Fire Service Supervision…
A Self-Study Guide
Module 2
Stress Management
Federal Emergency Management Agency
United States Fire Administration
National Fire Academy
Fire Service Supervision…
A Self-Study Guide
Course at a Glance…
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction and Overview
Stress Management
Time Management
Interpersonal Communications
Motivation
Counseling
Conflict Resolution
Group Dynamics
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, the students will be able to explain
specific techniques for identifying and alleviating the negative
effects of stress upon an individual.
To achieve this objective, the students will:
1)
Define stress and list its primary effects on the individual.
Stress Management
2)
Cite several common stressors and list ways that an
excessive level of stress may be revealed.
3)
Identify strategies applicable to reducing stress in an
individual's life, especially as it relates to everyday stresses.
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Fire Service Supervision...
A Self-Study Guide
We will start by discussing stress and how one can and should manage it. This topic
is first because it can have such a significant effect on job performance. Stress in the
form of heart attacks and strokes is the leading cause of responder death on the
fireground. This is a dramatic evidence of stress, but it is not the only way that stress
occurs. Knowing what stress is, what causes it, and how one can manage it will help
a supervisor do a better job.
The Effects of Stress on an Individual
Hans Selye initially defined the term "stress" approximately 60 years ago. Selye's early
work with the concept earned him the title "father of stress." Since his initial work, there
have been many articles and books written about the subject; however, the average person
has only a limited understanding of what stress really is and its effect on people.
Experts have estimated that workplace stress is directly responsible for $20 to $100
billion dollars in economic losses annually. In 1994, USA Today surveyed Americans to
determine their sources of stress. The top two responses were work and money.


fifty-two percent of those surveyed identified work as the primary source of stress;
and
twenty-nine percent identified money as the primary source.
Fire service employees can relate to those numbers. They are no more immune to stress
than any other human beings. When one thinks of workplace stress in the fire service,
factors related to emergency response quickly come to mind. However, these are not the
only situations that can cause workplace stress.
Applying this to my situation…
Think about the various aspects of your work environment. What circumstances could
cause stress there?
List two emergency response factors that could create stress.
1.
2.
Explain two nonemergency situations that could cause stress in your workplace.
1.
2.
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Fire Service Supervision…
A Self-Study Guide
How the Body Reacts to Stress
Stress is neither a disease, an environmental event, a mental frustration nor anxiety or
depression. Stress is actually something an individual experiences. Simply defined,
stress is the body's physical response to changing conditions. It is primarily physical, not
mental. Stated another way, stress is the process of the body adapting to the challenges
and changes of life. When a stressful situation occurs, the human body can respond with
strong physical reactions such as the following.
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tensing of muscles;
dumping of stored sugars into the blood;
increased breathing rate;
increased heart rate and blood pressure;
increased hormone production; and
activated blood clotting mechanism.
Applying this to my situation…
Recall two stressful situations you or someone you know has experienced that resulted
in a physical reaction. Briefly describe the situation and the physical reaction.
1.
2.
These reactions are hard on the body. Some of these responses were probably very
helpful to a human defending a cave against a tiger. Today, individuals face different
kinds of "tigers," and the stress that results can cause debilitating wear and tear on the
body. The physical reactions can result in medical problems that are pervasive and long
term.
Hans Selye defined stress as the body's nonspecific reactions to demands placed upon it.
In his studies, he developed a concept referred to as the "General Adaptation Syndrome."
It is explained on the next page.
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Fire Service Supervision...
A Self-Study Guide
The General Adaptation Syndrome
Resistance
Fight or
Flight
Normal Level of Resistance
Alarm
Exhaustion
As one can see, the General Adaptation Syndrome has three distinct stages: alarm,
resistance, and exhaustion.
Stage 1: Alarm
The first stage of the syndrome is alarm. Something such as bad news, significant
change, anxiety, or fear stresses the individual. The body reacts as described above
with the tensing of muscles, dumping of sugars, increased breathing and heart rates,
higher blood pressure, etc. All individuals react the same when "alarmed," but not
necessarily to the same "alarms" or to the same degree.
Stage 2: Resistance
Once an individual experiences a stressor, the second stage of the syndrome takes over.
Usually, the body offers resistance to the stressor and fights off its effects in the process
of returning to normal.
Stage 3: Exhaustion
Sometimes one or a series of stressors can become too difficult for an individual's body to
handle. When this happens, the third state of the syndrome (exhaustion) occurs.
Exhaustion expresses itself in many forms, and the ultimate form is death.
This extreme form of the exhaustion phase of the General Adaptation Syndrome occurs
quite often. Here are some examples.

The death of one spouse soon is followed by the death of the other, especially in
situations where the couple has been married for many years.

A longtime, high-profile coach retires and passes away within a few months.

An individual suffers several tragic events and subsequently incurs a serious
illness.
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Fire Service Supervision…
A Self-Study Guide
Applying this to my situation…
Recall a recent stressful situation that occurred in the fire station and relate it to the
General Adaptation Syndrome.
Describe the "alarm."
Explain how your body offered "resistance."
Was there potential for exhaustion? Why or why not?
Types of Stressors
There are many kinds of stressors. One of the most common methods of classifying them
involves five major categories.
Time
This is probably the number one stressor. Balancing multiple responsibilities such as
various projects and duties at work, family obligations, and leisure or quiet time for
oneself is very demanding. This often is a difficult subject for supervisors and, because
of its importance, it is the subject of a separate module.
Encounters
This is a very common workplace stressor for supervisors in today's society. Demands
such as "I want to see you in my office, right now," or "That project must be completed
by tomorrow morning for the meeting" are examples of encounter stressors.
Situational and Environmental Factors
Sometimes referred to as "social stressors," this type includes items such as having to
wait in line, being caught in a traffic jam, or not being able to obtain an important
appointment. In addition to the social stressors, there are various situational and
environmental stressors in the workplace. Examples include not being able to meet with
important senior managers or not having a question answered that is personally important.
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Fire Service Supervision...
A Self-Study Guide
Human Trauma
Observing severe trauma or treating its results can cause an individual significant stress.
The emergency service community has recognized this type of stressor and, within the
past decade, has organized Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM) programs
throughout the country to address it. Human trauma remains a contributing factor,
however, to an individual's total stress load.
Fear
Events that cause extreme fear also cause stress. Falling through the floor of a burning
building, exhausting one's air supply, or facing any situation that could result in serious
injury or death are examples of fear.
In addition to these five types of stress, there are two other major factors that affect an
individual's ability to adapt to and resist stressors. These factors are "rapid onset
stressors" and "major life changes."
Rapid Onset Stressors
Emergency service providers experience an inordinate number of these types of stressors.
Defined as sudden, unexpected, and high-magnitude stimuli, they can include sudden
light flashes, unexpected blaring noises, or sharp pain.
One example in the fire service is the older practice of having a loud and blaring "wakeup" bell or horn in the bunk room of a fire station. Adding this rapid onset stressor
(wake-up alarm), with the stressor of receiving an emergency call and moving rapidly
from sleep or quiet to a high level of activity at an emergency, imposes a high level of
stress on each emergency service worker.
Life Changes
This type of stressor has been the subject of extensive studies. A rating scale that
measures stress assigns a numeric value to these types of stressors. Not only are
individual stressors serious, but the number of events an individual experiences within a
period typically can have a negative health response for up to 18 to 24 months after the
life changes have occurred. Listed below, not necessarily in the order of severity, are
examples of these life changes.
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marriage;
divorce;
a new job;
the birth of a child;
termination from an existing job;
serious illness or death of an immediate family member; and
personal tragedy such as having your home destroyed by fire.
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Fire Service Supervision…
A Self-Study Guide
Applying this to my situation…
As a supervisor, not only your own life-change stressors but those that occur to people
around you can affect you and your ability to do your job.
In the last year, how many of the stressors listed above have you experienced?
How many to someone you know?
Describe two or three health responses you have observed in yourself that you connect
with the life-change stressors.
Up to this point, we have discussed a number of stressors and how humans react to them.
Now we need to focus a bit on how stress relates to emergency services.
Stressors Inherent in the Culture of an Organization
In addition to the stressors affecting everyone, an emergency service worker faces a
variety of other stressors. Some are typical of the workplace while others are unique to
the emergency service environment.
A part of workplace stress relates to the "organizational culture." Organizational culture is
the totality of assumptions, beliefs, tenets, traditions, or understandings that are common
to the organization and shared by its members. Examples include items such as the
following.

The senior firefighter on a crew serves as the teacher to a new firefighter.

Promotions are based on merit, not seniority.

Public service is a primary driver of organizational actions.

Decisions are made by managers, not subordinates.
Some describe organizational culture as the internal climate of an organization.
Management culture consists of a variety of factors. It is important to identify the
following elements in order to make a thorough analysis of the primary stressors in a
given management culture.
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Fire Service Supervision...
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managerial philosophy;
departmental mission;
primary management setting;
communication patterns;
major changes within last 5 years;
breadth of training offered;
time management practices;
negative values punished;
competence of public relations
efforts;
specialization permitted/promoted;
competence of fireground tactics;
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organizational structure;
composition;
external influence policies;
type/direction of communication;
anticipated changes in next 3 years;
cultural diversity;
positive values rewarded;
politics within organization;
warmth and support provided;
management openness; and
competence of EMS protocols.
Applying this to my situation…
Review the above list of management culture components as they apply to your
organization. Briefly consider each as a source of stress and make note of those that
you believe are significant contributors to your overall stress level.
From those you noted, select the three most important sources and briefly comment on
how and why each contributes to your stress.
1.
2.
3.
Recognizing the factors that make up the management culture and how they can cause
stress is only a part of what one needs to know. Being able to identify the symptoms of
stress also is important. The next section will discuss that information.
Symptoms of Stress
Most individuals cannot make an informed decision as to whether they are under stress
unless it already has reached a crisis proportion. However, individuals begin to
experience one or more symptoms that they are under the influence of excess stress long
before that. These early signs are usually a prelude to the development of a more serious
physical illness and are clear signs that one is experiencing stress.
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Fire Service Supervision…
A Self-Study Guide
Hans Selye identified 30 early warning signs of stress. When an individual experiences
several of these signs, it is an indication that too much stress is present. One needs to
take measures to alleviate some of the stress sources.
Warning Signals of Stress
1.
General irritability, hyperexcitation or
depression.
16.
Insomnia.
2.
Pounding of the heart, an indicator of
high blood pressure.
17.
Hypermobility (overactivity).
3.
Dryness of the throat and mouth.
18.
Sweating.
4.
Impulsive behavior, emotional
instability.
19.
The frequent need to urinate.
5.
An overpowering urge to cry or to run
and hide.
20.
Diarrhea, queasiness in the stomach,
and sometimes vomiting.
6.
Inability to concentrate, flight of
thoughts, and general disorientation.
21.
Migraine headache.
7.
Feelings of unreality, weakness, and
dizziness.
22.
Premenstrual tension or missed
menstrual periods.
8.
Tendency to become fatigued and loss
of the joi de vivre ((joy of life).
23.
Pain in the neck or lower back.
9.
"Floating anxiety" Fear but do not
know of what we are afraid.
24.
Loss of appetite or compulsive eating.
10.
Emotional tension and alertness,
feelings of being keyed up.
25.
Increased smoking.
11.
Trembling, nervous tics.
26.
Increased use of legally prescribed
drugs such as tranquilizers.
12.
Tendency to be easily startled by small
noises.
27.
Alcohol or drug addiction.
13.
High pitched nervous laughter.
28.
Nightmares.
14.
Stuttering/other speech difficulties.
29.
Neurotic behavior.
15.
Broxism, or griding of the teeth while
30.
Psychoses.
sleeping
H. Selye. The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.
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Fire Service Supervision...
A Self-Study Guide
Applying this to my situation…
How many on the list apply to you?
Identify by number five or six of the major warning signs.
Do you see them as a prelude to physical illness? Why or why not?
We noted earlier that there are various "life changes" that can affect an individual
negatively for as long as 24 months after they occur. A rating scale that helps people
review the stressors in their lives and how they affect health, if a number of them occur in
a short period, is shown below.
Applying this to my situation…
Work through the rating scale below and circle all the major events listed that have
happened to you during the past 12 months. Circle each one that occurred whether you
believe it created stress or not. At the end, total the numerical values in the right-hand
column for the events circled.
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale
Life Event
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Mean Value
Death of spouse.
Divorce.
Marital separation from mate.
Detention in jail or other institution.
Death of a close family member.
Major personal injury or illness.
Marriage.
Being fired from work.
Marital reconciliation with mate.
Retirement from work.
Major changes in the health or behavior of a family member.
Pregnancy.
Sexual difficulties.
Gaining a new family member (birth or adoption) or major
family adjustment (bankruptcy, etc.).
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100
73
65
63
63
53
50
47
45
45
44
40
39
39
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15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
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Major business readjustment (e.g., merger, reorganization,
bankruptcy, etc.).
Major changes in financial status (e.g., lot worse off or a
lot better off than usual).
Death of a close friend.
Changing to a different line of work.
Major change in the number of arguments with mate
e.g., either a lot more or a lot less than usual regarding
family issues such as child rearing, personal habits, etc.).
Taking on a mortgage greater than $ 50,000 (e.g., purchasing
a home, business, property, etc.).
Foreclosure on a mortgage or note.
Major change in responsibilities at work (e.g., promotion,
demotion, lateral transfer).
Son or daughter leaving home (college, marriage, etc.).
In-law troubles.
Outstanding personal achievement.
Spouse beginning or ceasing work outside of the home.
Beginning or leaving formal school.
Major change in living conditions (e.g., building a new
home, remodeling, deterioration of home or neighborhood).
Revision of personal habits (dress, manners, associations).
Troubles with the boss.
Major change in working hours or conditions.
Change in residence.
Changing to a new school.
Major change in usual and/or amount of recreation.
Major change in church activities (e.g., a lot more or a
lot less than usual).
Major changes in social activities (e.g., clubs, dancing,
movies, visiting, etc.).
Taking on a mortgage of less than $25,000 (e.g., purchasing
a car, medical bills, travel, etc.).
Major change in sleeping habits (a lot more or a lot less
sleep or change in part of day when asleep).
Major change in number of family get-togethers (e.g., a lot
more or a lot less than usual).
Major change in eating habits (a lot more or a lot less food
intake, or very different meal hours or surroundings.
Vacation.
Christmas.
Minor violations of the law (e.g., traffic tickets, jaywalking,
disturbing the peace, etc.).
39
38
37
36
35
31
30
29
29
29
28
28
26
25
24
25
20
20
20
19
19
18
17
16
15
15
13
12
11
TOTAL OF ITEMS CIRCLED
T.H.Holmes and R.H. Rahe. "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale." Journal of
Psychosomatic Research 11 1967: 213-218.
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So what does this total mean? Various people have analyzed The Social Readjustment
Rating Scale. One such analysis by Holmes and Maseda classifies the events in rank
order and associates stress with each.
Score
Implication
300 or more
Potential to cause serious health conditions such as heart
attack, cancer, or depression. Increases the chance of it
happening by 79 percent.
200 to 299
Less potential to experience physical ailments. Increases the
potential by 51 percent.
150 to 199
Moderate probability of developing some type of negative
health change. Probability increased by 37 percent.
Less than 150
Typically, probability of experiencing serious health
problems from stress not increased.
We need to remember that a body is at risk for stress-related illness for up to 24 months
following the crisis.
Some studies have indicated that stress may result from the rate of change rather than the
change itself. If a supervisor has undergone a series of changes or is aware that a
subordinate has, it is important not to magnify the existing negative potential by inflicting
additional major changes.
As the analysis points out, one of the possible consequences of an accumulation of
stressors is death. Anticipating one's own death or dealing with the death of someone
close creates its own kind of stress. Studies identify a series of stages that people go
through as a reaction to death or certain other major life changes. These five stages
constitute collectively the "Grief Model."
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
denial;
anger;
bargaining;
depression; and
acceptance.
Every individual is different, and no two people react the same way or at the same rate. A
major change that is devastating to one person may go almost unnoticed by another.
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Fire Service Supervision…
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The time that it takes an individual to work through them the five stages also varies from
one person to another. Some move through within a few weeks while others may require
months or even a year or more.
Applying this to my situation…
List changes other than death that you think might cause someone to go through the five
stages.
Have you ever had an experience that caused you to go through the stages?
If so, describe the situation.
How long did it take you to go through the stages?
Most stressors are not as dramatic as those listed in the Social Readjustment Rating Scale,
but their cumulative effect still can result in physical consequences. The next section will
discuss some of those everyday stressors and their potential effect.
Everyday Stressors
One stress source is the circumstances associated with one's work environment. Referred
to as everyday stressors, these are possibly small in nature when taken individually.
When added to other sources of stress, they can amount to a significant level of stress on
an individual.
Supervisors spend a major portion of their waking hours at work. Small frustrations,
disappointments and other types of tension add up and can become a significant source by
themselves.
What are some typical everyday stressors? The following exercise will help you identify
some.
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A Self-Study Guide
Applying this to my situation…
Read and mark each question using the following scale.
1.
4.
Never
Often
2.
5.
Infrequently
3.
Almost all the time
Sometimes
After you complete the questions, total your score and compare it to the scoring analysis
that follows.
Everyday Stressor Questions
How often…
1.
do you feel that you have too little authority to carry out your responsibilities?
2.
do you feel unclear about what the scope and responsibility of your job are?
3.
do you not know what opportunities for advancement or promotion exist for you?
4.
do you feel that you have too much work, that you can't finish in one working
day?
5.
do you think that you won't be able to satisfy the demands of everyone around
you?
6.
do you feel that you are not fully qualified to handle your job?
7.
do you not know what your boss thinks of you and how he/she evaluates your
performance?
8.
do you find yourself unable to get information needed to carry out your job?
9.
do you worry about decisions that affect the lives of people you know?
10.
do you feel unable to influence your immediate supervisor's decisions and the
actions that affect you?
11.
do you feel that you may not be liked and accepted by people at work?
12.
do you not know just what the people at work expect of you?
13.
do you feel that you have to do things that are against your better judgment?
14.
do you think that your amount of work interferes with how well it's done?
15.
do you feel that your job interferes with your family life?
TOTAL SCORE
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In 1977, Clinton G. Weiman reported on a study of 1,540 officers in large financial
institutions and their reaction to stress. These individuals received extensive medical
examinations and then had to complete the Everyday Stressor Questionnaire. The study
found two distinct tendencies.
High Level (60 to 75)
In individuals with high levels of stress, there was a significantly greater incidence of
serious health problems than in other people in the study. The types of problems that
existed included hypertriglyceridemia, essential hypertension, arteriosclerotic heart
disease, hypercholesterolemia, exogenous obesity, duodenal ulcers, and heavy smoking.
The study found out something else quite interesting.
Low Level (15 to 25)
Surprisingly, in individuals with very low levels of stress, there were greater levels of
serious ailments than in all other groups except the very high stress levels.
Mean Level of Stress (25 to 60)
Those individuals in the center of the scale (25 to 60) had the lowest incidence of stressrelated illness. It became evident that stress is an everyday phenomenon, without which
our lives would become boring and flat. Such a situation may even cause people to
develop health problems.
This diagram illustrates these findings.
Reactions to Stress
Physical
Ailments
15
45
Stress
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In some of Selye's later studies on stress he identified and discussed two types of stress:
"distress" and "eustress." He defined distress as bad stress and called eustress "good
stress." This means that some stress is positive and necessary, but too much of the wrong
kind of stress can become dangerous to one's health and the health of one's subordinates.
One method of identifying stress levels within a work unit of the organization is to have
subordinates complete the exercise regarding everyday stressors. Through that exercise a
supervisor can better appreciate a subordinate's feelings, and can be a more effective
manager by alleviating stress in the work environment.
Just as we noted earlier that no two people react to life-change stresses in the same way,
they do not react to "normal" life in the same way either. Some of the difference is
thought to be connected to personality types. We need to look at this now.
Type A and Type B Personalities
Individuals usually fall into one of two personality types: Type A and Type B. Each type
represents a different relationship to stress and how people deal with it.
Type A individuals are usually coronary-prone. Studies indicate that Type A's are 1.56
times more likely to develop coronary problems. Type A individuals typically manifest
these signs.

They attempt to accomplish more in less time.

They value work as extremely important, and they become impatient when things
are not happening fast enough.

They hate to wait in line.

They finish sentences for others.

They are constantly in motion.
Type A personalities usually are more stressed than Type B persons because the former
create more stressors and are less able to adapt to the stressors than the latter.
Type B personalities, while different, are just as successful as Type A's. Type B
individuals typically display these signs.

They know how to take things more slowly.

They are less frustrated by the day-to-day activities and associates.
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As indicated, Type B personalities self-impose less stress than Type A personalities. In
recent years, many corporate leaders have indicated a preference for Type B people to
serve in managerial positions. Type B's do not "burn out" as fast and stay focused for the
long haul.
Applying this to my situation…
Are you a Type A or Type B personality?
What traits do you identify in yourself that lead you to this conclusion?
Changing Type A Behavior to Type B
Recognizing that Type A behavior adds stress to an individual, there are a number of
actions that a person can take to consciously change to Type B behavior. Here are a few.
Behavior Modifiers
1.
Develop a different attitude.
9.
Listen to music.
2.
Get a physical check-up.
10.
Take a break.
3.
Get adequate rest and sleep.
11.
Express your anger.
4.
Watch your diet.
12.
Take a vacation.
5.
Exercise.
13.
Talk out a problem or
difference.
6.
Meditate.
14.
Slow down.
7.
Change one's reaction pattern.
15.
Do something for others.
8.
Adapt realistically to your
environment.
16.
Apply relaxation techniques.
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Many of these stress relievers for Type A individuals actually work for all people. The
following section describes a number of these techniques for reducing stress in more
detail.
Techniques for Reducing Stress
There are two schools of thought in developing stress-reduction strategies. One is to
manage stress quantitatively by reducing the amount of stress an individual experiences.
Quantitative management is the most common approach to stress management.
The second outlook is to manage stress qualitatively. Qualitative stress management
translates negative stress (distress) into positive stress (eustress). One example is to use
stress to one's benefit rather than one's detriment. Qualitative stress reduction
philosophies usually require professional assistance to accomplish them successfully.
The reduction of stress requires that an individual reduce the level of physical arousal
triggered by the body's physical reaction to a stressful situation (dumping of sugars,
tensing of muscles, etc.). Whichever stress reduction strategy one chooses, it must fit the
individual's personality.
The three basic types of stress control techniques listed below emerge from Selye's stress
adaptation model.



Environmental--techniques that operate on the individual's environment, i.e., the
stressors.
Cognitive--techniques that operate on the mind.
Physical Reactivity--techniques that operate on the body.
Environmental Strategies
Using an environmental technique requires that the individual break the stress cycle at the
stressor level, i.e., alter the environment to eliminate the stressor or at the very least
minimize it. One method of undertaking this is Social Engineering. The social
engineering technique has 10 steps.
Step 1: Identify a Particular Stressor
To begin the social engineering process, it is necessary to identify a particular situation
which obviously creates a considerable amount of stress. The stressor may be an
inordinate amount of paperwork at specific times of the month or year; regular meetings
with a particularly difficult person; or being caught in traffic each evening on the way
home from work.
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Step 2: Define the Stressor
One needs to find out what it is about this particular situation that provides stress. One
needs to be very specific in identifying and defining the stressor. What emotions are
evoked when this stressor appears? It is important to be as specific about the
characterization of the stressor as possible in order to be able to identify strategies that
will mute the emotions created by the situation.
Step 3: Can One Avoid the Stressor?
One obvious question to ask is: Can one avoid this stressor? If so, one needs to do so.
Initially it may seem that the stressor is unavoidable, but on deeper investigation, one may
find that the situation is regularly avoidable. Examples include finding an alternate mode
of transportation or a different time of travel; having someone assist with the paperwork;
or reducing or discontinuing altogether any meetings with a disagreeable individual. If
the stressor is avoidable, no further action needs to be taken.
If not, then the remaining steps in the social engineering process must occur.
Step 4: Determine Why the Stressor is Unavoidable
One next needs to ask the questions: "What will be lost if I do avoid this situation
(stressor)? What outcomes are associated with this particular stressor?" If, in fact, the
answer is little or none, then the stressor is avoidable. Often an individual will continue
to confront a particular stressor not realizing that the situation can be avoided with little
or no consequence.
Step 5: Generate Alternatives
One needs to brainstorm as many alternatives as possible for avoiding the stressor. One
should concentrate on ways to avoid the stressor and still achieve the desired outcomes.
One should write down the alternatives so one can actually "see" all of the possibilities
and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Step 6: Evaluate the Alternatives
Review each of the alternatives and determine which ones will be most helpful in
avoiding the stressor while achieving the intended goals and outcomes. If one needs to
alter one's environment to avoid the stressor, this will require one to socially engineer (or
re-engineer) activities. When evaluating the alternatives, one must take care not to just
trade one stressor for another.
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Step 7: Select the Best Alternative
Select the alternative that best meets the desired goals and outcomes. The best alternative
should eliminate, or at least significantly reduce, the amount and intensity of the
particular stressor under study
Step 8: Try it Out
The next time that particular stressor arises, one should use the identified alternative.
Try it out. See if it works. Only with a conscious effort to alter the environment can an
individual actually use social engineering to reduce a particular stressor.
Step 9: Reevaluate, Revise, and Fine Tune
As an individual applies social engineering, it will be necessary to adjust how one uses
the specific alternative. There is no "one-size-fits all" solution. Each person using social
engineering will need to adapt the technique to his/her personality, as well as to the specific
stressor being avoided.
Step 10: Practice
As an individual applies social engineering on a regular basis to reduce stress, it will
simply become second nature. Without conscious thought, an individual applying social
engineering will alter the environment so as to eliminate a stressor and, hence, reduce
stress.
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Applying this to my situation…
Select a work-related stressor and evaluate it using the environmental steps just
outlined.
Identify the stressor.
Define it specifically.
Could you have avoided it?
If not, why?
List three or four ways you can avoid the stressor.
Evaluate the alternatives and select one to try.
Cognitive Strategies
These types of strategies deal with the mind. Many events or situations are unexpected
and, in many cases, are the most severe stressors individuals face. The first step in
developing a cognitive strategy is to recognize that one cannot control the world, and that
unexpected and sometimes devastating events will occur.
There are several counseling and psychotherapeutic approaches to assist an individual in
rethinking problems and looking at them from a new perspective. One such approach is
cognitive reappraisal. The concept of cognitive reappraisal is to assist people in
rethinking potential stressors and interpret them in an adaptive, healthful manner rather
than in a maladaptive and stress-fostering way. Essentially cognitive reappraisal takes the
view that a situation is not a stressor but rather an opportunity. The steps in cognitive
reappraisal are similar to the steps in social engineering.
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Step 1: Confront the Stressor
The first step in cognitive reappraisal is to identify and analyze a specific stressor. Is it
dealing with or meeting a person? Is it an encounter with a prickly situation? Or is it a
condition that exists from time to time in the workplace?
Step 2: Analyze Normal Reactions
The second step is to analyze carefully one's reaction to this specific stressor. Does one
become impatient, angry, embarrassed, or a combination of one or more of these
emotions? Typically, reaction to a stressor evokes one or more emotions from the
individual stressed. It is important to identify which emotions surface when this specific
stressor occurs.
Step 3: Rethink the Situation
Now that one has identified the stressor and the associated emotions, it is time to
determine how one can take these circumstances and turn them into a positive attribute.
One such example was an individual who used to fume while waiting in traffic jams on
the way home. He/She realized that he/she had time available for improving him/herself
and began to listen to audiotapes on self-improvement while caught in traffic.
Step 4: Select One Alternative
Often there is more than one way to rethink a situation. One should review all the
alternatives identified and select the one that seems most appropriate and fits one's
personal style. The others can be alternatives kept in reserve in the event that one needs
to revise one's approach.
Step 5: Try it Out
Finally, after all is said and done, one needs to apply the cognitive reappraisal technique
selected. It is important to keep it in place for a sufficient time to complete a pertinent
evaluation. One needs to remember that it takes some length of time before any new
approach feels "normal" and comfortable.
Physical Reactivity Strategies
Extensive research has documented that physical activity is the body's natural mechanism
for reducing physical arousal, especially that caused by stress. Specifically, physical
activity helps to manage stress in three ways:
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A Self-Study Guide
It detoxifies the body.
Physical activity assists the body in burning off hormones created as a result of specific
stressors. These hormones, when not burned off, perpetuate the physical arousal caused
by a stressor.
2.
It decreases stress reactivity.
A physically active individual has a lower reactivity to the physical arousal resulting from
stressful situations or encounters. This reduction is both mental and physical.
3.
It strengthens internal organ systems.
Physical activity strengthens all of the major organ groups of the body; hence the body
becomes more resistant to illness and disease.
It is important to note that almost any physical activity, ranging from archery to weight
training to walking, will assist an individual in reducing stress. Sometimes the most
effective way to reduce stress is to apply more than one strategy at the same time.
Combination Stress Reduction Strategies
A number of stress reduction techniques encompass methods that affect all three
components: environment, cognitive, and physical reactivity. Each of these methods is
related to one central concept, relaxation. Many experts consider relaxation one of the
most effective stress reduction tools, since it acts upon the environment, the mind, and the
body. The process involves activities that stabilize and maintain levels of mental and
physical arousal at a reduced level.
Relaxation techniques are not the same as leisure activities. Two other misconceptions
regarding relaxation are that relaxation produces a state similar to drugs or alcohol, and
that relaxation involves mental passivity. Nothing could be further from the truth.
There are two approaches to relaxation training that can reduce stress. These are
centralized relaxation and peripheral relaxation. While each approach addresses the
situation from different directions, both approaches involve the mind and the body.
Centralized Relaxation
This approach assists an individual in calming the mind. Three examples of centralized
relaxation include meditation, selective awareness, and biofeedback.
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Meditation
Meditation has five basic components: a quiet environment, correct posture, an object
of meditation, a passive attitude, and regular practice.
Individuals who relate well to meditation training are those who have a relatively
well-developed awareness of their internal state. Stated another way, it is those
individuals who are generally sensitive to changes in their minds and bodies.
Selective Awareness
Selective awareness involves learning how to gain control of the focus of one's attention.
After gaining control, the next step is to direct the internal activity of the body. It is a
technique that enhances concentration; and hypnosis, guided imagery, and autogenic
training are all forms of the selective awareness technique.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback is a treatment technique in which people learn to improve their health, and
reduce stress by interpreting and using signals provided by one's own body. It is helpful
to reduce stress-induced disorders such as hypertension. One of biofeedback's primary
advantages is that it is very effective in augmenting other relaxation techniques.
Peripheral Relaxation
This approach begins by reducing arousal at the site of a body organ. It is especially
useful for individuals who react to stress in a particular way, i.e., upset stomach or
migraine headache. Four examples of peripheral relaxation include progressive muscle
relaxation, yoga, breath control, and biofeedback.
Progressive Relaxation
Progressive relaxation is especially useful to individuals who find passive activities, such
as meditation, frustrating. Progressive relaxation will help reduce muscle tension and
address stress-induced muscular disorders. The techniques are simple to learn and
anyone can use them just about anytime and anywhere. Yoga and biofeedback are types
of progressive relaxation.
Yoga
There are several forms of yoga, all of which require some degree of formal training. An
individual usually can obtain such training through local recreation programs, community
colleges, or in a private tutorial program.
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Breath Control
An extension of yoga, breath control involves diaphragmatic breathing. Instead of
breathing from the chest, diaphragmatic breathing involves pushing the stomach out
as a person inhales and pulling it in when exhaling. It is not clear to many why this
technique works; however, when properly used, it does work.
Biofeedback
Referenced as a centralized relaxation technique, biofeedback actually can function as
either a centralized or peripheral relaxation technique.
Applying this to my situation…
List relaxation techniques you have used.
What influenced your choices?
Have the techniques been helpful?
Why or why not?
Summary
Stress is a major contributor to cost in the workplace as well as a factor leading to
unhealthy interactions between supervisors and workers. Here are the key points
discussed in this module.

Stress involves the body adapting to a situation and experiencing the General
Adaptation Syndrome that Hans Selye identified about 60 years ago.
The five basic types of stressors are time, encounters, situational and environmental
factors, human trauma, and fear. These are complicated by sudden onset stresses as well
as stress resulting from life changes.

The culture of an organization can contribute to an individual's level of stress.

When stress reaches significant levels, symptoms arise that an individual can, if
trained, learn to recognize and understand.

Everyday stressors in the workplace contribute substantially to stress.
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
Type A personalities create a higher level of stress for themselves than do Type B
personalities. There is no difference in productivity or competence between Type
A's and Type B's. As a result, organizations are exhibiting a preference for Type
B's.

An individual must develop a stress reduction strategy that fits his/her personal
style.

The three basic types of stress control techniques which emerge from Selye's stress
adaptation model are environmental, cognitive, and physical reactivity.

An individual may select from one of the three stress control techniques or a
combination of all three components.
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End-of-Module Activities
1.
2.
Think about the people you supervise (or have in the past) and select one who you
believe is experiencing stress. Based on your knowledge of the person and the
circumstances, do the following:
a.
Explain why you selected this person.
b.
Note specific stress symptoms you have observed.
c.
Make two lists of possible stressors for this individual, one list for the
workplace and the second for outside the workplace.
d.
Describe what you have done or could do to help this person reduce or
manage stress.
Just as the workplace can be a source of stress, it can be a source of help to people
experiencing stress. How would you rate your department as a source of help?
a.
How well does management seem to understand the potentially harmful
effects of stress?
b.
Are employees provided opportunities to learn about stress and coping
techniques? If so, describe them. If not, why not?
c.
Is there an Employee Assistance Program available to employees? If so,
explain the stress-related features it offers. If no program exists, explain
why you think that is so.
d.
Does a Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) program exist in your
department or area? If so, describe who is involved, how one accesses it,
and what is required. If there is no program, do you think one would be
valuable? Why? Who would be able to help set one up?
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Module 2
Module Review Questions
True or False--Circle T or F.
T F
1.
Stress is a significant factor in the fireground-related death rate for
responders.
T F
2.
Increased breathing rate, heart rate, and blood pressure can be physical
reactions to stress.
T F
3.
Of the five major categories of stressors, human trauma is identified as
number one.
T F
4.
A statement such as "the senior firefighter on a crew serves as the
teacher to a new firefighter" is an example of organizational culture.
T F
5.
According to Selye, alcohol or drug addiction can be a warning sign of
stress.
T F
6.
All stress-related illness appears within 6 months of the crisis.
T F
7.
The first stage of the "Grief Model" is depression.
T F
8.
Weiman reported that individuals with very low stress levels had
significantly greater levels of serious ailments.
T F
9.
Quantitative stress reduction philosophies usually require professional
assistance to accomplish successfully.
T F
10.
Almost any physical activity will assist an individual in reducing
stress.
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Multiple Choice--Circle the letter of the answer you choose.
1.
Experts have estimated that workplace stress is directly responsible for economic
losses approximating annually
a.
b.
c.
2.
Stress can be defined as
a.
b.
c.
3.
sharp pain, serious illness, or personal tragedy.
birth of a child, job loss, or blaring noises.
marriage, divorce, or a new job.
According to the rating scale applied to major life events, that with the highest
mean value is
a.
b.
c.
7.
social stressors.
encounter stressors.
time stressors.
Life-change stressors include
a.
b.
c.
6.
the body reacts to alarm.
the individual resists the stressor.
exhaustion occurs.
Balancing duties at work, family obligations, and leisure time are examples of
a.
b.
c.
5.
a response to life changes.
a mental frustration.
a disease.
In the second state of Salye's General Adaptation Syndrome
a.
b.
c.
4.
less than $1 million.
$50 to $80 million.
$20 to $100 billion.
death of a spouse.
major personal illness.
outstanding personal achievement.
Type B personalities typically show traits such as
a.
b.
c.
attempting to accomplish more in less time.
knowing how to take things slowly.
hating to wait in line.
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8.
The stress-reducing techniques operating on the mind are
a.
b.
c.
9.
environmental.
cognitive.
physical.
The combination stress-reduction approach that assists an individual with
reducing arousal is called
a.
b.
c.
10.
A Self-Study Guide
centralized relaxation.
peripheral relaxation.
convergent relaxation.
An example of centralized relaxation is
a.
b.
c.
meditation.
breath control.
yoga.
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