle class families.
 In African American families, both daughters and sons are socialized toward autonomy.
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Other Mother (women other than the biological mother) Often serve as gender role
models
Racial Socialization is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices
concerning the nature of one’s racial or ethnic status.
 1. personal and group identity
 2. intergroup and interindividual relationships,
 3. position in the social hierarchy
(89 – 94) Socialization Through the Life Course
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Anticipatory socialization is the process by which knowledge and skills are leaned for future roles.
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Infancy and Childhood
o Symbolic Interactionist believes that during infancy and early childhood, family support and guidance are
crucial to a child’s developing self-concept.
Adolescence
o The buffer between childhood and adulthood. In the US there are no rites of passage to signify when the
buffer begins.
o Young people have to pursue their own routs to self-identity and adulthood.
o Characterized by emotional and social unrest.
o The experience of adolescence varies according to race, class, and gender.
Adulthood
o Workplace Socialization is one of the most important types of adult socialization.
 1. Career choice
 2. Anticipatory socialization (learning different aspects of the occupation before entering it)
 3. Conditioning and commitment (learning the up’s and down’s of the occupation and remaining
committed to it)
 4. continuous commitment (remaining committed to the work)
o Early adulthood (until the age of 40)
o Middle adulthood (40-65)
o Late adulthood
 Young-old (age 65-74
 Old-old (age 75-85)
 Oldest old (over 85)
o Social devaluation happens when a person or group is considered to have less social value than other
persons or groups (happens to older adults)
Late Adulthood and Ageism.
o Ageism is the prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age, particularly against older
persons.
 Older people are stereotyped by thinking and moving slowly
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(94 – 95) Resocialization
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Resocialization is the process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values, and behaviors form those in
one’s background and previous experience.
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Voluntary Resocialization
o Resocialization is voluntary when we assume a new status (i.e. student, and employee, or a retiree)
Involuntary Resocialization
o Total institution is a place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and
come under the control of the officials who run the institution. (I.e. military boot camps, prisons,
concentration camps, and some mental hospitals).
o People are stripped of their former selves.
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