HIGHER EDUCATION IN ARMENIA
DURING AND AFTER THE SOVIET ERA
Gegham Melkonyan
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2009
THESIS
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
EDUCATION
(Curriculum and Instruction)
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SUMMER
2011
HIGHER EDUCATION IN ARMENIA
DURING AND AFTER THE SOVIET ERA
A Thesis
by
Gegham Melkonyan
Approved by:
_____________________________________________, Committee Chair
Rita M. Johnson, Ed.D.
_____________________________________________, Second Reader
Daniel Orey, Ph.D.
_________________________________________
Date
ii
Student: Gegham Melkonyan
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this Thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library
and credit is to be awarded for the Thesis.
Rita M. Johnson, Department Chair
Date
Department of Teacher Education
iii
Abstract
of
HIGHER EDUCATION IN ARMENIA
DURING AND AFTER THE SOVIET ERA
by
Gegham Melkonyan
In the 20th century Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union. For 70 years,
Armenia operated within a socialistic higher education system. After the destruction of
the Soviet Union, the higher education system of Armenia changed. The purpose of
this study was to gather data about student views of the higher education system in
Armenia both during the Soviet era and after the Soviet era. To do this, the author
surveyed 24 students, 12 who studied during the Soviet era and 12 who studied after
the Soviet era. The responses were analyzed by group, looking at common themes and
as a whole, when comparing the two educational systems. Both qualitative and
quantitative analysis techniques were used.
The findings indicated that the strongest advantages during the Soviet era were
financial, with stipends awarded based on performance, job security, and prestige.
Disadvantages were linked to strong competition to get into programs, lack of choices
in fields of study, and loss of individual (Armenian) identity. The strongest advantages
iv
in the post-Soviet era were greater number of choices in courses of study,
opportunities to study abroad, and sense of personal/Armenian identity. The
disadvantages were lack of financial aid and ability to find employment. The results of
a t test for independent means on the ranking of the quality of the higher education
system during the Soviet era and after the Soviet era, was statistically significant, with
both groups ranking the Soviet era system as superior.
___________________________________________, Committee Chair
Rita M. Johnson, Ed.D.
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Rita Johnson for her
guidance and assistance in preparing this thesis. I sincerely appreciate her consistent
support and understanding throughout this whole process. I would like to thank all my
EDTE professors for their encouragement and support. I am also grateful to the
librarians who helped me with my research: Roz Van Auker and Bill Kristie. They
were extremely supportive and always wanted to know more about the topic I was
studying.
I would like to thank my wife and four angels who have supported me through
thick and thin and have always cheered me on. Also, I would like to thank my parents,
who have always wanted me to get a good education and fulfill my dreams. I will be
the first one in my family to acquire an MA degree.
And most importantly, I would like to thank almighty God for watching over
me and guiding me not only throughout this process, but throughout my whole life.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures............................................................................................................... x
Chapter
1.
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................. 3
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................... 3
Significance of the Study.................................................................................. 3
Methodology..................................................................................................... 4
Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 4
Limitations of the Thesis .................................................................................. 5
Organizing of the Study.................................................................................... 6
2.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ....................................................................... 7
Historical Introduction...................................................................................... 7
Armenia During the Soviet Union .................................................................... 9
The Transition of Armenian Higher Education System from
Socialistic to Capitalistic ................................................................................ 13
Armenia After the Soviet Union..................................................................... 15
Socialistic and Capitalistic Higher Education Systems .................................. 19
Summary......................................................................................................... 25
3.
METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 27
Sample ............................................................................................................ 27
Design of Study .............................................................................................. 27
Instrumentation ............................................................................................... 28
vii
Data Collection ............................................................................................... 28
Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................... 29
4.
FINDINGS .......................................................................................................... 30
Findings Analyzed by Student Group ............................................................ 30
Findings for the Group as a Whole: Common Themes .................................. 42
Analysis .......................................................................................................... 46
5.
DISCUSSION AND SIGNIFICANCE ............................................................... 48
Discussion....................................................................................................... 48
Recommendations .......................................................................................... 52
Appendix A. Consent Form ...................................................................................... 53
Appendix B. The Questionnaire ............................................................................... 57
References ................................................................................................................ 129
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Mechanical Engineering Course (Lecture Hours) .......................................... 22
2.
The Physics Course at Kharkov State University compared with
that at M.I.T. ................................................................................................... 23
3.
Three Advantages of Higher Education System in Armenia During
the Soviet Era ................................................................................................. 31
4.
Three Disadvantages of Higher Education System in Armenia During
the Soviet Era ................................................................................................. 31
5.
Three Advantages of Higher Education System in Armenia After
the Soviet Era ................................................................................................. 33
6.
Three Disadvantages of Higher Education System in Armenia After
the Soviet Era ................................................................................................. 33
7.
Advantages of Armenian Ph. D. Individuals to Stay in Armenia .................. 35
8.
Disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. Individuals to Stay in Armenia .............. 35
9.
Main Factors Which Played a Significant Role in the Transition
from Socialistic to Capitalistic in Armenia .................................................... 36
10.
Motivation Factors of Armenian Students to Get a Higher Education
During the Soviet Era ..................................................................................... 37
11.
Motivation Factors of Armenian Students to Get a Higher Education
After the Soviet Era ........................................................................................ 38
12.
Rankings of the Higher Education System in Armenia During the
Soviet Era ....................................................................................................... 39
13.
Rankings of the Higher Education System in Armenia After the
Soviet Era ....................................................................................................... 40
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1.
Boxplot of Changing Perceptions ................................................................... 41
x
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
They are raised in violence and nurtured in fear. Rarely have they seen periods of
tranquility. They have been conquered, persecuted, oppressed, massacred, and exiled.
They have seen their children slaughtered, their properties confiscated, and their
churches burned. They have tried to worship their God but have been prevented to do
so most of the time. They have tried to create a homeland but have been prevented to
live there in peace. They have written books but the books were burned before they
were read.
John M. Douglas, The Armenians
The Armenians are a part of an ancient civilization that had a widespread
kingdom ruled by kings, queens, and royal dynasties. The first Armenian kingdom was
established by the descendents of Aram the Brave and Haig the forefather in the third
millennium BC. The Armenian empire was at its greatest under King Tigran II the
Great (Hye Etch, 2004.) Throughout history, this widespread territory has been
condensed to modern day Armenia which is mostly comprised of rocky terrain.
According to legend, Armenians came to God and asked why they received that rocky
land. The legend does not explain God’s answer, but the Armenians were able to use
the land to express all their dreams and eventually gained recognition by it. That is the
reason why they say “Armenians squeeze bread out of stone” (Shakhkian, 1989).
The purpose of the study is to showcase two educational frameworks in the
higher education system in Armenia. First, inform educators about socialist education
in Armenia during the Soviet era, and then trace its development after the Soviet era.
Education in Armenia has long been regarded as a vital part of the nation’s
identity and heritage. An ancient culture and mountainous land, Armenia was located
2
at the center of what has been called the “cradle of civilization” between Eastern and
Western civilizations. Unfortunately, because Armenia was situated between these two
civilizations, the country was continually caught in the turmoil of war.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Armenia became a part of the Soviet
Union. For the next 70 years, Armenia operated within a socialistic higher educational
system. The socialistic higher education in Armenia provided free higher education for
all citizens of Armenia. Higher education students received a stipend for their studies
during the Soviet era, with better grades providing higher stipends. Soviet tertiary
education was under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher and Specialized
Secondary Education. The Ministry was responsible for all curricula, syllabi,
textbooks, and entrance examination requirements (Zajda, 1980). This was the only
the higher educational system in Armenia during the Soviet era until the political
changes in Nagorno-Karabagh, the south of the Soviet Union.
Nagorno-Karabagh (Christians), a part of Armenia, was separated physically
from Armenia during the years before 1924. The Soviet Union created the NagornoKarabagh (94% of the population was Armenian at that time) as the Autonomous
Region within Azerbaijan (Muslim country) in 1924. The Armenian population living
within Nagorno-Karabagh faced several types of discrimination including, religious,
social, physical, and political. However, when Mikhail Gorbachev (the First Secretary
of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) brought the idea of glasnost and
perestroika into the political atmosphere, Armenians in Nagorno-Karabagh felt that an
opportunity had arisen to reunite the separated Nagorno-Karabagh back with Armenia
3
(Tchilingirian, 1999). In the late 1980s, Armenian people in Nagorno-Karabagh
started a political movement which contributed to the destruction of the Soviet Union
and the transition of the higher education system in Armenia from socialistic to
capitalistic.
Statement of the Problem
Due to this political change, higher education in Armenia is at a crossroad.
How do current and past students view the changing educational system? The new
capitalistic higher education system is fairly young. The long-term effects of the
capitalist system cannot be examined as it has not yet fully developed. This new
system is greatly influenced by the economy, conflict, and funding. However, it is
important to study the perspectives current students have about the new system in its
evolution compared to the perspectives of past students during the Soviet era.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study is to explore the socialist and capitalist
higher educational systems that have existed in Armenia and examine the transition
between them from the perspective of current and past students.
Significance of the Study
Understanding other educational systems can stimulate ideas and may lead to
change. An aspect of this study is to provide an alternative perspective that American
educators can use to learn and compare their educational system to.
4
Methodology
The author used a comparative approach to show the benefits and weaknesses
of socialist and capitalistic educational structures. The analytical part of the author’s
study required a survey with quantitative, descriptive, and demographic data, such as
interviewing Armenian people who live in Armenia and outside of Armenia. The data
was collected by sending electronic mail with questionnaires to Armenian universities
and educational institutions. In addition, several interviews were conducted with
respondents from different generations.
Definition of Terms
The definition of terms is presented so that the reader is clear as to the concise
meaning of vocabulary used in this study.
Aram the Brave: A very proud and brave man, the person who established the
first Armenian Kingdom (Hye Etch, 2004).
Armenia: A country is defined by a number of natural boundaries. The Kur
(Kura) and Arax (Araxes) Rivers separate the Armenian highlands in the east from the
lowlands that adjoin the Caspian Sea. The Pontus Mountains, which connect to the
Lesser Caucasus mountain chain, separate Armenia from the Black Sea and Georgia
and form the northern boundary. The Taurus Mountains, which join the upper Zagros
Mountains and the Iranian Plateau, form the southern boundary of Armenia and
separate it from Syria, Kurdistan, and Iran. The western boundary of Armenia has
generally between the western Euphrates River and the northern stretch of the AntiTaurus Mountains. Armenians also established communities east of the Kur, as far as
5
the Caspian Sea, and states west of the Euphrates, as far as Cilicia, on the
Mediterranean Sea (Bournoutian, 2003).
Haig the forefather: The person who established the first Armenian Kingdom
(Hye Etch, 2004).
Karahundj: Carahunge or Karahundj, Zorakarer is 3,500 years older than
England’s Stonehenge and 3,000 years older than the Egyptian pyramids. The total
area of the observatory is 7 hectares. According to the scientist’s findings, a temple
consisting of 40 stones built in honor of the Armenians’ main God, Ari, meaning the
Sun, is situated in the central part of Carahunge (Shakhkian, 1989).
Mesrop Mashtots: The creator of the Armenian alphabet
Socialistic higher education system: Education system with all services free of
charge to the user, the government provided the fees necessary for its citizens to attend
school. Moreover, the student would get a stipend every month during their studies
(Perkins & Yemstov, 2001).
Tigran II the Great: The king of Armenia under whom the Armenian empire
was at its greatest (Hye Etch, 2004).
Limitations of the Thesis
This study on higher educational systems in Armenia is limited by a small
number of published and accessible peer reviewed articles and small sample size of
current and past Armenian students. There may be some communication problems
with people who live overseas due to poor phone connection, unwillingness to
cooperate, delayed response, and time difference. In addition, there will be instances
6
where people refuse to respond because they may view the interview as unpatriotic to
Armenia.
Organizing of the Study
Chapter 1 is an introduction to the study including the statement of the
problem, purpose of the study, the significance of the study, the definitions of terms,
the limitations of the study, and the organization of the thesis.
Chapter 2 is the Review of Literature which will occasionally explore
historical events in order to fully understand the situations surrounding the change
from socialist to capitalist society and how it impacts student perspectives of higher
education.
Chapter 3 describes the methodology used in this study.
Chapter 4 presents data analysis and findings.
Chapter 5 will discuss the significance and recommendations of this study.
7
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
If I am asked where the place is on the earth that one can come cross many miracles, I
would name Armenia. Involuntarily you are surprised that in such a small place on the
earth it is possible to meet such monuments and such people, who can be the
ornaments and pride of the whole world.
Rockwell Kent, an American painter and writer
Historical Introduction
Armenia is in an exceptional location because it is on a mountainous plateau
that averages about 3,000 to 7,000 feet above sea level. Armenian land stretches to the
Anatolian plateau in the west, all the way to the Iranian plateau in the southwest. At
the same time it covers the plains of the South Caucasus in the north, and the
Karadagh Mountains and the Moghan Steppe in the south and the southeast. Presently,
the most of historic Armenia is composed of eastern Turkey, and parts of Iran,
Azerbaijan, and Georgian Republic. Also, it covers the entire territory of the Armenian
Republic (Bournoutian, 2003).
Hayastan, the land of the Armenians, is widely known for the Garden of Eden.
In Genesis 8:4, Noah’s Ark landed “upon the mountains” of Ararat. Mount Ararat
marks the epicenter of Armenians’ country and is also a symbol of their national
aspiration. There was only one time where Armenia was ruled by one person in a
united kingdom. This person was Tigran the Great who ruled in the first century B.C.
(Nalbandian, 1963). Hoping to secure the Armenization of the country, the Armenian
leaders made a goal to create an Armenian alphabet and to promote Armenian
8
literature. One major result of this was the fifth-century golden age of literature
(Nalbandian, 1963).
“King Vramshapuh (392-414) cooperated with Catholicos Sahak I and a monk,
Mesrop Mashtots, in bringing about the literacy renaissance. Mesrop, after years of
research, devised the Armenian alphabet in 404” (Nalbandian, 1963, p. 11). Multiple
schools initially were established after the clergyman Mesrop Mashtots created the
original Armenian alphabet of 36 letters (three more were added later on) in 404 A.D.
It is said that “The first sentence written in Armenian was ‘To know wisdom and gain
instruction; to discern the words of understanding…’” (Language and Literature, n.
d.). Furthermore,
Education has traditionally played a central role in Armenia, and it has
a long history, perhaps beginning in a formal sense as far back as the
early Bronze Age, when the stone observatory and ‘university’ at
Karahundj was constructed. The first universities in Asia Minor
appeared in Armenia at Ani, Tatev and Gladzor, along with academies
attached to monasteries throughout the kingdom. The universities held
a central role in furthering the sciences and arts during the medieval
period, and are considered the earliest emulators of the Renaissance in
Europe. (Education, 2009, para 1)
Several of students of Sahak and Mesrop got their higher education in the West and
came back to Armenia with a passion to continue the interests of their native land. In
the nineteenth century, a movement like that was to occur when students in western
9
institutions came back to their homeland and labored toward its enlightenment
(Nalbandian, 1963).
Armenia, having a very important geographic location because many major
trade routes travel through it, was invaded by many nations (Mongols, Seljuk,
Persians, Turkish, etc.) and lost its independence in the 11th century. Living under the
control of other nations (non Christians), Armenians, the first nation who accepted
Christianity as a state religion at the beginning of the fourth century, never converted
their faith (Bethell & Harutyunyan, 2008). Nevertheless, time and historical
circumstances were working against Armenians especially when Turks invaded
Armenia. The culmination was on April 24th in 1915 when Turkish government
committed genocide by killing more than one million innocent Armenians in West
Armenia. Armenians understood either Europe or Russia would not help them.
Realizing that there was no hope for Eastern Armenians but as an independent state,
the Armenian National Council (1917), which was acting as a government for
Armenians, made a declaration of independence on May 28, 1918 (Walker, 1981).
Eastern Armenia stayed as an independent country for about two years until it was
invaded by the Russian Red Army in 1920. Eastern Armenia then became a part of the
Soviet Union until 1991.
Armenia During the Soviet Union
Government and Welfare – Soviet Era
At the beginning of the 20th century, Armenia became a republic within the
Soviet Union. In other words, the political establishment was taken over by the Soviet
10
Union. The governing power of the Soviet Union was divided into entities, namely the
Council of Nationalities and the Council of the Union. These two entities were
controlled by the Supreme Soviet, the highest council of the Soviet Union. Council of
Nationalities and the council of the union had equal rights and both initiated
legislation from Communist party policy which played a leading role in government.
The leader of the Supreme Soviet was the Presidium who was elected by popular vote.
All citizens 18 or over were required to vote in the Soviet Union (The Europa Year
Book, 1964).
One of the Presidium’s duties was providing social programs for its citizens.
According to the Europa Year Book, the Social Insurance Fund is administered by the
Trade Unions and financed by industry. The unions also provide camps and sanatoria
with only nominal fees. Medical treatment is free. Apart from a complete range of
social security benefits, half pay pensions are paid to retired women at 55 and men at
60 (1964). Education was a part of social programs in the Soviet Union.
Higher Education – Soviet Era
For over 70 years from 1920 to 1991, Armenia operated within a socialistic
higher education system. In March of 2001, World Bank officials stated that “During
the Soviet era, Armenia’s education system was comprehensive and generously
provisioned, with virtually all services free of charge to the user” (Perkins & Yemstov,
2001, p. 6). The government provided the fees necessary for its citizens to attend
school. This access to education was beneficial to everyone in Armenia. Free
education was also supported by the fact that “at the end of the 1980s, almost 8% of
11
the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was spent on education, amounting to the
equivalent of $292 per capita” (Perkins & Yemstov, 2001, p. 6).
Entry Examinations and a Structure of Higher Educational System – Soviet Era
Armenia has always placed a high emphasis on the importance of education.
For that matter, “higher education is widespread throughout Armenia, with the nation
ranking first in educational attainment in the 1989 general census of the former Soviet
Union” (Vartanian & Torosyan, 2002, p. 50). During the Soviet era, students wishing
to enter the university had to take a three-week entrance examination that included,
but was not limited to, physics (written), math (written), math (oral), and language
(composition). The majority of universities provided an opportunity for entry for
students with a GPA of 4.5 (out of 5.0) or higher after two successful exams (a total of
nine or ten points) instead of four or five exams. Moreover, for those who held gold
medals for their academic excellence needed to pass only one examination (Zajda,
1980). These entrance examinations took place in August and mirrored how
universities structured their own final assessments of students during the school year.
The students had to choose only their major; they did not do anything with
registration, class schedule, choose a professor, or see a counselor. Everything would
be decided for the students by the administration after the students had chosen a major
and passed the entry examinations.
During the semester there were no examinations. There were minor
assignments at school and formal homework assignments during the semester which
were graded for credit. The grade of a student depended on how they passed the final
12
exam at the end of semester. After selecting a unique exam question, students were
allowed time to formulate their answers without the help of notes or texts. When
students felt ready, they would approach the panel of two faculty members to orally
present the answer. If the student received a score of “2” or less, which meant failure,
there would be two more opportunities to pass after a specified period of time of selfstudy (Hanesian, 1984). This was the structure of getting higher education in Armenia
during the Soviet era. This structure influenced not only the academic aspect but also
the social aspect of the higher education in the area of financial aid.
Financial Aid – Soviet Era
In addition to all services being free of charge to the user, there was financial
aid, which was a stipend, for every student. It was a different structure of opportunity
to get financial aid. Students were automatically enrolled in financial aid after they
passed the government’s entry examinations.
Stipends – Soviet Era
During the Soviet era, grades were based on a one to five grading scale: five –
excellent, four – good, three – satisfactory, two – poor, and one – very poor
(Medynsky, 1944). To get a passing grade in a class, a student would have to get a
three or above. There was a linear correlation between a student’s grades and their
stipend. If a student was getting fours and fives in their studies, they would get a
stipend that was 15% more than the average student. If a student was getting all fives
in their studies, they would get a stipend that was 25% more (Tomiak, 1972). If a
student was getting all fives for the span of two years, the stipend of that student
13
would have been double the normal amount of 40 rubles ($58). At 80 rubles ($116) a
month, it was more than the minimum basic wage in the Soviet Union in 1971 (70
rubles), and the average wage of workers was 120 rubles (Zajda, 1980, p. 96). This
was the financial structure of the higher educational system in Armenia during the
Soviet era. This would benefit anyone who successfully passed the entry exams.
However, the process of getting higher degree, especially Doctoral, was a little
different.
Doctoral Program – Soviet Era
During the Soviet era, Armenia had its own doctoral programs. However, to
obtain a doctoral degree in the two main Russian cities: Moscow and Leningrad (St.
Petersburg) carried a higher prestige. This essentially funneled some of the brightest
minds of Armenia into the Russian workforce because doctoral candidates usually
stayed in these two cities after graduation.
The Transition of Armenian Higher Education System from Socialistic to
Capitalistic
To understand the major changes with the education system in Armenia, it is
necessary to address the causes of these changes. The most evident factor that caused
the transition was the collapse of the Soviet Union, however, within the collapse
several incidents led up to the disintegration. At the beginning of the 20th century “the
Soviet Union created the Nagorno-Karabagh Autonomous Region (NKAR) within
Azerbaijan in 1924, when over 94 percent of the region’s population was Armenian”
(Pike, 2005, para 2).
14
Disagreeing with the absorption of Karabagh into Soviet Azerbaijan, Soviet
Armenia repeatedly questioned the enclave’s status in 1929, 1935, 1963, 1966, 1977
and 1987 (Ghaplanyan, 2009). “By this time, the autonomy of Nagorno-Karabagh had
been highly restricted, and deteriorating socioeconomic conditions combined with
Azerbaijan’s insensitive cultural policy which discriminated against Armenians and
favored Azerbaijanis in the NKAR” (Fraser, Hipel, Jaworsky, & Zuljan, 1990, pp.
656-657).
After six decades of persecution and prejudice, the Armenian people in
Nagorno-Karabagh decided to rejoin the mother land, Armenia. On February 20, 1988,
Armenian deputies to the National Council of Nagorno-Karabagh voted to unify
Nagorno-Karabagh with Armenia. This act triggered an Azerbaijani massacre of more
than 100 Armenians in Sumgait, one of the largest cities of Azerbaijan (Pike, 2005).
After a couple of days, Armenians in Armenia petitioned the Russian government to
stop the genocide. When the Russian government refused to intervene, Azerbaijan
started to bomb Nagorno-Karabagh and Armenian borders with deadly Grad missiles.
The daily bombardment resulted in thousands of military and civilian causalities and
mass property destruction (Kuntzsch, 2009). Throughout the whole dispute, the
Russian government was silent and unresponsive. As a result, “on September 21,
1991, the Armenian parliament by a vote of 213 to 0 declared itself a sovereign state
outside the Soviet Union. On September 23, a new Armenian republic was born”
(Bournoutian, 1994, p.175).
15
Armenia After the Soviet Union
Government and Welfare – Post Soviet Era
The year of 1988 had a major impact on Armenian history. It was the
beginning of the process of political democratization in Armenia which played an
important role of the collapse of Soviet era. It is important to mention that the
Armenian struggle over Nagorno-Karabagh played a crucial role in the collapse of the
Soviet Union (Rutland, 1994). By 1990, the creation of an independent Armenian state
had really begun. Armenians tried to eradicate all relationships with the previous
political system. On July 5, 1995, Armenian citizens voted to adopt a constitution of
the Republic of Armenia, which provided civil rights, democratic institutions, free
medical services, and the creation of a market economy to ensure the stability of
Armenia. One of the most important social agendas was the creation of a strong
educational system, from primary school through university.
Unfortunately however, the year of 1988 was not all about the beginning of the
process of the independence of Armenia. On December 7, 1988 at 11:41am a tragic
earthquake hit the country of Armenia. It caused 25,000 deaths and 8,500 million
rubles ($12.3 billion) worth of damage. The enduring economic impact of the
earthquake was felt throughout the 1990s, as much of Armenia’s money went to
caring for the victims and rebuilding the country, leaving less which could be spent in
trying to build a strong educational infrastructure to replace that which operated
during the Soviet era.
16
Higher Education – Post Soviet Era
According to a publication by the National Tempus Office in Armenia there
are 20 state universities in the capital while there are 14 branches of those universities
in other cities. In spite of state universities, Armenia also has 33 private universities
along with a few international private universities totaling 72 higher education
institutions. States universities have two categories of students: state-ordered and feepaying students while private universities are completely based on tuition fees. There
are currently 61,000 students in state universities and 15,000 in private institutions.
(Armenia: Focus on the Higher Education Sphere, 2007).
An example of a state university in Armenia is the State Engineering
University of Armenia (SEUA) which was founded in 1933 and is the leader of the
national technological education in Armenia. SEUA, which was previously known as
Yerevan Polytechnic Institute, has had over 100,000 graduates. Today the SEUA is
still one the best universities with 1,000 full-time faculty members (most of them with
doctoral degrees) and over 11,000 students. Today, the SEUA offers 105 majors for
the Bachelor of Engineering, 19 majors for Master of Engineering Degree, and 34
majors for the Doctorial degree. The SEUA has three branch campuses in three other
cities of Armenia: Gyumri, Vanadzor, and Kapan (Engineering University).
Along with the political changes that happened in 1995, Armenia was able to
connect itself with the Trans-European Mobility Programme for University Studies
(TEMPUS). By being part of TEMPUS, Armenia was able to participate in 32 big
projects, 60 individual mobility grants, and develop its higher level education in
17
accordance to western standards that can facilitate the transfer of credits among other
improvements that can lead to the integration of Armenia into European countries
(Armenia: Focus on the Higher Education Sphere, 2007).
As mentioned, during the Soviet era all education services were free. This
included the cost of textbooks for each student. However, after the economic
downturn caused by the independence of Armenia, the parents became responsible for
the costs for textbooks. The textbooks could cost up to $40 which was about two
months salary of the average teacher (Perkins & Yemstov, 2001). This meant that on
top of a shift for families to fund tuition costs privately, parents also had to take into
account the cost of textbooks. These changes were not the only ones that occurred
after the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan. It also influenced the structure of
how universities used and implemented examinations.
Entry Examinations and a Structure of Higher Educational System – Post Soviet
Era
The methods of examinations were modified after the Republic of Armenia
was established. Students of modern-day Armenia still take the three-week entrance
examinations to enter into university; however there is no longer a benefit to obtaining
a perfect score on the exam. In 2005, the Ministry of Education and Science decided to
change these regulations in order to be fair to all students (Bethell & Harutyunyan,
2008). The structure of how universities assess their students during the school year
has changed from having to take a single final exam at the end of semester which
determined the final grade, to having students take a series of minor exams three or
18
four weeks into the course. If the students are satisfied with the grades received on the
minor exams, the final exam will not be cumulative but rather only test for the
materials covered since the last minor exam. If, however, students are unsatisfied or
want to improve their minor exam scores, they can request to retake the portion they
wish to improve during the final exam. This provides students who are in danger of
losing their stipends or financial aid with an opportunity to improve their grades.
Financial Aid – Post Soviet Era
Before the conflict with Azerbaijan all services were free and the GDP was
8%. However, after the conflict,
Armenia experienced one of the sharpest economic crises within the
region following the breakup of the Soviet Union. The GDP collapsed
by an estimated 70%, while the share spent on public education has
been reduced to just over 2%. The current level of public funding to the
sector is in the region of $33 (PPP equivalent) per capita. (Perkins &
Yemstov, 2001, p. 6)
As a result of this change in public funding, there have been significant rises in private
tuition fees. Sixty to seventy percent of students currently enrolled in universities are
privately paying for their tuition (Armenia: Focus on Higher Education, November
2007). These changes in public funding have made higher education more competitive
due to the fact that not everyone is able to pay private tuition costs. Students who wish
to have their tuition fees waived must pass the entry examinations with extremely high
scores. For example, “With annual tuition in some specialized departments running as
19
high as $1500 USD, … Recipients are reevaluated annually and are only able to
continue studying under scholarship if they display academic excellence” (Vartanian
& Torosyan, 2002). High grades also determine whether or not a student will be able
to receive a stipend.
Stipends – Post Soviet Era
In contrast, because there are fewer funds being received from Russia postwar, students now compete for scholarships and receive monthly stipends based on
educational merit. Only students of merit receive at most a stipend of 5,000 Armenian
Drams ($10 – $15) or 6000 Drams ($12 - $18) based on their grades and individual
standings compared to the rest of the class. Good grades are necessary; otherwise a
student will lose the stipend and the status of being free from high tuition (Bethell &
Harutyunyan, 2008).
Doctoral Program – Post Soviet Era
After the Soviet era, Armenia has begun additional doctoral programs which
have enabled students increased opportunities to study in the field of their choice. The
feeling is that Armenia needs highly educated people now more than ever, and the
country wants to encourage the brightest minds of Armenia to stay and work for the
prosperity of their independent country.
Socialistic and Capitalistic Higher Education Systems
In order to understand the comparison between a socialist education system
and a capitalist education system one needs to understand the philosophy behind each
of them.
20
During the aftermath of the U.S.S.R launching its first satellite, American
educators became interested in the education of the Soviet people (Bockris, 1958).
Many studies were published examining the ways in which the Soviet Union educated
its people.
In 1956, Bockris visited the Soviet Union and was able see firsthand the
educational policies governing a socialistic education system. Differences between the
two educational systems appeared starting from the selection of students to attend the
university. The article Bockris published stated that,
In the United States, going to the university is considered to be a helpful
experience primarily for the student, and, therefore, each and every student
shall be encouraged to go there ‘if possible.’ In the U.S.S.R., sending students
to the university is considered to be necessary primarily for the country as a
whole. Hence, arrangements are made to pick for higher education (a) only
those students whose services will be needed; and (b) only those whose
abilities promise to make the investment to be made in them a good one.
(1958, p. 22)
The manner in which each educational system selects its students reflects the
way the government sees its people. In the capitalistic system, a student has a choice
of applying to and attending a variety of universities, and generally must pay for it on
their own. Therefore, education is encouraged if the student has the means to partake
in it. However, in the socialistic system, students are seen as an investment for the
good of the country. In this aspect, the government sees each student as an investment
21
and will continue to support only those who show the most merit and could possibly
return the investment by being beneficial to the country. For that matter, the
capitalistic and socialistic education systems have different manners in selecting the
students that attend higher education institutions.
Students going into the university system in the U.S.S.R. have already had to
have extensive training within their field of study and show their capabilities before
even entering into the university system (Bockris 1958). In comparison, students
studying in a capitalistic system will not be required to demonstrate their proficiency
in subject matter as much as their socialistic counterparts. Part of the reason why
Soviet students are being pushed so hard is the fact that the student in a socialistic
education has won his place to study and is also being paid by the government to
study. Yet, the government will only continue to pay the student to study if the student
retains a “satisfactory” level. Moreover, Socialistic students have an added incentive
to do well because of the prestige, social uplift and financial status a successful
education can bring to the student.
In comparison, students studying under a capitalistic education may not have
as many factors riding on their ability to do well in school. For that matter, “the
Russian can be pushed much harder in his courses (both by reason of his earlier
preparation and because of the comparatively greater tangible rewards offered him)
than the American” (Bockris, 1958, p. 24). The discrepancy in each system’s
education is further witnessed in the classes required for a degree.
22
In Table 1, coursework required for a student seeking a Mechanical
Engineering degree at the Baumann Higher Technical School in Moscow and a
student seeking the same degree at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
Cambridge is compared.
Table 1
Mechanical Engineering Course (Lecture Hours)
Summary
B.H.T.S
Number of years for course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Weeks of class instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Scheduled class hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4848
Industrial practice, weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
M.I.T
4
120
2610
0
It is clear by looking at the table that students studying in a socialistic
educational system are required to study longer hours and thus take a longer time to
complete their degree. In Table 2, a more detailed comparison is given about the
classes each student is required to take in order to obtain a degree in science in the
socialistic and capitalistic system.
23
Table 2
The Physics Course at Kharkov State University compared with that at M.I.T.
Subject
Higher Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemistry
........................
Physics
. .......................
Extra Physics (subjects at choice) . . . . . . . . .
Electronics
........................
Electrodynamics
..................
Electric circuit theory
............
Marxism – Leninism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Political economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drafting
......................
Foreign Language
................
Pedagogy
......................
Methodology of teaching physics
....
Physical Training
................
Humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Military science
................
Freshman elective
................
TOTAL HOURS IN COURSE . . .
HOURS SPENT ON PHYSICS, MATHS
AND CHEMISTRY . . . . . . . . . .
K.S.U
584
100
1560
804
36
120
0
250
140
140
52
240
68
60
136
0
0
0
_____
4290
3356
Lecture Hours
M.I.T
270
225
870
300
105
0
60
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
360
180
45
_____
2415
1830
There are several areas that an education in the socialistic system requires
students to study that its capitalistic counterpart does not require. For example,
students studying in a socialistic education are required to study Marxism – Leninism,
foreign language, and pedagogy in addition to the physics course laid out by the
university. In comparison, although the capitalistic education system does not require
students to study Marxism - Leninism, foreign language, or pedagogy, it does require
24
students to study humanities, military science and freshmen electives which the
socialistic system does not require.
Furthermore, the two education systems highlight the distinct approaches to
knowledge. As Bockris states,
Another, less tangible, influence on the Soviet science student, which
must be taken into account in considering his curriculum, is that the
distinction between the ‘applied’ and ‘fundamental,’ which is strongly
present in United States education (and which the United States student
sometimes associates with the connotations: ‘useful’ and ‘not so
useful’), is made less sharply in Soviet education, where it is stressed
that the applied always arises from the fundamental knowledge. (1958,
p. 24)
This distinction can be seen in Table 1 where students at the Baumann Higher
Technical School in Moscow are required to have completed 24 weeks of Industrial
practice whereas students at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge are
not. Similarly, during the last semester of their undergraduate education, Soviet
students are given free rein to design and complete a research with a collaborating
professor. This latitude to explore a certain topic allows professors to determine how
well a student can apply his knowledge to original work which is useful later on when
professors have to determine if the student will be a good researcher for the country
(Bockris, 1958).
25
Summary
This historical event (Sputnik, 1957) showed the Soviet Union had a very
competitive higher educational system. Although there were significant improvements
to science education in the West at the time, the Sputnik incident “brought the reform
efforts to fruition” (Bybee, 2007). As a result, Americans started to pay more attention
to the field of science education.
Higher education in the Soviet era is very detail oriented and is a strict step-bystep learning process specially designed for the students’ majors. The student’s field of
study is referred to as their “specialty.” Students choose their specialty at the time they
apply for admission into the institution. Once they are accepted into the university,
they follow a specifically designed program for their specialty. Professional
specialization in the Soviet Union is far better than anywhere else in the world. In the
conclusion to the Bockris article, the author hoped to deliver the idea that scientists
coming out of a socialistic education are “at the very least, no less well trained than
their opposite numbers in the United States” (1958, p. 28).
There have been many changes in the higher education system of Armenia
before and after the Soviet era. Due to economic issues, students no longer have free
education. Students now compete for scholarships or pay for their tuition. They also
face changes in the way they are assessed. But most importantly, Armenian officials
had a chance to develop opportunities to provide higher levels of education during and
after the Soviet era. Nevertheless, throughout these changes, Armenians have
maintained a strong belief in their education system and pursuit of knowledge. Since
26
Armenia has experienced two different educational systems under two different
government philosophies, by interviewing educated Armenians, it will be interesting
to interview students who have studied under each structure and examine their
perspectives.
27
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Sample
The sample of this study was selected from a population of former and current
students who have attended universities in Armenia and currently reside in Armenia,
the United States, Russia, or Canada. To gather the data, the author of the study
contacted church members, university students and past classmates to determine
availability of participants then asked for volunteers to take part in the study.
The sample size totaled 24: twelve Armenians who studied in local universities
during the Soviet era (graduating from 1975 to 1991) and twelve Armenians who
studied in local universities after the Soviet era (graduating from 1994 to 2010). Out of
the 12 participants who studied during the Soviet era, six were males and six were
females. Out of the other 12 participants who studied after the Soviet era, five were
males and seven were females. Participants who studied during the Soviet era were
between the ages of 42 and 54 while participants who studied after the Soviet era were
between the ages of 22 and 40.
Design of Study
To describe two major educational systems, socialistic (during the Soviet era)
and capitalistic (after the Soviet era), the author used a comparative approach asking
participants to list the benefits and drawbacks of these educational structures. The
analytical part of the study is a consisted survey that used quantitative and descriptive
data. The survey had six open-ended questions and a final numerical ranking question.
28
The survey was written in English and was translated into Armenian and Russian. The
data was collected by electronically by e-mail. To supplement the data, the author also
conducted face-to-face, telephone, and skype interviews to clarify ambiguous answers
and collect follow-up information. All interviews were conducted between the spring
2010 and 2011.
Instrumentation
The survey instrument was a questionnaire which sent to all participants. It had
seven questions that explored the student’s thoughts, understanding, and perspectives
of Armenian higher education (see Appendix B). The first language of the participants
was considered when sending out the questionnaire; however the participants had a
choice of a language they used for their response. Some participants chose to answer
in the language they received their education in and some chose to answer in the
language they were comfortable with.
Data Collection
Prior to collecting all data, the author of the study first contacted possible
participants to determine their availability to be part of the study. In order to
participate they were asked to sign a consent form in English, Armenian, or Russian
which asked for demographic information and inform them about the confidentiality
of their response (see Appendix A.). When the author received the completed
questionnaires, the consent form and the questionnaire were filed separately to
maintain the confidentiality of the participants.
29
Data Analysis Procedures
The questionnaires received by the author were coded and analyzed. The initial
coding was categorized by the labeling the student as After Soviet Era (ASE) or
During Soviet Era (DSE) followed by a number (one to twelve, representing each
individual student). For instance, students who attended higher-level education in
Armenia before 1991, during the Soviet era, had their questionnaires coded DSE 01 to
DSE 12. Similarly, students who were educated in Armenia after 1991 had their
questionnaires coded ASE 01 to ASE 12.
After receiving and reviewing the questionnaires, the author grouped the
respondents by category (DSE, ASE) and began an analysis looking for common
themes. The author then organized the initial conclusions into themes so that a
comparison was made between the educational systems. For the final question, which
required a numerical ranking, the author used a t-test for independent means to
analyze the data. Chapter four will review and discuss each question, with an analysis
sorted by both group (DSE, ASE) and by theme.
30
Chapter 4
FINDINGS
This study was conducted with a total of 24 participants, 12 who studied
during the Soviet era and 12 who studied after the Soviet era. Both qualitative and
quantitative analyses were used in the analysis (see Individual surveys in Appendix
B). The first section of the data analysis reports the results categorized by student
group, those who studied during the Soviet era and those who studied after the Soviet
era. The responses to the first six questions were categorized by theme, with the data
placed into tables. The responses for seventh question, which was a numerical ranking,
were analyzed by using a t-test independent means.
The second section of Chapter 4 examines the responses for the group of 24
students as a whole, looking for common themes.
Findings Analyzed by Student Group
Question 1
Question 1 asked: Please, list three advantages and disadvantages of higher
education system in Armenia during the Soviet era. Tables 3 and 4 below show the
results for Question 1, grouped by theme.
31
Table 3
Three Advantages of Higher Education System in Armenia During the Soviet Era
Factors
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
Free Education
9
7
Guaranteed Employment
8
6
Organization of Higher Education
3
2
Financial Aid (Stipend)
6
3
Well-Organized Curriculum
6
2
Discipline
1
1
Further Development in Field in Russia
1
2
Free Supplies (Books)
2
2
Motivation
1
0
Free Dormitories
1
1
No Debt
0
1
No Response
0
2
Table 4
Three Disadvantages of Higher Education System in Armenia During the Soviet Era
Main Factors
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Space Limitation
5
2
Inability to Choose One's Own Courses
2
2
Strict Subject Schedule
4
0
Traditional Approach to Classroom Methodology
1
1
Heavy Emphasis on Theory
1
1
Inability to Study Abroad
2
4
Lack of Religious Expression
2
0
Lack of Resources in Own Language
4
4
Inability to Follow Current Technology
3
1
No Response
0
2
32
In Question 1, the main advantages for the students who studied during the
Soviet were free education, guaranteed employment, financial aid, and well organized
curriculum. Students who studied after the Soviet era thought the main advantages
were free education, guaranteed employment, and financial aid. When analyzed as a
group of 24, the majority of the respondents agreed that the advantages of the higher
education system in Armenia during the Soviet era were free education to all ranks of
society, guaranteed employment after graduation, financial aid (stipend), well
organized curriculum, and the organization of higher education. Also, some of the
respondents mentioned free supplies, further development in their chosen field in
Russia, free dormitories, and discipline.
With regard to the disadvantages during the Soviet era, the students who
studied during the Soviet era listed space limitation, strict subject schedule, lack of
recourses in own language, and inability to follow current technology. The students
who studied after the Soviet era had slightly different ideas, citing inability to study
abroad, lack of resources in own language, space limitation, and inability to choose
one’s own courses.
The majority of the respondents agreed that the disadvantages of the higher
education system in Armenia during the Soviet era were competition among students
due to limitation of spaces available per subject or concentration, lack of resources in
own language, inability to study abroad, the inability to choose one’s own subject
courses or instructors, strict subject schedule, and inability to follow current
33
technology. Also, some of the participants mentioned traditional approach to
classroom methodology, heavy emphasis on theory, and lack of religious expression.
Question 2
Question 2 asked: Please, list three advantages and disadvantages of higher
education system in Armenia after the Soviet era. Tables 5 and 6 show the results for
Question 2, grouped by theme.
Table 5
Three Advantages of Higher Education System in Armenia After the Soviet Era
Main Factors
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Free Nation without Dictation from Russia
1
2
Opportunities to Study Abroad
5
5
Development of Technology
1
2
Diverse Curriculum
4
3
Ability to Apply to Various Universities
3
2
Ability to Study in More than One Major
1
1
Increased Number of Institutions to Choose From
4
3
No Response
2
1
Table 6
Three Disadvantages of Higher Education System in Armenia After the Soviet Era
Main Factors
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
Not Enough Literature in the Armenian Language
2
2
Increase in Tuition
6
5
Lack of Institutional Funding
1
3
Lack of Job Security after Graduation
4
6
Lack of Financial Support
5
5
No Response
2
1
34
In Question 2, the main advantages (for those studying after the Soviet era) as
perceived by the students who studied during the Soviet were an opportunity to study
abroad, diverse curriculum, increased number of institutions to choose from, and
ability to apply to various universities. Students who studied after the Soviet era
thought the main advantages (to the program they were in) were opportunities to study
abroad, diverse curriculum, and increased number of institutions to choose from.
Three respondents did not answer due to unknown reasons. The majority of the 21
respondents agreed that the advantages of the higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era were: opportunities to study abroad, diverse curriculum, increased
number of institutions to choose from, ability to apply to various universities. Some
respondents also mentioned free nation without dictation from Russia concerning
required courses, development of technology, and ability to study in more than one
major or concentration.
With regard to the disadvantages after the Soviet era, the two groups had
similar views, with both groups citing the increase in tuition, lack of financial support,
and lack of job security after graduation.
Question 3
Question 3 asked: What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D.
individuals to stay in Armenia? Tables 7 and 8 show the results for Question 3,
grouped by theme.
35
Table 7
Advantages of Armenian Ph. D. Individuals to Stay in Armenia
Main Factors
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
Prosperity of Armenia
5
4
Staying in One's Hometown
5
1
Job Guaranteed with PhD
3
2
Prestige
4
2
No Response
0
2
Table 8
Disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. Individuals to Stay in Armenia
Main Factors
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
Low Salaries
5
4
Higher Pay in Russia, Some Moved There
3
3
Unemployment Problems in Armenia
2
2
No Response
0
2
In Question 3, the students who studied during the Soviet era mentioned the
main advantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in Armenia as prosperity of
Armenia, staying in one’s hometown, prestige, and job guaranteed with Ph.D.
Students who studied after the Soviet era thought the main advantages were prosperity
of Armenia. Although they mentioned the other factors, neither prestige nor staying on
one’s hometown was cited more than once or twice.
With regard to the disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia during the Soviet era, both groups of students indicated similar
36
disadvantages: low salaries, high pay in Russia, and unemployment problems in
Armenia.
Question 4
Question 4 asked: What were the main factors which played significant role
about the transition from socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in
Armenia? Table 9 shows the results for question four, grouped by theme.
Table 9
Main Factors Which Played a Significant Role in the Transition from Socialistic to
Capitalistic in Armenia
Main Factors
X (Students before
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
Collapse of Soviet Union
3
6
Globalization
5
3
Independence
2
5
National Problems
2
3
No response
2
1
In Question 4, the students who studied during the Soviet era noted
globalization and collapse of Soviet Union. Also, some of the respondents mentioned
the independence and national problems. Students who studied after the Soviet era
thought the main factors which played a significant role were collapse of the Soviet
Union, the independence, globalization, and national problems. The students had the
same idea about the main factors but the top two main factors were viewed differently.
37
Question 5
Question 5 asked: What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education
during the Soviet era? Table 10 shows the results for question five, grouped by theme.
Table 10
Motivation Factors of Armenian Students to Get a Higher Education During the
Soviet Era
Main Factors
X (Students before
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
Having an Education was Highly Respected
6
6
Education Needed for High-Position Job
6
5
To Obtain More Knowledge
7
6
No Response
0
1
In Question 5, both groups of students responded similarly, noting that
students wanted to get a higher education because the idea of education was highly
valued and respected while students themselves had the willingness to study and
obtain knowledge. At the same time, education was needed in order to get a
respectable job with a high salary, and many just wanted to obtain more knowledge in
their field.
Question 6
Question 6 asked: What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher
education after the Soviet era? Table 11 shows the results for Question 6, grouped by
theme.
38
Table 11
Motivation Factors of Armenian Students to Get a Higher Education After the Soviet
Era
Main Factors
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
Same as during the Soviet Era
5
4
Competitive Job Market
3
2
Prosperity of Armenia
4
5
Prestige
0
3
No Response
2
0
In Question 6, students who studied after the Soviet era thought the main
factors of motivation were prosperity of Armenia, the same as during the Soviet era,
and prestige. Also, some of the students mentioned the competitive job market.
Respondents replied that the motivation for higher education remains the same
because Armenians have always considered education to be an extremely important
value to have in their lives. However, some respondents replied that students are also
currently motivated by the competitive job market because of the economy, and the
betterment of the country through study.
Question 7
Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
39
Please rate each educational system. The final question, with numerical data, was
analyzed using a t test for independent means. See Tables 12 and 13.
Table 12
Rankings of the Higher Education System in Armenia During the Soviet Era
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
4
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
5
4
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
N/A
No Response
0
1
Mean:
4.75
4.55
Standard Deviation:
0.45
0.52
40
Table 13
Rankings of the Higher Education System in Armenia After the Soviet Era
X (Students during
the Soviet Era)
Y (Students after
the Soviet Era)
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
4
5
5
3
4
2
3
5
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
N/A
4
No Response
1
0
Mean:
3.55
3.92
Standard Deviation:
1.04
0.51
Studying the quantitative data collected from the participants allows a unique
perspective into the way educated Armenians view their education system during and
after the Soviet era. In looking at the results for higher level education during the
Soviet era, there was a mean of 4.75 with a standard deviation of 0.45. In contrast, the
result for higher level education after the Soviet era was 3.92 with a standard deviation
of 0.51. The null hypothesis is that there is no difference in quality between the higher
level education systems during and after the Soviet era. The study used t distribution
(two tails) with a significance level of 0.05 to figure out if there was a difference
between the two education systems. According to the calculations, the test statistic (t =
41
4.21) showed that there was enough evidence (p-value<0.001; critical value 2.03) to
reject the null hypothesis of difference in means. In essence, the data collected
determined that there is a perceived difference in quality of the higher education
system during and after the Soviet era. The study shows that both groups of students
felt the quality during the Soviet era was superior to that of the current era (see Figure
1).
Figure 1. Boxplot of Changing Perceptions.
42
Findings for the Group as a Whole: Common Themes
Accessibility of Education
During the Soviet era. The qualitative data collected from the respondents
indicated that during the Soviet era, education was free for everyone regardless of
student background. Due to this characteristic, competition to study specific programs
was high and only given to those students with high academic achievement. However,
those who served in the military had the rights to enter a university, regardless of their
academic achievement. Students received classes through traditional forms of
educational pedagogy and had limited access to materials and resources in the
Armenian language. Students also had a limited amount of programs to study within
Armenian higher education institutions. If students wished to further their study, they
were only allowed to study in the Soviet Union.
After the Soviet era. Students wishing to attend higher educational institutions
in Armenia after the Soviet era are required to pay for their own education because of
a lack of funding. However, this requirement is partially offset by the ability to study
and exchange ideas with foreign higher educational institutions. Competition to study
in higher educational institutions in Armenia remains high while those who have
served in the military also retain privileges when it comes to applying and attending
higher educational institutions.
Financial Aid
During the Soviet era. Financial aid during the Soviet era was consistent in
that everyone who attended higher educational institutions received some form of
43
financial aid. A system of stipends was established to reward students with high
academic performance. The amount of the stipend reflected the student’s achievement
and was increased if the student performance improved. Books and materials were
also provided to the students free of charge. The stipend was used to support the cost
of living although students were unable to live solely on the stipend.
After the Soviet era. Since students wishing to attend higher educational
institutions within Armenia are now required to pay for their own educational fees,
financial aid has been limited to special circumstances. There remains a system of
stipends based on student achievement but the amount of the stipend is extremely
small compared to the stipend given during the Soviet era. Students are now able to
take out loans with high interest rates from private institutions yet these loans are only
able to cover tuition. Books and materials needed for class are paid out of pocket.
Financial aid is given to students of low-income families and single parent families
with many dependents. The children of deceased veterans also receive financial aid to
attend higher educational institutions. There remains a small portion of students with
high academic achievement who receive financial aid, but these students need to
consistently perform well in school to retain it.
Job Security
During the Soviet era. Job security for graduates of higher educational
institutions in Armenia during the Soviet era was guaranteed. Students received a job
offer in their field of study after graduation and had a choice of whether or not to
44
accept the offer. If students denied the offer, students were then responsible for finding
their own employment.
After the Soviet era. Graduates seeking employment in Armenia after the
Soviet era are not guaranteed jobs. However, graduates now have more options,
including the possibility of seeking employment in foreign countries.
Organization of Higher Education
During the Soviet era. Higher education institutions in Armenia during the
Soviet era were highly structured and organized. Students wishing to attend higher
education institutions had to follow specific avenues to enter into the system. Students
were required to take an entrance examination which would place them into a
university of their choosing based on their examination results. Students then received
pre-organized schedules which dictated their classes and instructors during the
semester. Respondents viewed the pre-organized schedules as both positive and
negative. Positive respondents believed that it was positive because students did not
need to worry about class selection and availability while respondents who believed it
was negative felt that pre-organized class schedules limited their right to choose
classes or instructors.
Responders also felt that during the Soviet era, there was a lack of religious
education. At the same time, there were strong undercurrents to assimilate into one
nation and one language, replacing the Armenia identity with that of the Soviet Union.
Assessment of student progress was determined through small assignments or
labs but the majority of the assessment was based primarily on one final oral
45
examination. If students failed this examination they were allowed three extra
opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge. Grades were based on a scale of 1 to 5
(1 being failing and 5 being excellent). Instructors approached classes with a
traditional pedagogy which was consisted largely of lectures. Students were allowed to
miss up to 30 hours (equivalent of 4 days of absence) of class time in unexcused
absences. Students had a variety of programs to study from; however, some fields of
study required students to travel to the Soviet Union to complete their study.
After the Soviet era. The structure and organization of higher educational
institutions in Armenia remains the same with the difference that students applying
into higher educational institutions are now able to apply into several universities at
the same time. Students still receive pre-organized schedules in a classroom taught by
traditional forms of pedagogy. Although there are many similarities in both systems,
the manner in which assessments are given have changed. Students are now assessed
through mid-terms and finals and grading is based on a scale of 1 – 100. If students do
not pass the first time they are still given three attempts to demonstrate their
knowledge of the subject. At the same time, due to the increase in the number of
universities, there are more fields of study and levels of degrees students can choose
from.
Motivation
During the Soviet era. Armenian culture has always valued education and
students have a natural willingness to obtain knowledge. Students chose to attend
higher levels of education because it was well respected, brought them prestige, and
46
opened the possibility of obtaining dependable employment. Students were also
motivated to study and receive higher education if they wanted to take part in the
government.
After the Soviet era. Students still retain the same values about higher
education as before. Nevertheless, students have a new sense of Armenian identity and
are now motivated to higher education because they believe in the betterment of their
own country through education. Conversely, students are also motivated by the
opportunity to seek employment in western countries.
Analysis
During the Soviet era, all schools were state-run. Higher education institutions
in Armenia were supported and organized by the Soviet government. This support
allowed the higher educational institutions to have consistent funding which created a
stable but rigid environment for students to study in. Despite the Soviet era’s structure,
students were able to receive quality education and many students went on to further
their fields of study in Moscow. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, higher
education needed to adapt to the changing political and historical environment. This
shift in power impacted the arena of education in several sectors. With a new political
arena, many proponents of political parties wanted to change the way higher education
systems were implemented. Respondents agreed that the newly acquired independence
from the Soviet Union was a catalyst that changed higher education from a socialistic
to a capitalistic higher educational system. These new changes were in part brought on
47
by globalization. Armenia had new economic standards to face while thinking about
how to integrate their country with western societies.
It is clear that higher educational systems during the Soviet era and after the
Soviet era share some qualities that continue to benefit students. Students are
continually held to high academic standards in a well-structured environment.
Nevertheless, due to political changes and pressures of globalization, higher
educational systems lost a great portion of its funding which has impacted the students
negatively in that students are now faced with paying for tuition in a country that has
become economically unstable due to the six years war and the devastating earthquake
in 1988 which caused 8.5 billion rubles ($12.3 billion) worth of damage.
48
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION AND SIGNIFICANCE
Education has always been an important aspect in Armenian culture. Armenian
people have always looked for opportunities to receive education no matter what the
political status of the country has been. Due to political circumstances around a
century ago, when Armenia became a part of the Soviet Union, Armenia developed a
socialistic higher education system. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Armenia
has slowly adopted a capitalistic identity which can be witnessed in its changing
higher educational structure.
To better understand the responses of the 24 students, the researcher had
additional face-to-face, phone, or email contact with some of the participants.
Information gathered from these sessions is included in the discussion below to add
additional context to the analysis.
Discussion
A constant theme in responses about the advantages of the Armenian
socialistic higher education system (during the Soviet Era), was the availability of
education offered to the Armenian public and its financial cost. More specifically,
participants recalled a stipend system that was implemented for full-time day students
during the Soviet era. One respondent (DSE 08, personal communication, March 12,
2001) commented that during his course of study to get his bachelor’s degree, he was
earning grades of 4’s and 5’s during his junior year and was getting paid a total of 46
rubles ($67) per month, which was 15% more money than if he had earned some
49
grades of 3 also. When asked the significance of a 15% (6 rubles) difference in
stipends, DSE 08 (personal communication, March 12, 2011) stated “Although 6
rubles ($9) may not seem like much, but it was enough to take my girlfriend out for a
movie, coffee and drinks twice.”
In contrast, ASE 06 (personal communication, March 15, 2011) stated that in
modern day Armenia, not everyone receives a stipend. Only students of merit receive
a stipend based on their grades and individual standings are compared to the rest of the
class. But even then, students only receive 6000 Drams ($12 - $18) at most. To
understand the Armenian Dram, ASE 06 (personal communication, March16, 2011)
commented that for 6000 Armenian Drams, one is only able to take someone out on a
date once.
As evidenced, the stipend system awarded students of merit and provided
financial support for students during their studies. Having a stipend during the Soviet
era did not guarantee that it would take care of all needs a student has, but it certainly
provided a source of stable income. After the fall of the Soviet era, higher educational
institutions kept the system of the stipends; however, the significance of the amount
that is awarded to students has been decreased to a point where students are not able to
rely solely on the stipend for living expenses. A major factor behind this decrease is
the financial situation within Armenia. The country is still recovering from a six-year
war and a devastating earthquake in the late 1980s. Funds to support education are not
as plentiful as they were during the Soviet era.
50
Another significant aspect of education is how students are assessed. During
the Soviet era, students were assessed through mini-assignments, labs, and a final that
determined the grade of the student. However, after the Soviet era, some institutions
have slowly adapted a capitalistic approach to assessment. In this, Armenian higher
education students are now required to take mid-terms and finals. This change can be
either beneficial or detrimental depending on the student. When asked about
assessment preferences, ASE 12, a student who experienced the transition between
socialistic and capitalistic education, stated
During the Soviet era, I had lots of time during the semester but I had
to study very hard to pass my final exams. Meanwhile, compared to the
examination structure of today, I have to study hard through the
semester but my final is easier and less stressful. It depends on what
kind of student you are, but personally I prefer the new system because
it is less stressful and because you end up studying regularly
throughout the semester which allows me to retain the information
more. (personal communication, March 15, 2011)
ASE 12’s perspective into the assessment procedures of Armenian education suggests
that a capitalistic education system is a better fit for ASE 12’s style of learning, but as
ASE 12 mentioned, different students will have different opinions when it comes to
studying.
With an impervious desire to seek education, Armenian students have always
searched for ways to better the country. During the Soviet era, Armenian higher level
51
education students had a chance to study in Armenia and in cities within the Soviet
Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Armenian government was able to
independently open study-abroad opportunities with several international countries. In
1992, Armenia was able to negotiate with the United States to create a fellowship
administered by the International Research and Exchanges Board (Armenian Muskie
Graduate Fellowship Student, 2010).
With the development of opportunities to study in other countries, Armenian
students can now share and learn from countries that have been restricted from contact
in the past. One Armenian student currently studying in the United States was quoted
in a news article stating, “ (she) wants to use her graduate school experiences at the
University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College to help shape public
policy in Armenian, her home nation” (Armenian Muskie Graduate Fellowship
Student, 2010). This kind of opportunity to study abroad was not available for students
during the Soviet era.
These unique perspectives into higher level education during and after the
Soviet era provide a view into how students view socialistic and capitalistic higher
level education. It is evident that both systems have and provide students with unique
opportunities to learn. Yet, it is pertinent to note that the two systems cannot be
compared on equal terms yet.
52
Recommendations
The Socialistic higher education system has had around 70 years to develop
and mature under a government that was well funded. In comparison, the capitalist
higher education system has only been in effect for the last 20 years in an environment
that has experienced economic crisis. Taking into account the time it takes to
transition between two systems of power, the capitalist higher education system is still
in its infancy. A higher level of education in Armenia still retains many characteristics
left over from its socialistic roots. The biggest concern for higher level education in
modern Armenia remains financial in nature. Students and institutions are constantly
seeking ways to fund their education programs. It is recommended that more studies
be done when the capitalist system of education becomes more mature in an
environment that has a stable economy and political status to measure the
effectiveness of both systems. In the mean time, comparative studies can be made to
evaluate the progress of Armenian higher education.
53
APPENDIX A
Consent Form
54
A Consent Form to Participate
I hereby agree to participate in the research that will be conducted by Gegham
Melkonyan, a graduate student at California State University of Sacramento. It will
involve filling out open ended questions about higher education in Armenia before and
after the Soviet era. My responses will remain confidential and my anonymity will be
protected. This research will take place throughout the California State University
(CSU) system.
I understand I can refuse to answer any question for any reason. I can contact to
Gegham Melkonyan or Dr. Porfirio M. Loeza using emails or telephone. Gegham
Melkonyan can be contacted at sac52761@csus.edu or (916) 364-5264 or Dr. Porfirio
M. Loeza can be contacted at loeza@skymail.csus.edu or (916) 278-3464 for any
questions I may have as a result of my participation or regarding conclusion of the
research. I understand I need to return this form via email to Gegham Melkonyan or
by fax at (916) 364-5264.
Signature:
________________________________________
Name:
________________________________________
University:
________________________________________
Years of Attendance:
________________________________________
Date:
________________________________________
55
Համաձայնություն մասնակցելու համար
Ես համաձայն եմ մասնակցել հետազոտությանը որը կատարվում է Գեղամ
Մելքոնյանի կողմից: Գեղամ Մելքոնյանը Մագիստրատուրայի ուսանող է,
սովորում է Սակրամենտո քաղաքի Կալիֆորնիա նահանգի համալսարանում:
Հետազոտության նպատակն է ներկայացնել բարձրագույն կրթությունը
Հայաստանում Սովետական Միության ժամանակ ու այդ ժամանակաշրջանից
հետո: Հետազոտությունը բաղկացած է հարցերից: Իմ պատասխանները կմնան
գաղտնի ու իմ անանունությունը կպաշտպանվի: Այս հետազոտությունը տեղ է
գտնելու Կալիֆորնիա նահանգի համալսարանի համակարգում:
Ես հասկանում եմ որ ես կարող եմ չպատասխանել որոշ հարցերին կապված ինչ որ
պատճառի հետ: Ես կարող եմ դիմել Գեղամ Մելքոնյանին ու դոկտոր Պորֆիրիո
Լոեզաին եթե ունեմ հարցեր, օգտագործելով էլեկտրոնային կապ կամ հեռախոս:
Գեղամ Մելքոնյանի էլեկտրոնային կապն է sac52761@csus.edu ու հեռախոսի
համարն է (916) 364-5264: Դոկտոր Պորֆիրիո Լոեզայի էլեկտրոնային կապն է
loeza@skymail.csus.edu ու հեռախոսի համարն է (916) 278-3464: Ես կարող եմ
ունենալ արդյունքը իմ մասնակցության կամ կապված հետազոտության
եզրակացության հետ: Ես հասկանում եմ որ ես պետք է վերադարձնեմ այս ֆորմը
էլեկտրոնային կապով կամ էլ ֆաքս անել (916) 364-5264 համարով:
Ստորագրություն
--------------------------------------------------------
Անուն, ազգանուն
--------------------------------------------------------
Ինստիտուտի անունը
--------------------------------------------------------
Կրթության տարիները
--------------------------------------------------------
Այսօրվա ամսաթիվը
--------------------------------------------------------
56
Форма согласия на участие в исследовательской работе.
Настоящим даю согласие на участие в научной работе, проводимой Гегамом
Мелконяном, являющимся студентом государственного университета штата
Калифорния в Сакраменто. Работа включает в себя ответы на открытые
вопросы о высшем образовании в Армении во время Советского Союза и после
его распада. Мои ответы будут конфиденциальными и личная информация обо
мне будет защищена и будет оставаться анонимной. Данная исследовательская
работа будет проводиться на базе системы государственных университетов
штата Калифорния (CSU system).
Я понимаю, что могу отказаться отвечать на любой вопрос по любой причине. Я
могу связаться с Гегамом Мелконяном или с доктором Порфирио М.Луеза через
электронные сообщения или по телефону. Контактная иформация Гегама
Мелконяна следующая: адрес электронной почты – sac52761@csus.edu, телефон
– (916) 364-5264. Контактная иформация доктора Порфирио М.Луеза
следующая: адрес электронной почты – loeza@skymail.csus.edu, телефон – (916)
278-3464. Я могу связаться с ними по любым вопросам касающимся моего
участия в исследовательской работе или относительно результатов
исследования. Я понимаю, что должен вернуть данную форму по электронной
почте Гегаму Мелконяну или отправить её по факсу – (916) 364-5264.
Подпись:
________________________________________
Имя:
________________________________________
Университет:
________________________________________
Годы учебы:
________________________________________
Дата:
________________________________________
57
APPENDIX B
The Questionnaire
58
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
59
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
60
Հարցաթերթիկ
1) Խնդրում եմ թվել Հայաստանի բարձրագույն կրթության համակարգի երեք
առավելությունները ու երեք թերությունները Սովետական Միության
ժամանակ:
2) Խնդրում եմ թվել Հայաստանի բարձրագույն կրթության համակարգի երեք
առավելությունները ու երեք թերությունները Սովետական Միության
ժամանակաշրջանից հետո:
3) Ինչ առավելություններ ու թերություններ ուներ Հայ Դոկտորիալ
աստիճան ունեցողների մնալը Հայաստանում?
4) Որոնք էին գլխավոր գործոնները որոնք նշանակալից դեր խաղացին
Հայաստանում բարձրագույն կրթության համակարգի փոփոխմանը
սոցիալիստական սիստեմից դեպի կապիտալիստական?
5) Ինչն է դրդել Հայաստանի ժողովրդին ստանալ բարձրագույն կրթություն
Սովետական Միության ժամանակաշրջանում?
6) Ինչն է դրդում Հայաստանի ժողովրդին ստանալ բարձրագույն կրթություն
Սովետական Միության ժամանակաշրջանից հետո?
61
7) Հիմնվելով նշված սանդղակին, որտեղ
Մեկ
Երկու
Երեք
Չորս
Հինգ
որպես
որպես
որպես
որպես
որպես
անբավարար
միջինից ցածր
բավարար
միջինից բարձր
գերազանց
Գնահատել յուրաքանչյուր կրթական համակարգը:
62
Вопросы
1. Назовите пожалуйста 3 преимущества и 3 недостатка в системе высшего
образования в Армении во времена Советского Союза.
2. Назовите пожалуйста 3 преимущества и 3 недостатка в системе высшего
образования в Армении после распада Советского Союза.
3. Какие преимущества и недостатки для Армянских Докторов Наук оставаться
в Армении?
4. Какие факторы сыграли главную роль в переходе от Социалистической
системы высшего образования к Капиталистической системе высшего
образования?
5. Что мотивировало Армянских студентов получать высшее образование во
времена Советского Союза?
6. Что мотивирует Армянских студентов получать высшее образование после
распада Советского Союза?
63
7. По шкале где
1
как
не удовлетворительно
2
как
ниже среднего
3
как
удовлетворительно
4
как
выше среднего
5
как
отлично
Пожалуйста оцените высшую образотельную систему в каждом периоде.
64
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: Free education, financial compensation for high marks, job placement
after graduation.
Disadvantages: Removed from university if you failed examinations.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
N/A
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantages: Being in one’s hometown and receiving a higher salary.
Disadvantages: To earn a PhD, students had to go abroad for schooling (Russia).
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
N/A
65
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Everyone wanted to be educated; it was respectable and provided citizens with access
to better jobs/opportunities.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
N/A
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: 5
After: N/A
66
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages:

Students can receive the education of their choice from different options

Entrance exams specifically designed for the chosen major

Students work with the same group of people from the beginning to the end
Disadvantages:

Difficult to get in the major of your choice because of competition among
other students

The schedules were premade for the students

Students did not have an option to choose their own classes for general
education
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
There were no significant changes in the education system in Armenia after the Soviet
era. Last year, state exams were added.
67
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
An advantage of having a Ph. D. in Armenia is having more options of getting a good
job. A disadvantage is that the pay is less comparing to the United States.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Armenia became an independent republic, therefore bringing a transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher education.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Success and a thirst for knowledge motivated Armenian students to get a higher
education.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Students are motivated to get a higher education after the Soviet era because there is
more competition for jobs, and with a higher education, that can be reached.
68
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era, 5.
After the Soviet era, 5.
69
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
The higher education was free of charge. Every student received financial aid no
matter what was the student’s social status. The most important advantage was nobody
had any debt to pay back after they graduated. Books were free. The students had job
security after they graduated.
Some of disadvantages were the main literature was in Russian, there was limitation
about capacity of classes. There was no adding.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
There are many private universities. There are more options to get higher education.
There is a chance to study overseas.
One of disadvantages is the majority of students have to pay for their education. The
Armenian government provides loans with higher percentages. It is hard to find a job
after graduation. The students have to pay for books too.
70
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
There was more prospective and prestige to get higher education in Moscow or Sankt
Petersburg. Some of the Armenian smartest students went to Russia and never came
back. They graduated, got married to Russians and worked for Russia. It was good for
them as individuals but did not do anything for Armenia.
After the Soviet era, there is a chance for them to stay and work for prosperity of
Armenia.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
The independence of Armenia was the main factor of the transition from socialistic to
capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia. Armenia got its independence back
from the Soviet Union during the war with Azerbaijan over Karabagh from 1988 to
1994.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Job security, self confidence, a prestige, for a luxury life you have to be educated
71
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Self confidence, a prestige, be helpful for recovery of Armenia from the war (1988 –
1994)
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era 5
After the Soviet era
4
72
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
N/A
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: Free nation without dictation from Russia concerning required courses;
study abroad opportunities in various nations.
Disadvantages: tuition was no longer free, no certainty of employment following
graduation.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantages: Being in Armenia
Disadvantages: Not enough employment opportunities.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
N/A
73
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
N/A
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Earning a higher education was and remains respectable. Having a higher education
gives you a better chance of finding employment.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: N/A
After: 4
74
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
3 advantages
- free education,
- guaranteed employment after graduation,
- high quality materials
3 disadvantages
- based mainly on theory,
- not enough practical experience to prepare for future employment,
- not necessarily dynamic and timely lectures.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
3 advantages
- Not very high prices of education,
- Timely and dynamic information,
- use of high tech in the education system starts to develop slowly but surely
75
3 disadvantages
- Not enough literature in Armenian language,
- The lecturers are using the old fashioned rather than dynamic and new ways of
teaching
- Getting more and more expensive
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
They get the Ph. D. in Armenian language so they might not be competitive in outside
labor markets due to lack of foreign language knowledge.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Influence of globalization.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
The guarantee of future employment and the family tradition.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Very competitive labor market (it is nearly impossible to find any job without a higher
education).
76
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average in both nowadays Armenia and Soviet Era
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During 4
After 4
77
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages:
- free education
- guaranteed job after graduation
- test free exams i.e. instructor & student direct interaction during exam
Disadvantages:
- no elective courses to be chosen for students particular needs, only required
ones
- no flexibility to prioritize courses at students’ convenience i.e. strict subject
schedule
- lack of resources i.e. computers, textbooks, poor equipped laboratories
- lack of motivation in students study hard, lack of interest in the field of
specialization, frequent absences, not pursuing career in the chosen field after
graduation
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages:
- rather inexpensive education than one in western universities
- there are some programs which are free (minimum fees) supported by
government
Disadvantages:
- lack of resources i.e. computers, textbooks, poor equipped laboratories
(situation is getting better)
- lack of motivation in students study hard, lack of interest in the field of
specialization, frequent absences, not pursuing career in the chosen field after
graduation
78
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Ph.D. could be earned for not all specialties in Armenia and therefore, many students
were seeking their (post) graduate study in places like Moscow, St. Petersburg, etc,
which was certainly inconvenient.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Globalization was a general trend. In addition, harmonization between non-credit,
socialistic higher educational system to credit, capitalistic higher educational system.
And also to have the same standard of degrees widely accepted and recognized in the
world.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
- to obtain knowledge and to be prepared for research
- to hold an advanced position in the society i.e. prestige and parent’s desire
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
- to obtain knowledge and to be prepared for research
- to hold an advanced position in the society i.e. prestige and parent’s desire
79
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era - 4
After the Soviet era – 4
80
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: education programs were very organized; students did not have to be
concerned about tuition fees
Disadvantages: Education system closely tied with political propaganda
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: Students now have the opportunity to participate in exchange abroad
programs in various nations, students can earn degrees in Armenia from foreign
universities, and the curriculum is far more diverse.
Disadvantages: funding for education collapsed with the collapse of the Soviet Union,
higher educated students find employment opportunities outside of Armenia
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantages: Being able to remain in home country and work to improve one’s nation.
Disadvantages: The unemployment in Armenia is problematic.
81
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
I believe that the main factor was allowing education to be accessible. Armenia
remains one of the most literate nations in the world.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Earning a higher education was considered very respectable. To have a high ranking
job and earn a good living one needed to be educated.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
The motivation remained the same as it was during the Soviet Union. Armenian
people in general have always valued higher education. Intellectuals are respected and
have a better chance of being employed.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
82
Please rate each educational system.
During: 4
After: 4
83
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in
Armenia
during the Soviet era.
–Advantages were: it was free, accessible to every economic and ethnic group,
placement was guaranteed upon graduation.
–Disadvantages were: student cannot exceed permitted age limit (35 years old,
only one universal curriculum approved by Moscow for the subject, very
politically oriented until 1987 (must be ‘comsomol’ to be enrolled in school).
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in
Armenia
after the Soviet era. N/A. I left the country soon after Armenia left the
Soviet Union, so I did not stay long enough to experience the new government or
the starvation (I left before the starvation).
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Teaching positions in the universities were guaranteed and research was 100% funded
by the government. Disadvantage was that pay rate difference ratio between factory
worker and PH. D. was not significant.
84
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
N/A
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
It was matter of liking or disliking manual labor, natural tendency eagerness to learn
and prestige.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
N/A
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
I would give the pre-Soviet era Armenian educational structure a level of 4 as
above average and the post-Soviet era as a level of 5 as excellent, due to their more
Americanized and modernized standards of education.
85
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: Acquisition of Broader knowledge even in specified departments,
Affordability and availability practically to all ranks of society, Discipline
Disadvantages: Lack of practice, Lack of modern solutions and approaches, not
flexibility of methodology
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: N/A
Disadvantages: N/A
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantages: Almost none, maybe only recognition and respect as of having the status
Disadvantages: not sufficient salary
86
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
I don’t quite understand the question. But if the respected surveyor wants us to speak
about the impacts and influences I think that mostly new economic standard and
accordingly new requirements, globalization and country’s long-term goals to be
integrated into the Western societies partially by the help of the education.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Lifestyle, fixed salaries
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
I wouldn’t say that motivated in the beginning, I would rather state that just the
opposite the motivation decreased essentially and maybe the only pushing factor was
recognition and family environment. Just recently the students are highly motivated
for they realize they may bring back return on investment from their education by
obtaining competitive jobs.
87
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: 5
After: 4
88
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: free education, higher professional qualification, and practical work.
Disadvantages: absence of foreign communication in the educational field, absence of
new technology, and communist doctrine.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: using new technology and influence of foreign professionals.
Disadvantages: the higher education system was not good enough, less qualification of
professionals, and hope for the future.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Insufficient financial status
89
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Absence of professionalism of Armenian government, carelessness of their own
people, and hopelessness of people
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Better education system, free education, and prosperity of country
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Tradition and to be educated
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era: 5
After the Soviet era: 4
90
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: free education, motivation to learn, and learned things outside of your
major (developed in many ways)
Disadvantages: less practical and etc.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
N/A
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
The advantage was PhD individuals could stay in Armenia and worked for the
country’s development. The disadvantage was the absence of interest of using their
knowledge.
91
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
The main factor was to be similar to foreign countries. When the socialistic system
transitioned to the capitalistic system, the capitalistic education system used the
structure of the socialistic system without mentioning it.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Education is a powerful force. Educated individuals were highly respected and
appreciated in every aspect.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Nothing motivates them.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era: 5
After the Soviet era: 2
92
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: free education, stipend, job security, free dormitories, and free books
Disadvantages: space limitation, main literature was in Russian, and no flexibility for
scheduling
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: study in foreign countries, more universities (private), and apply more
than one school
Disadvantages: pay for education, for majority of students no financial support, and no
job security
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantage: good for Armenia, less prestige, and less salary
Disadvantage: bad for Armenia, more prestige, and better salary
93
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Globalization, national problems, such as Nagorno – Karabagh, and etc.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Armenians want to be educated. It is a national thing. There are some factors which
are parts of motivation: a better life, work for government, a prestige, and also a part
of being educated individual.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Even with bad economy and unemployment, Armenians still want to be educated.
Armenians are amazing. They always survived. One of the motivation factors is
Armenia needs well educated individuals for its bright future.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
94
Please rate each educational system.
During
5
After
4
95
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages:

Education was free and it was for everybody

There was a stipend, excellent students received higher stipends

There was job security after graduation
Disadvantages:

Could not study in foreign countries (outside of the Soviet Union).
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages:

Can study in foreign countries
Disadvantages:

Education is not free

There is no training for staff

System of education (exam system) is not correct and etc.
96
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?

They were always proud to be in Armenia and worked for Armenia

Meanwhile, it was hard to take care of their families because of not enough
pay.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?

Destruction of the system

Abrupt changes

Appearance of many private universities
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?

Our parents would give everything for their children to have a good education.

Thirst for learning
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?

Our parents will give everything for their children to have a good education.

To pass the time

Everyone wants to get a higher education.
97
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet Union: 5
After the Soviet Union: 2
98
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
I have not studied during the Soviet Era.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages

I was able to study and work simultaneously. There was a system called “free
schedule.” I could arrange with my employer the hours I needed to be in
University beforehand.

We were studying management, which was available during the Soviet era.

We were studying international economy, which was not available during
Soviet era.
Disadvantages

Some of the professors hardly knew their subject and were studying
themselves.

The university didn’t have much social life-sports, basketball, soccer team etc.

Sometimes we would get unfair grades.
99
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
It really depends in which field you have the Ph. D, some fields are financially not
very suitable, and however other fields are paid well. For example a PhD holder could
work with international organizations or Represent Armenia in UN etc.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
I do not think Armenia even had any other choice, since the Soviet Union collapsed
the western culture and education system just intruded Armenia.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
I think in Armenia in general people would like their children to have higher education
even if they need to sell the last piece of clothing. This is why now in Armenia you
have about 7 state universities and about 45 private universities, which is a big number
for a country with a 2.6 million population. Even rural areas have universities and
colleges. The motivation always was and is better life and willingness to study in
general.
100
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
In my opinion nothing is changed people in Armenia were always convinced that
education is something very important.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: 4
After: 4
101
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: intellectual development in more than one way, to develop a point of
view, and job security.
Disadvantages: involvement of ideology of a party in studies, atheistic discipline, and
limitation of democracy.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: can apply to more than one university, get practical skills during studies,
and acquire more than one major.
Disadvantages: less chance to get a job after graduation, corruption of education
system, and knowledge is secondary.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
N/A
102
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
The destruction of the socialistic system and the creation of independent status were
some of the main factors.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Desire to be educated demand
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Fewer students take education seriously; the majority of students are not serious about
education.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: 4
After: 3
103
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: free education for everybody, well organized education system, future
development in Moscow or Sankt Petersburg, job security, financial support, books
and workbooks were free, and one final exam for each subject.
Disadvantages: age limitation, education was more theoretical, some of main literature
was in Russian, limitation of space, and no chance to study in foreign countries when
the same time there were lots of foreign students who studied in Armenia.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: no more communistic philosophy, using new technology, opportunities to
study in foreign countries, and ability to apply for more than one university.
Disadvantages: higher tuition, less accessible, no financial support, no job security,
and etc.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
A prestige, high salary, be more famous, for deeper studies in their field, and etc.
104
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Globalization, the destruction of the Soviet Union, and etc.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
To be educated is important, a prestige, respect, to be able to work in higher positions,
and etc.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
I don’t think the motivation changed, although Armenia has less job opportunities, the
economy is bad because of 6 years war and the 1988 earthquake. Meanwhile, Armenia
needs well educated people more than ever.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: 5
After: 3
105
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Three advantages of the higher education system in Armenia are higher education in
Armenia was free of charge, it didn’t matter what kind of income you had, you
received loans and you received free food, and in every family all the kids were able to
receive an education. Three disadvantages of the higher education system in Armenia
are that since Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union, most of the traditions and
education were Russian customs, not Armenian. Another disadvantage was people 30
years old who wanted to work full time, could not have a job until they receive an
education. The last disadvantage was that you couldn’t choose your own teacher.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Three advantages of the higher education system in Armenia after the Soviet Union
are that after the Soviet Union ended, the Russian language wasn’t as important so
more Armenian customs were used. Another advantage was that after the Soviet
Union, more universities were opened and more people were able to receive a higher
education. The last advantage was that during the Soviet Union, everyone received the
106
same degree. But after the Soviet Union, more degrees were added and you received a
degree prior to your education.
Three disadvantages of the higher education system in Armenia after the Soviet Union
are that even if you were really smart but you didn’t have any money and there wasn’t
any room, you weren’t able to receive an education. Another disadvantage was that
you had to pay for everything: tuition, books, and transportation. The last disadvantage
when people graduated they couldn’t find a job.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
During the Soviet era, people went to the universities in Moscow because it was more
prestige to go and finish your education in Moscow. There were lots of benefits for
going to school in Russia. In order to keep the brightest students in Russia, they gave
you a house, a job, and many more benefits. This is good for Armenian individuals but
this way there was no benefit for Armenia. After the Soviet Union, everyone stayed in
Armenia and because of that, Armenia thrived.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
One of the main reasons was the war between Armenia and Azerbaijan over
Karabagh. Karabagh was a part of Armenia a long time ago but was soon separated. In
1924, the Russian leaders gave Karabagh to Azerbaijan. After 65 years, believing in
107
Gorbachov’s (Russia’s leader at the time) politics, Karabagh chose to reunite with
Armenia. In 1988, they started the movement which caused a six year war from 19881994. That war was the reason Armenia got its independence back and the educational
system changed.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
It was prestige and you had job security. Armenia was the most literate republic.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
After the Soviet era, lots of things changed but people still wanted to make it better
and that’s what drove Armenian students to get a higher education.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era: 5
After the Soviet era: 4
108
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages:
Students could retake final exams 3 times.
After graduation, students were guaranteed a job.
There was financial support for everybody.
Disadvantages:
Lack of resources in own language
Outdated equipment in laboratories
Limited space and majors
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages:
Free nation without former dictator
Many private universities
Diverse curriculum
Disadvantages:
Admittance to universities is harder
109
Many educators fled to foreign countries
No help for students
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Armenian PhD individuals had low salaries. Some of them lost their jobs and left the
country.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
The transition from state system to private system
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
To be educated, education was free and accessible, and to get a correspondent job
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Less people have a chance to study because of expenses. There are not many jobs
available.
110
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era: 5
After the Soviet era: 3
111
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages:
Free education
Job security after graduation
Possible re-training in Russia
Disadvantages:
No contact with European countries
Limitation of intellectual thinking
Limitation of books
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages:
To get an education then job overseas
Pursuit of future luxury life
Opportunity to get deeper knowledge in major
Disadvantages:
Pay for education
112
No job security after graduation
No stipend for everybody
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantages:
To get a job
Higher pay
An opportunity to teach at universities
Disadvantages:
Unemployment factor after closing the science centers
The higher institutions are not taking responsibility to help candidate to get a job
Low pay
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Destruction of the system the education system also changed
It was over intellectually for the Soviet system.
A factor of Iron Curtain (absence of connection with the world)
113
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Nothing else to do
To be educated
Free education
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
To get an education then job in foreign countries
Pursuit of future luxury life
An opportunity to get deeper in major studies
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: 4
After: 4(5) depend on how an individual evaluate the education
114
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: well organized structure, very knowledgeable instructors, job security,
and a chance of further study in big cities of Russia.
Disadvantages: no communication with foreign countries, limitation of space in the
universities, less practical, allowed too many absences, ideology of communist party,
assimilation into one language and one nation, and etc.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: presence of competition, a chance to work in foreign countries, no
dictation from Russia, ability to apply for various universities, and etc.
Disadvantages: students being less knowledgeable, traditional methods of pedagogy,
less accessible, no job security, books still in Russian, and etc.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Because of higher education limitation, Ph.D. individuals went to Russia for further
study in their field. This brought prestige to Russia instead of Armenia.
115
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Some of the main factors are the collapse of the Soviet Union, globalization, and
independence of the country.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
It was the best education system. Having an education was highly valued and
respected, a prestige, also for financial purposes and to have a high ranking job.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
To own a business, a prestige, education is important, to make a difference in
Armenia, and etc.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
116
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era: 5
After the Soviet era: 4
117
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages:
Students received more knowledge
Each student chose a major and a university
It was important to be involved in students’ activities
Disadvantages:
Role of a party in education
Limited communication of the world
Prohibited about national a point of view
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages:
No a party’s influence on education anymore
To receive national education
Accessibility more foreign languages
Disadvantages:
Everybody can be a student.
118
You can’t see how you will use education in the future.
Weak instructors
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
N/A
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
The destruction of the Soviet Union changed the education system.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
First, to receive knowledge and being educated and people could not get higher
positions if they don’t have an education.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
To have knowledge is not important anymore, it’s a part of life to have a higher
education, and for some just to have a diploma.
119
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era: 4
After the Soviet era: 3
120
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: There was job security, financial support for every student, and if a
student failed the final exam, they were not dismissed from the university (they were
allowed to retake it two more times).
Disadvantages: Traditional approach to classroom methodology, old technology, no
religious studies, and some majors were not available in Armenia.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: Many private universities, students were allowed to apply for more than
one university, and more majors are available in Armenia.
Disadvantages: Less financial support for students, a lack of good instructors,
increasing tuition, and etc.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
It is good for Armenia. Meanwhile, some of the PhD individuals left Armenia and
went to Russia because of prestige and higher salaries.
121
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Globalization and national issues in the Soviet Union were the main factors.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Armenian people like to be educated, it is a very common thing, prestige, to be
respected, and you can’t have a high position without being well educated.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Armenians didn’t change their ways, they were as motivated as they were during the
Soviet era. Also, since the country was having some issues, they were even more
motivated to get an education so Armenia could be a better place.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
122
Please rate each educational system.
During: 5
After: 3
123
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: free of charge, job security, financial support – a stipend, free dormitory,
and free books
Disadvantages: can’t choose general educational classes can’t choose instructors, and
literature mainly was in Russian
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era?
Advantages: you can apply more than one university, more universities (private), and
a chance to get an education in foreign countries
Disadvantages: no job security, limitation of financial aid, education is not free
anymore, and serving in military service is required for students
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantages: they will work and be beneficial for Armenia.
Disadvantages: low salary, less potential and opportunities.
124
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Some of the main factors were: the destruction of the Soviet Union, national problems,
and political changes, such as the independence of Armenia.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
Prestige, job security, opportunities for higher positions, there was a respect toward
educational people.
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
Prestige, hoping for a bright future, and helping country to recover after war
(Nagorno-Karabagh conflict)
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
125
Please rate each educational system.
During the Soviet era: 5
After the Soviet era: 4
126
The Questionnaire
1. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
during the Soviet era.
Advantages: Education was free and accessible regardless of nationality, race, gender,
religious beliefs, and social status. You can study in Armenia or anywhere else in the
Soviet Union to get a higher education. Instructors were highly respected and students
were much disciplined.
Disadvantages: Religious studies were not taught. In their laboratories, the technology
was very old. There was limitation of space in the universities.
2. Please, list 3 advantages and disadvantages of higher education system in Armenia
after the Soviet era.
Advantages: Private Universities were created. There is lots of space in universities
for new students so more students have a chance to get an education. The new
educational system focuses on making Armenians stronger intellectually. Armenian
educators will communicate with foreign countries’ educators in order to exchange
knowledge and experience. Everything that is done in Armenia is for the prosperity of
the country.
Disadvantages: Education is expensive and less accessible, especially for those who
don’t qualify for the discount program. Unfortunately, there is no job security. There
127
is less financial support. Students were less intellectual than during the Soviet Union
because of the economy and lack of funding. With no money, students’ textbooks
were not translated into Armenian and stayed in Russian.
3. What are advantages or disadvantages of Armenian Ph. D. individuals to stay in
Armenia?
Advantages: It was good for Armenia.
Disadvantages: They weren’t paid well and couldn’t support their families.
4. What were the main factors which played significant role about the transition from
socialistic to capitalistic higher educational system in Armenia?
Some of the main factors were globalization, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the
status of being independent.
5. What motivated Armenian students to get a higher education during the Soviet era?
In Armenian history, education played an important role. During the Soviet Union,
Armenia was the most literate country in the Soviet Union. Armenians always wanted
to be educated. According to Arkady Raikin (a famous Russian actor), “Armenians are
very clever and talented.”
128
6. What has motivated Armenian students to get a higher education after the Soviet
era?
A six year war and a terrible earthquake didn’t affect the Armenians’ strong
motivation and pride.
7. Based on a scale, where
1
as
poor
2
as
below average
3
as
satisfactory
4
as
above average
5
as
excellent
Please rate each educational system.
During: 5
After: 4
129
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