Rome Notes
1 Developments in Rome
– role of the Senate and political alliances; the urban population and the rise of
the equestrians
– establishment of the extortion court and changes to the magistracies
– economic and social conditions and problems; the ‘latifundia’, growth of
slavery and decline of the free peasantry
– role and contribution of Roman leaders: Fabius Maximus, Scipio Africanus,
Flamininus, Scipio Aemilianus, Cato the Elder
2 Roman expansion
– causes, course and consequences of the First Punic War
– impact of wars of expansion on Roman politics, economy and society
– the spread, influence and impact of Hellenism
– causes, course and consequences of the Second Punic War: Trebia, Ticinus,
Lake Trasimenae, Cannae and Zama
– role of Carthaginian leaders: Hamilcar Barca, Hasdrubal, Hannibal
– consequences of Punic Wars; destruction of Carthage 146 BC
– important changes in Roman naval and land warfare, military recruitment
– political conditions and problems in Rome, Italy and the empire
– provincial administration, taxation and tribute
Role of the Senate and Political Alliances
Roman Republic
 Constitutionally, Senate was only an advisory body with legislative power, but really it
ruled Rome until 133BC
 Exercised practically unchallenged rule over the Roman government, although
officially/constitutionally the govt was the main power
 Political System constituted a mixture of democratic, aristocratic and oligarchic
elements
o Occurred due to the people’s demand of greater political participation of their
assistance in Rome’s wars of expansion
 Senate comprised of magistrates, a dictator, censors, people’s assemblies and tribunes
 Experienced many issues, corruption, under representation of the people
 Plebians secured greater political participation and corruption was addressed
o Despite attempts to clean up Roman politics, largely remained inefficient and
exclusive
 Senate passed decrees which magistrates followed
 Focus of Roman Senate directed at foreign policy
Magistracies
 Officials and administrators who passed legislation, nominated consuls, controlled
the treasury and ensured that Rome thrived in all non-military aspects
o Sourced from patricians and wealthy plebians
Within magistracies:
o 2 consuls: Commanders of the Army
o 8 praetors: judges who presided over law suits
o 4 aediles: Administrators of Roman city-states, public buildings, festivals
o 12 quaestors: Financial administrators
 All positions were held for one year tenure
 Positions made up the ladder of promotion – ‘cursus honorum’
Dictator: single person role. Only elected during an emergency e.g. Hannibal’s invasion
o During these times, dictators given role of coordinating state
Censor: Only two appointed at a time. Role was to assign citizens to social positions
o These social positions were based on property qualifications
People’s Assemblies
 Legislative assemblies were political institutions made up of the population, that
supposedly were the ultimate source of power. Two types of people’s assemblies:
1. Assembly of the Centuriate (Comitia Centuriata) was the democratic assembly of
the Roman soldiers.
a. Dominated by the wealthy classes
b. Power to make war and argue on terms for peace
c. Only this assembly could declare war or elect consuls, praetors and censors.
2. Assembly of the Tribes
a. Democratic membership from the people
b. Sometimes made laws without Senate approval
c. Elected Plebian Tribunes
 Tribunes of the People
o Office of Tribune was created as a result of struggle for orders – the plebians
wanting equality.
o 10 appointed at a time
o Defended lives and property of plebians
o Could veto laws and actions of magistrates if needed
o All 10 tribunes had to unanimously degree when making decisions
 Rome, huge division of power at 264 BC:
o Senate
o Magistrates
o Dictator
o Censors
o People’s Assemblies
o Tribunes of the People
Constitution
 Established in 264 BC




More of a set of practices rather than written document
Allowed plebians to have rights of equality they had desired
Needed because plebians often had to leave farms to fight for Rome as it expanded
Plebians threatened to revolt against commanding officers if they were refused rights
o Due to threats, rights were extended
 Could now:
o Elect their own tribunes
o Intermarry with patricians
o Hold some religious offices
o Make laws in the ‘comitia tributa’
Rise of the Urban Population
 Rome a major trading centre/marketplace following First Punic War
 Large slave population
o 250,000 POW’s in Second Punic War
o Growth of wealthy being increased – buying of slaves
 Heavy rural peasants moved to Rome in search of work and wealth
o Swelled Rome’s population
o Slave labour cheaper – encouraged latifundia, forced peasants out of work
 After these developments, wealthy business class rose up in Rome
o Further increased demand for slaves
o Huge increase in wealth result of expansion
 Publicans, private contractors for building and development rose up
 Money lending/banking developed as a business
 Most manufactures were done for local consumption
Equestrians
 A social group of medium-wealthy businessmen
o During war able to afford cavalry = equestrians
 Rank in society was between the senate oligarchs and the working population
 Invested heavily in land
 Unless business interests were under threat, stayed out of politics
o As they had no prestige they had little influence in Roman politics despite
their wealth
Establishment of Extortion Court and Changes to the Magistracies
Extortion Court:
 Rome kept expanding and thus included many more provinces, which had to be
controlled and administered
 Provinces had to reflect legal and social culture of Rome
o Senate appointed governors to oversee these provinces
 Governors more open to corruption and accusations of hardship from citizens
o In order to address this, Senate established ‘Extortion Court’ in 149 BC
 When a governor returned to Rome, Court would examine his accounts:
o Claims for military exports
o Trade managements
 Citizens more able to appeal to extortion court if they felt they were being exploited
by their governor
o Could also use Court to appeal for damages
Structure of Court
 Fifty jurors elected from the Senate, headed by a Praetor
 No appeal above the court
 Heavy problems arose with the Court:
o Significant costs of long trials
o Difficult to secure testimony as may witnesses reluctant to come forward
o Penalties difficult to enforce, most demands to repay provinces
o Court officials were penalising their own, meant that impartiality was lacking
 Practical failure of the court meant that for years, roman provinces suffered
exploitation from governors and tax collectors
Changes to Magistracies
 Magistrates could reject the candidate of an election if he did not approve with
him/his policies
 Magistrates used by Senators, as Senators couldn’t own ships or engage in public
contracts
o Magistrates could help to influence public through other means
 Initially, provinces like Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia ruled by regular magistrates
o Proved ineffective: special magistrates assigned
 Changes were needed in the magistrate as they were designed to handle city
administration, but they were not well appointed to dealing with imperial
administration over a large empire
 Praetor’s Edict: annually elected magistrates issues laws each year
o Each year, an elected magistrate (Praetor) published the principles which he
would enforce, and the grounds needed for grievance disputes
 Praetor’s edict ruled for the year he was in office
o Most incoming Praetors carried on predecessor’s principles
 Consul: chairman of the Senate and commanded the army
 Proconsul: A former consul who was granted the powers of a consul; command of
army, official magistrate
 Praetor: a magistrate who was responsible for the administration of justice.
 Propraetor: A former praetor who was granted powers of praetor.
 Alien Praetor: presided over trial of disputes arising between foreigners or Roman
citizens and foreigners
o Four additional praetorships added to provide provincial governors with
appropriate praetorian rank
 Aedile: magistrate responsible for maintenance of public buildings, public festivals,
games, food supply
 Censor: officer in Rome responsible for maintaining the census and overseeing aspects
of the government’s finances
 Quaestor: lowest ranking official in Rome, responsibility was the treasury
 Tribune: officer elected by the plebeians to protect their rights from arbitrary acts of
magistrates
Economic and Social Conditions and Problems: ‘Latifundia’, Growth of Slavery,
Decline of Peasantry
Fabius Maximus
Assess the roles of Fabius Maximus and Scipio Africanus in the Second Punic War
Both Fabius Maximus and Scipio Africanus had greatly influential roles in the Second Punic
War. Although their strategies were very different and sometimes opposite, both met with
success. Fabius’s tactics came at a time when Hannibal was inflicting severe and in Fabius’s
view, unsustainable losses to the Roman Army. He proposed a strategy that would avoid
direct engagement with Hannibal, to the displeasure of many of his peers. In contrast, Scipio
Africanus is remembered as one of Rome’s greatest ever generals. Among other great
achievements, he is first and foremost remembered for doing that which was thought
impossible; defeating Hannibal.
Fabius Maximus’s role in the Second Punic War was that met with much criticism due to the
supposedly cowardly nature of his strategies. Fabius Maximus’s most prominent role in the
Second Punic War was in that of Dictator. When the Consul Gaius Flaminius was killed during
the disastrous Roman defeat at the Battle of Lake Trasimene, panic swept Rome. With
consular armies destroyed in two major battles, and Hannibal approaching Rome’s gates,
the Romans feared imminent destruction. The Roman Senate decided to appoint a Dictator,
and chose Fabius. Plutarch admirably explains the decision as “he alone, was such a man,
having a spirit and a dignity of hand that fully matched the greatness of the office, and being
moreover at the time of life when bodily vigour still suffices to carry out the counsels of the
mind, and courage is tempered with prudence.” Fabius, aware of Hannibal’s military
superiority, refused to meet Hannibal in a pitched battle, hoping to outlast him in a war of
attrition. Fabius was able to harass Hannibal’s foraging parties, limiting Hannibal’s ability to
wreak destruction while conserving his own military force. He maneuverer among the hills,
rendering Hannibal’s cavalry useless, cut off enemy’s supplies and harassed him incessantly
as well as implanting the ‘scorched earth’ tactics to prevent Hannibal from gaining grain and
resources. These strategies made Fabius less than popular, as Roman’s thought it cowardly
and awarded Fabius with the nickname of “Cunctator”; the Delayer. The Romans favoured
more straightforward tactics and pitch-battles -‘courageous’ and ‘honourable’. Livy implies
this cowardice when he says, “Refused to offer battle because he did not want to force his
already defeated soldiers to fight against the violence of victorious enemy”. Fabius was
removed as Dictator due to the unpopularity of his strategies and the lack of progress that
many had seen. This assessment of Fabius portrays him as cowardly and ineffective in the
Second Punic War, in stark contrast to the successes of Scipio Africanus.
Although Fabius was unpopular and considered cowardly by many, most historians agree
that his strategies were both effective and prudent. Boak and Sinnigen state, “Fabius
recognised the superiority of Hannibal’s generalship and of the Carthaginian cavalry, and
consequently refused to be drawn into a general engagement.” Hannibal burnt the entire
countryside but spared the land of Fabius “so that his opponent was suspected of treason”
(Polybius). This shows the unpopularity and cowardice that was already suspected of Fabius.
Fabius’s role in the Second Punic War was the only sensible option available to the Romans
at the time. Rome could not sustain its deleterious policies of attempting to defeat Hannibal
in pitched battle. Polybius recounts “At first he was despised for it, and gave rise to
scandalous insinuations that he was an utter coward and dared not face an engagement: but
in course of time he compelled everybody to confess and allow that it was impossible for
any one to have acted, in the existing circumstances, with greater discretion and prudence.”
Fabius had decided to attack Hannibal in a different way; through his supplies. It is
postulated that if Fabius had been allowed to continue his war of attrition, this would have
spelled the end of Hannibal. Hannibal felt the effects of this deeply and even more so when
his much needed Carthaginian reinforcements were stopped. The effectiveness of Fabian
strategy can be seen in the almost stalemate that contrasted with the early decisive victories
by Hannibal. With the Hannibal threat dampened somewhat, Rome was able to send an
army to deliver a decisive blow to Carthage. Polybius reveals the widespread popularity won
by Fabius “by the fact that the members of his family are even now called Maximi, that is
"Greatest," in honour of his successful achievements.” Fabius’s role in the Second Punic War
was won that was marked not by large-scale battles, but in smaller victories that crucially
allowed Rome onto the front foot and to deliver the final blow at Zama.
Scipio Africanus
Scipio Africanus’s role in the Second Punic War is somewhat more glorified and memorable.
His strategies and role played in the Second Punic War was vastly different to that of Fabius.
Scipio first became well known when he saved his father’s life at the Battle of Ticinus.
Scullard attests “seeing his father wounded and cut off by the enemy, he charged forward
and saved him.” Scipio also served as a military tribune at the disastrous defeat at the Battle
of Cannae; “there he boldly thwarted a plot of some fainthearts to desert Rome”. He had
experienced on more than one occasion the tactics of Hannibal and this would impact him
later on. 213 he won the adeileship, despite the fact that he was under the legal age.
Scipio’s first significant role in the Second Punic War was his command in Spain. SCullard
recounts “that no senior general would undertake the taks and thay young Scipio offered
himself as a candidate.” He managed to severely weaken Hasdrubal’s reiforcements to
Hannibal, who who later able to be eaily defeated. He then managed to defeat the other
two Carthaginian armies there and secured Gades, thus making Roman control of Spain
complete
It wasn’t only Scipio’s brilliant success as a general that contributed to his reputation. He
was instrumental in many changes and improvements to the Roman army. (B+S) recount
that Scipio adopted the gladius as it was “adapted to cutting as well as thrusting, in place of
the shorter Roman sword used solely for thrusting.” He also replaced maniples with cohorts
as the main legionary tactical unit. Theodore Dodge claimed “Scipio’s reforms to the
manipular legion were to benefit Rome forever.” He was also influential in the changes to
the Roman Army Structure. It was Scipio who although was “technically disqualified from
exercising the imperium” (B+S), by a special law in the Centuriate Assembly became a
proconsul. Scipio, showing great initiative and ingenuity, having observed the exploitation of
Hannibal upon the one year tenure of consuls, was instrumental in the creation of proconsul
and propraetor. The impact of these changes as well as the influence of Scipio can be seen in
Spain as well as later in Africa.
Although already having a great and beneficial impact in the Second Punic War, Scipio’s
greatest achievement was the defeat of Hannibal, who had remained undefeated for 15
years. Elected consul for 205, “Scipio boldy determined to disregard Hannibal in Italy and to
strike at Africa.” He faced much opposition from more conservative political opponents such
as Fabius, but such was his support that he was able to gather an army of 35,000. Scipio’s
defeat of a combined army of Carthaginians and Numidians, estimated death toll of 40,000,
led to both support from new Numidian Chief Masinissa as well as peace negotiations with
Carthage. Polybius praises Scipio’s actions saying, “of all the brilliant exploits performed by
Scipio this seems to me the most brilliant and more adventurous.” After the resumption of
the war, Scipio faced off against Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. “Scipio applied the tactics of
encirclement which he had learned from Hannibal but adapted to Roman military
formations.”(B+S) Scipio defeated Hannibal, and in doing so had ensured victory for Rome.
Acimovic declared that Scipio “did not allow himself to become overweening or loquacious,
as young people are wont to do, and thus ensured that all would not be risked on a single
operation.” Scipio’s impact in the Second Punic War is undeniable and his role was that of
champion of Rome.
Later years
 In 199 Scipio was censor and became the titular head of the Senate
 He and his brother Lucius defeated Antiochus III of Syria
 Scipio’s political opponents, led by Cato, launched series of attacks on Scipios
 Following the ‘trials of the Scipio’s, “his influence was shaken, and he withdrew from
Rome to Liternum in Campania, where he lived simply” (Scullard)
Flaminius
 A novus homo when he was elected tribune of the plebs in 232 BC
 Earned the support of the people and hatred of the Senate by carrying a bill that
distributed plots of land to poor Romans in an area south of Ariminium.
 Elected praetor in 227
 Elected consul in 223, moved to attack Insubres, Celtic tribe
 To forestall this, Senate declared that evil omens had marred the consular elections
and sent a letter ordering Flaminius to resign
o He refused to open the letter until he defeated Insubres
 When Senate would not vote him a triumph, the people did
 Elected censor for 220, he built Circus Flaminius to accommodate spectacles for
people
o Constructed Via Flaminia from Rome to Arminum for people he had settled
there
o Reorganised Centuriate Assembly to give poorer classes more voting power
o Reportedly only senator to support the Lex Claudia 218
 Vastly increased his popularity, next year voted consul
o Forbade senators to engage in commerce
 In 217 Flaminius was elected consul a second time and moved his army to Arretium
to prevent Hannibal entering Etruria
o Carthaginians slipped past his forces
 Following Hannibal, Roman Army was ambushed in Battle of Trasimene
o 15,000 + Flaminius died
 Appeal to people against senatorial aristocracy became part of Roman politics a
century later with Grachhi
Scipio Aemilianus














Scipio was adopted by Publius Scipio, son of Scipio Africanus
Brought up with both Greek and Roman culture
Served under his original father in Third Macedonian War in 168.
Scullard “The most significant influence on Scipio’s character was his friendship with
the Greek historian Polybius”
Scipio was “determined to prove a worthy representative and purseue the normal
aims of a Roman noble: honour, glory and military success
Polybius “in about five years Scipio secured a general recognition of his character for
goodness and purity”
Scullard points out to cruelty in Scipio’s character “that is noticeable in several
episodes of his life” and that “not every Roman general celebrated a victory by
throwing deserters to the wild beasts.
152 had been elected quaestor and had entered the Senate
Served as a military tribune in Spain and “displayed great personal courge in the
Spanish campaigns” Scullard
When war broke out with Carthage again, Scipio served again as military tribune
Scullard relates a night attack by the Carthaginians “a situation that was only
retrieved by the skill of Scipio”
Scipio, with his military record and outstanding public support, although five years
under the legal age was elected consul in 147 and given command in Africa
After starving Carthage with a land and sea blockade, 146 captured Carthage and
destroyed it
After suffering a series of defeats and humiliating setbacks, Scipio took command in
Spain, redisciplined the Roman troops there, captured Numantia and thus
established Rome’s dominion in Spain
 “As a soldier Scipio contributed much to the maintenance and extension of Rome’s
power in the world”
 “he was an ideal statesman, personifying in his personal virtue, cultural patronage
and aristocratic moderation the golden days of the republic.”
Cato the Elder
 Born in 234 BC
 Attracted to Plato’s idea of a life of “simplicity and self discipline”
 Frugal ad disciplined life attracted attention of Valerius Falcus
o Took him under his wing
o Encouraged Cato to take part in public life in Rome
 205 he was appointed quaestor under Scipio Africanus in Sicily
 Cato left his place of duty after a dispute with Scipio “who was not only indulging his
usual lavish personal expenditure, but also squandering extravagantly high pay upon
his troops” (Plutarch)
o Scipio found not guilty after senatorial investigation
 Promoted from military tribune to quaestor, then to aedile and praetor
 Reached pinnacle of his career as Consul in 195 BC
o Major achievement was successful campaign in Hispania Citerior
 Regarded as a novus homo “new man”
 191 BC he retired from the army to focus on the Senate
o Feard Carthage and ended most of his addresses with “Carthage must be
destroyed!”
 Took great pride in his work as censor (184) as the guardian of morality
o Took his job incredibly seriously
o Ceaselessy sought out those who misused public property
 Failing to obtain consulship, Cato decided to retire from public life when civil war
broke out
 Cato realised that the sole chance to preserve the republic lay in supporting
Pompey, whom he had formerly opposed.
 After Pompey’s defeat at Pharsalus, Cato led forced into Africa
 Cato committed suicide
First Punic War: Causes, Courses, Consequences
First Punic War
 Concerning Messana; “The Senate realised that to grant this request may well lead to
war with Carthage, but it also recognised that Carthaginian occupation
would…constitute a perpetual threat.”
 Possibly “did not appreciate the danger or difficulties of a possible conflict with the
Carthaginians”
o Consular army sent into Messana
 Mamertini decided Roman protection was preferable and expelled Carthaginian garrison
 Carthage decided to send an army to recover Messana, allying with Hiero of Syracuse
o Rome defeats Hiero and Carthaginians, but is now at war with both
 “Carthage apparently regarded Roman occupation of the city as interference in her
sphere of influence.”
o Carthage also determined to prevent Messana’s incorporation into the Roman
confederation
 Rome sends army of around 40,000 into Sicily
 Initial attacks so successful, Hiero accepts offered peace with indemnity of 100 talents in
silver
 Aided by Hiero, Romans besiege Agrigentum; Greek city with Carthaginian garrison
o Agrigentum falls in 262 BC
 261, Rome “realised the absolute necessity of building a large fleet on modern lines that
could challenge Carthaginian naval supremacy.”
o Took stranded Carthaginian warship as their model
o Built 100 quinqueremes – first-class battleship of the day
 300 rowers, 120 fighting men
 Consul Duilius in 260 fought Carthaginians off Mylae, north coast of Sicily
 To offset Carthaginian superior seamanship, speed and skill, Romans develop corvus
o Crane armed with long spikes to grapple the opposing ship.
o Enabled legionaries to board Carthaginian ships and engage in hand-to-hand
combat
o “The Romans thus neutralised superior Carthaginian seamanship by converting
sea battles into land warfare.”
 Occupied Corsica, assaulted Sardinia, unable to control Sicily and so attacked Carthage
 Naval victory off Ecnomus, south coast of Italy in 256 cleared way to Africa
 Consul Regulus defeated Carthaginians; they sought peace
o Regulus imposed such impossibly hard terms, Carthaginians decided to resume
hostilities
 Xanthippus, Spartan mercenary, then reorganised Carthaginian army
o Using cavalry and war elephants defeated Romans, captured Regulus
 Rome resumes hostilities in Sicily
o 254 took important city of Panormus, Carthaginians confined to west of island
o Held Drepana and Lilybaeum
 Rome encounters disasters at sea
o 253 lost 150 ships on route to Lilybaeum
o 250 consul Publius Clodius suffered severe naval defeat at Drepana
o 249 a fleet destroyed by a storm





247, new general Hamilcar Barca takes command in Sicily
Rome, in 242, by private funds built 200 vessels, and blockaded Liliybaeum and Drepena
Carthaginian relief fleet was destroyed
Carthage, cut off from supplies, forced to conclude peace in 241
Carthage surrendered remaining possessions in Sicily, islands between Sicily and Italy,
agreed to pay indemnity of 3,200 talents
 “Rome won the war not merely because of her characteristic tenacity and her superior
generalship, but largely because she could tap in Italy manpower reserves far more
numerous than those available to Carthage.”
o







Also Carthage found no defence against corvus
Carthaginian garrison in Sardinia revolted and asked Romans to take over; Rome
refused
Carthaginian force sent to recover Sardinia mutinied, joined rebellious garrison,
sent another appeal for Roman intervention
Roman Senate prepared to occupy the island
Carthage protested, began to prepare a new expedition against mutineers
Romans interpreted this as an act of hostility and declared war “perhaps did not
wish the Carthaginian recovery to proceed too far and mistrusted the ambitions and
influence of their old enemy Hamilcar.”
Carthage balked at the prospect and bought peace at price of Sardinia, Corsica and
1,200 talents
This unjustifiable act of the Romans caused much bitterness amongst the
Carthaginians.
Impact of Wars of Expansion: Roman Politics, Economy and Society
Second Punic War: Cause, Courses, Consequences
Second Punic War











Concerning Saguntum, “it seemed to Hannibal that Saguntum was about to become
another Messana, a Roman bridgehead in a Carthaginian sphere of influence.”
“he resolved to consolidate once and for all the Punic position in Spain.”
“he seems to have planned to break up the Roman federation in Italy.”
Hannibal’s army of 40,000. After Alps, reduced to 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, ⅓
of elephants
Army of 50,000 with Gallic and Celtic recruits
“Fabius recognised the superiority of Hannibal’s generalship, and of the Carthaginian
cavalry and consequently refused to be drawn into a general engagement.”
“about half of Rome’s allies in italy either defected to or were conquered by
Hannibal.”
“at Cannae, the consummate military genius of Hannibal was displayed”
Romans determined to continue their efforts to conquer Spain because it was a
recruiting ground for the Carthaginian armies and because the continuance of the
war there prevented reinforcements being sent to Hannibal in Italy.
Concerning the defeat of Hasdrubal and his reinforcements, “With this battle the
doom of Hannibal’s planes was sealed and with them the doom of Carthage.”
“Zama did not decide the outcome of the war, which Carthage had already lost, but
it did determine the kind of peace terms that Rome would impose on her defeated
enemy.
Impact of Second Punic War



“Left Rome mistress of the western Mediterranean and by far the greatest power of
the time.”
Deciding factors:
o “Roman command of the sea, which Carthage never challenged seriously.”
o “the larger citizen body of Rome and the basic friendliness between herself
and her federate allies.” Compared to Carthaginian mercenaries or subject
allies
o absence in the Roman commanders of the personal rivalries and lack of
cooperation which so greatly hampered the Carthaginians in Spain and Sicily
Romans overcame the disadvantage of annual change of commanders-in-chief
Ticinus
Trebia
Lake Trasimene
Cannae
Zama
Hamilcar Barca
Hannibal
Hasdrubal
Consequences of Punic Wars; Destruction of Carthage
Changes to Roman Land and Naval Warfare, Military recruitment
The Roman Army had to change in many ways to overcome the threat posed by Carthage,
and the wars in the North and East, during the period from 264-133BC. Explain the changes
to the Roman Army during this time.
Throughout the period 264-133 BC there was a number of changes to the Roman
army due to varying factors. One of the main influences was the ever increasing
expansionary nature of Rome. Rome began to be engaged in far more military
conflicts with its neighbouring nations and began to play an increasingly integral role
in the politics of the region. As the army was used to greater effect and in a variety of
differing circumstances, the Roman army began to evolve and grow. Rome began to
adopt weapons from different cultures
1. Tactics: Scipio and Fabius
One man that was instrumental in the change of the Roman army was Scipio
Africanus, one of the greatest Roman commanders of the ancient world.
2. Recruitment
WIth the military expansion of Rome, wars began to increase both in
number and in length. This required men to remain under arms for significantly
longer periods, unpopular with the farmer conscripts and other lower end
businessmen. Conscripts by law could not be required to serve more than 6 years
consecutively, creating problems for the army by forcing constant recruitment
of unprofessional citizen soldiers and by decreasing the manpower available to
be drawn upon . Following the destruction of the Roman Army at the Battle of
Cannae, Rome needed to find new manpower and an army. The Senate refused to
recall troops from Spain and also decided to continue the war effort. Livy states
that, “No other nation in the world would have suffered so tremendously a
series of disasters and not have been overwhelmed.” Rome, if it was to uphold
its military might needed to reconfigure its army. Although previously the most
appropriate volunteers were the proletarian class, with no farms to tend and
attracted by the prospect of booty and employment, they were unable to due to
the property and status requirements. This now began to change,and the property
requirement was lowered from 11,000 to 4,000 asses, and then later to only
1,500. ROme also reversed its principle and allowed criminals and slaves into
its army, as well as men as young as 17. It is believed that this began under
Scipio Africanus and was completed by the time Gaius Marius was consul.
3. Weapons, adaptability
One of Scipio’s contributions and indeed one of the main changes to
the army was the changing weapons and armour used. After observing the Gladius
Hispaniensis in Spain, Scipio decided to adapt the weapon into the Roman
legions. The gladius of this period was longer and heavier (60-68cm blade)
compared to the shorter (45-55cm) gladius used in the imperial time. Advantage of
the gladius was that it could be used for stabbing as well as slashing due the
double edges. As such it could be used by cavalry as well as infantry to
destructive effect. The pilum was a javelin that replaced the heavy thrusting
spear, hasta. It was over two metres tall and was thrown into the enemy. Due to
the nature of the pilum, upon impact it would bend, rendering it useless to the
enemy, or in the case of striking an enemy shield, would force the enemy to
discard the shield or waste time pulling the pilum from it. The lorica hamata,
or chain mail cuirass, was a new type of armour adopted by the Romans. Usually
made out of bronze or iron, it consisted of thousands of rings locked together,
that were a light form of armour for the protection it gave and also afforded
great mobility to the wearer. Thought to be adapted from the Celts, the lorica
hamata was standard issue by at least 122 BC.
4. Diversification of Army Structure
5. Proconsul and Propreator
Political Conditions and Problems in Rome and the Empire
Provincial Administration, Taxation, Tribute
1. Assess the role and impact of Roman leaders during the Second Punic War.
2. To what extent did the conquest of Greece have an impact on Rome during this
period?
3. To what extent was the growth of latifundia responsible for the economic and social
problems of Rome in the second century BC?
4. Assess the roles of Fabius Maximus and Scipio Africanus in the Second Punic War.
5. Why was there conflict between Rome and Carthage in this period?
6. Assess the consequences of the growth of empire on Roman social and political life
in this period.
7. To what extent was Rome responsible for the Punic Wars?
8. What economic and social changes took place in Rome and Italy during this period?
9. Assess the contributions of Fabius Maximus and Scipio Africanus to the course of the
Second Punic War
10. Why did Rome destroy Carthage in the Third Punic War?
11. Why did the Romans win the Second Punic War?
12. Analyse the effects of overseas expansion on Rome and Italy in this period.