F. 7 History classwork
“The 1848 Revolution was a turning point in European history, although finally
Europe itself failed to change. But its impact on the continent was far-reaching.” Comment on the validity of the statement.
Introduction:
(Agree or not agree)
1.
2.
2.
1848 revolution was a turning point in European history. Agree or not ?
Cite historian’s view and evidences
1.
4.
3.
Is it failed to turn ? Historians’ view and evidences to support their views.

Conclusion
4.
3.
The impact of 1848 Revolution on European history

Was the Bourbon Restoration doomed to failure ?
In the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15, legitimate rulers of the pre-revolutionary period were restored. Louis XVIII of the Bourbon family was restored in France.
It was said that the Bourbon Restoration was doomed to failure and the overthrown of the dynasty in July Revolution in 1830 was inevitable due to the inborn weakness of the restoration. To a large extent, I don’t agree with this view. Though the
Bourbon Restoration did have some inborn weaknesses that in some ways contributed to its final collapse, such weaknesses should not be over-emphasized. In fact,
Louis XVIII and Charles X could have remedy to that. Louis XVIII, to a certain extent, was able to establish a period of stability, peace and prosperity except for the time of White Terror in 1815. Nevertheless, it was Charles X that should be blamed for the downfall. His creation of the struggle of clericalism and anti-clericalism as well as his reactionary policies should largely responsible for the failure of the dynasty.
It should not be denied that the Bourbon dynasty had its own inborn weaknesses which in some ways undermined the restoration of the regime and created an unfavourable situation to the Bourbons. To begin with, the Bourbon Restoration was associated with defeat and humiliation. Louis XVIII was restored to the throne by the allied powers, but not by the French people. From the outset, the French king was not enthusiastically welcomed by all French people. On the other hand, there was bitterest political struggles in France. The clergy and the aristocracy looked to reassert their former influence and status. But the liberals wanted to defend the gains and to prevent a return to the days of monarchical absolutism. For example, the ultra-royalist mob attacked the Bonapartists and supporters of the Revolution in the White Terror in 1815.
Though there were difficulties in the beginning years of the restored dynasty, such weaknesses should not be regarded as making the Bourbon Restoration doomed to failure. In fact, Louis XVIII had already tried his best to remedy the situation.
Louis XVIII once commented, “All the efforts of my government are directed to fuse the two peoples into a single one “Being a moderate, realistic, sensible and tactful king, Louis XVIII’s policy was one of compromise and tried to reconcile revolution with counter-revolution and the interests of royalists with the liberals. Though he was accepted as a monarch, he also accepted the advice of the allied powers that
France should be ruled in a constitutional manner. Firstly, many of the gains of the revolution, such as, equality before the law, religious toleration, freedom of the press,

were guaranteed. Secondly, Napoleon’s legal system, centralized administration and
Napoleon’s system of taxation were kept intact. Thirdly, there was to be a parliament of bicameral system: the House of Peers and the House of Deputies.
They had the right to sanction all taxation and right to impreach the king’s ministries.
Though one may argue that the charter did contain some fundamental contradictions, such as narrow franchise, the greater power of the king (the executive), it is less than just to say that Louis XVIII had ‘learnt nothing and forgot nothing.’ And his reign making revolution certain and unavoidable. At least, Louis XVIII had a common sense to see that the constitution must be kept as valuable safeguard against further revolution. Louis XVIII was realistic enough to realize that if reactionary measures were to be carried out, there was bound to be revolutions. In his reign, the government was efficient and honest. There was speedy revcovery in economic life and a period of stability, peace and prosperity. Most importantly, he was able to halt the White Terror by dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and choose able ministers.
Therefore, the blame for the failure of the Bourbons should not largely rested on
Louis XVIII’s reign. Hence, Bourbon restoration was not doomed to failure.
It was the revolutionary policies of Charles X, the successor of Louis XVIII, that should be held responsible for the failure of the Bourbon Restoration. He was a typical ultra and continued to appoint Villele as the prime minister. Charles X wanted to set up a theocracy to re-establish the old unity between the church and king and a “government” by priests, through priests and for priests.” Therefore, Charles
X imposed a law of sacrilege, making sacrilege punisble by life imprisonment or even death. The society of Jesus and other monastic order were re-established. By 1830, about 1/3 of all teachers were priests and Jesuits. Consequently, the policy of clericalism gave rise to anti-clericalism. Many newspapers denounced the influence of religion on the government. The middle class did not like the increasing church involvement in state affairs. There was anti-clerical church involvement in state affairs. There was anti-clerical demonstration in Paris and other big cities by 1830.
In the words of Tocquerille, “The religious hatred brought about by the restoration was the chief cause of the downfall of the Bourbons.”
Furthermore, Charles X’s policy of compensation to emigres by reducing the interest in the state bonds by 5% to 3% aroused the strong opposition of the bourgeoisie. Also, the middle class in Paris was offended when Charles X disbanded the National Guard of Paris which was regarded as the symbol of power of the middle class in 1827. To make the situation worst, Charles X appointed the ‘Ultra of the
Ultras.’ , Polignac, in 1829-30. However, the Chamber was against the ministry

headed by Polignac. But, Charles X sided with Polignac. After the address of non-confidence of the ministry by the Chamber, Charles X was so reactionary that he dissolved the Chamber. In July 1830, the election resulted in an even greater majority against Polignac. Charles X still did not make a concession. He issued the four ordinances on 26 th
July at St. Cloud. These ordinances suppressed the freedom of the press, dissolved the newly elected chamber, restricted the franchise and called for a new election. The opposition interpreted the July Ordinances as an attack to abandon the charter. Riots broke out in Paris. The essential day is on 29 th
July when the king offered to make concessions and to restore the charter. His offer was rejected and the liberals supported Louis Philippe for the French throne. On 31 st
July, Charles X abdicated and marked the failure of the French.
From above analysis, it is clear that revolution and failure of the Bourbons in
France was not unavoidable in Louis XVIII regime during the years 1815-1824. The failure of the dynasty in 1830 is mainly due to the reactionary measures of Charles X.
. The inborn weaknesses and difficulties in the beginning years of the restoration is not very important leading to its collapse in 1830, yet, one should not denied that such weaknesses undermine the stability of the restored regime. Indeed, it was Charles
X’s policies which aroused great discontent and opposition from the liberals. If
Charles X had adopted the policy of compromise, his reign should have prolonged.
The failure of the Bourbon Restoration depends very much on the policies of the king, rather than the inborn difficulties. Hence, it is justified to say that the Bourbon
Restoration was not doomed to failure.

Discuss the role of Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) in the development of liberalism in France.
Introduction
What is Liberalism ?
The development of liberalism from 1815-1852
1848:
1815:
1830:
The role of Louis Napoleon in the development of liberalism in France
1852 – 1859

Constitution
Repressive measures from Napoleon III
Why did he change attitude to be more liberal after 1859 ?
What were the measures ?

Conclusion

Essay assignment (Hand in on 6/10/2006)
Choose one of the following questions.
1.
Assess the effectiveness of Napoleon III’s foreign policy. How did his foreign policy affect the political development of France up to 1871 ?
2.
Examine the impact of the French Revolution upon the political developments in
France in the period 1871-1914.
Essay assignment (Hand in on 6/10/2006)
Choose one of the following questions.
1.
Assess the effectiveness of Napoleon III’s foreign policy. How did his foreign policy affect the political development of France up to 1871 ?
2.
Examine the impact of the French Revolution upon the political developments in
France in the period 1871-1914.
Essay assignment (Hand in on 6/10/2006)
Choose one of the following questions.
1.
Assess the effectiveness of Napoleon III’s foreign policy. How did his foreign policy affect the political development of France up to 1871 ?
2.
Examine the impact of the French Revolution upon the political developments in
France in the period 1871-1914.
Essay assignment (Hand in on 6/10/2006)
Choose one of the following questions.
1.
Assess the effectiveness of Napoleon III’s foreign policy. How did his foreign policy affect the political development of France up to 1871 ?
2.
Examine the impact of the French Revolution upon the political developments in
France in the period 1871-1914.

Class assignment
What obstacles did Napoleon III face in creating a strong centralized government in
France ? To what extent did he succeed in overcoming those obstacles ?
Introduction
Body
4.
Discuss the obstacles Napoleon III faced in making a strong centralized government
1. Internal policy
2.
3. Foreign policy

5.
4.
3.
2.
To what extent the obstacles could be overcome ?
To _________ extent, the obstacles could be overcome.
1.
Conclusion

Discuss the role of Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) in the development of liberalism in France.
Liberalism in France began in France in the times of Napoleon and French
Revolution. At that time, popular sovereignty was justified. The Declaration of the
Rights of Men stated this idea. In 1830 Revolution, the nature was liberal. The
French revolted against the repressive rule of Charles X. After 1830, the Charter only changed superficially under Louis Phillippe. The rise of Louis Napoleon gave hope to the French. However, at first, there was not much liberal ideas under Louis
Napoleon until the Liberal Empire in 1859-1870.
Under the constitution – 1848, universal manhood suffrage was already granted to the French. This was the most liberal constitution in Europe at that time. The president and the Chamber of deputies were both elected by universal manhood suffrage. Freedom of press was also granted to the people.
But, later the Legislative knew that these were advantages for the President from universal manhood suffrage. So, the deputies narrower the franchise to the
French living in the same area for at least 3 years. Then, the workers were denied because they come from other places. Then Louis Napoleon, by posing himself the
‘defender of the right of the people’ urged to Legislature to cancel the law. But, it was rejected. Then, in order to maintain power, Louis Napoleon set up a coup d’etat to dissolve the legislature.
After the new election, universal manhood suffrage was restored and the
Parliament included 2 houses, the Senate and the Legislature.
After the setting up of the empire of restored of the monarchy, Napoleon III ruled France repressively. No liberal concessions were granted. It was because
Napoleon III thought that prosperity was more important to the people than the abstract liberal rights. So, in his regime, the executive power rose. The censorship of press were strict. The press were forced to deposit 50000 frances to the government, the press would lose the money. Association was nearly not allowed.
The professor in the university had to read the oath of loyalty. Secret police were set up. There were spices in universities and even in café. There was no more liberal concession except the universal manhood suffrage.
However, after a lot of failure of foreign policy, Napoleon granted more and

more liberal concessions to the people in order to please the liberals. In 1859, he granted an amnesty to the political exiles. There was the set up of the third party.
The trade union were legalized. The press of censorship was relaxed. Association was allowed. In the new election in 1867, the third party gained the majority.
Emile Olivia became the minister because he was the leader of the third party. The legislature was allowed to initiate law and control budget. Also, there was the cabinet and the minister had to be responsible for it. The parliament in France then was similar to the English parliamentary system. The parliament and the government became more and more responsible to the people.
In conclusion, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) played an important role in the development of liberalism in France. Under him, France was the first nation to have universal manhood suffrage. Although he was repressive in the early second empire, he became more and more liberal after 1859. If there was not the Franco-Prussia
War in 1870 and the end of the Second Empire, the liberalism in France could develop more to a great extent.

Why did revolutions break out in many parts of Europe in 1848 and why did they fail ?
1848 was called the “Year of Revolution” as revolutions broke out in many parts of Europe. In German and Italian states, the growing middle class aimed at liberty and nationality while in Austrian empire people aimed at mainly nationality.
In France, the middle and lower classes revolted against monopolization of upper middle class. The revolutions were the result of mainly political but also social and economic discontent. Revolutionaries were influenced by ideological background.
However, except the one in France, all revolutions failed due to a number of reasons like military inferiority, conflicting aims among revolutionaries, lack of mass support, foreign intervention, etc. Most importantly, the revolts broke out spontaneously that there was no systematic planning behind and so they were easily suppressed.
The revolutions were mainly political but also economic in character. In
France, middle and lower classes revolted against the domination of upper middle class in political affairs. In Vienna, Germans revolted against the aristocracy and autocracy of existing government. In Hungary and Prague, people revolted for liberty and autonomy. Similar cases happened in German states and Italian states.
They both demanded national self-determination and even national unification.
Political discontent was the result of industrialization which created a wealthy middle class. They were denied of the right to vote but they wanted to have a share in politics. There were repressive policies of existing government that their discontent grew.
Behind revolutions, there were revolutionary ideals. Ideological background was a major component of revolutionary movements. Romanticism encouraged both liberalism and nationalism. Romanticism stressed the importance of self-expression that contributed to the rise of liberalism and emphasized on traditions that contributed to the rise of national consciousness of peoples. People became aware the of their rights and demanded for national self-determination.
Liberalism and nationalism were also legacy of the French Revolution which made two ideas popular. One was popular sovereignty, the other was justification of revolution against unpopular monarch. In places where revolution never existed

before, like the Austrian Empire, these ideas had much influence among people.
Socialism was the result of economic exploitation of workers. Government adopted laissez-faire policies in dealing with the economic problems brought about by the French Revolution and economic crisis. They were the real sufferers and so they aimed at equalization of property. The setting up of national workshops after the
French Revolution showed that socialist ideas were on the rise.
Economic discontent was a contributory cause of 1848 revolutions. It united different categories of the society to work together for the political benefits of the people. Agricultural crisis in 1840s resulted in rapid increase in good prices while financial crisis caused widespread unemployment suffering. Together with the rapid growth of population, especially urban population, many social problems arose.
Indeed, the early revolts were economic riots, yet, the existing government simply suppressed them but learnt nothing from the riots, not improving the situations of the people.
Among the workers, artisans were affected most by the industrialism as they had no place in the society as a result of mechanization. Besides, there were unemployed workers and poor peasants, all were influenced by socialism. Lower class worked for economic benefits and middle class worked for political equality.
They were drew together in the revolutions.
Revolutions in other parts in Europe were encouraged but the success of the
1848 French Revolution and the fall of Metternich in March 1848. Nationalists saw it as a good chance to achieve their political equality or national independence, too.
Despite the strong revolutionary motives behind the revolution, all failed except that in France. Actually, the revolutions were only spontaneous uprisings on the whole, there were no definite aims, concrete plans and so they were easily suppressed.
The army, an essential element in a successful revolution remained loyal to the government like Windschgratz.
The revolutionaries had conflicting views and were not united. In Prague, there were difference between the Germans and Czechs as one claimed for complete independence but the other one for separate government. Conflicts were seen between Magyars and slavs. In German states, there was disagreement on the boundaries of independent German states and future form of government. In Italian

states, there were three possible national leaders and so three forms of government.
Military superiority of existing government could suppress the revolts easily.
Military power was increased by foreign intervention. There was Russian intervention in Hungarian revolt and French intervention in Roman Republic. The existing governments retained every means to restore power after the initial shock of revolutions.
Most of the uprisings were small in scale that lacked general or mass support.
The abolition of Robota kept quiet the peasants and so they contributed very little in the revolutions in Austria, Italian and German states. The workers were not yet a strong force. Revolutions confined only to middle class (except France). On the whole, the mass were very conservative, not yet prepared for a violent change in society.
In conclusion, revolutions broke out in 1848 were political in nature, stirred by economic crisis, influenced by ideological background. There were either against autocratic rule of alien rulers or worked for national independence. A small proportion did work for a betterment of economic life. They were failed (except in
France) because nationalism and liberalism were not yet a strong force among the general public. Behind, these two forces were backed by romanticism which was unrealistic, too impulsive. More systematic planning organization were necessary for the success of revolution. The revolution in France was a success due to mass support but this surely could not be found in other parts of Europe.

Compare and contrast the 1830 and 1848 Revolutions in France.
In the ears of 1830 and 1848, revolutions happened in France. The two revolutions were to overthrow Charles X and Louis Philippe respectively. In fact, some of the causes of the revolutions were quite similar such as social and economic background. But some were different as 1830 revolution was to overthrow the rule of nobles and that in 1848 was to overthrow upper middle class. They both started off a series of revolutions in Europe.
Firstly, their social background was similar. Because of the Industrial
Revolution, middle class grew in number and wealth. But, they still do not have the right to vote. Therefore, it provided sources of discontent and led to revolutions.
Also, the growth of working class indirectly helped the outbreak. As their working and living conditions were extremely poor, the government did not improve the situation, they became more inclined to socialism.
Secondly, there were economic crisis after 1826 and 1846. These led to bad harvest, unemployment and inflation and provided immediate cause for the two revolutions.
Ideologically, these revolutions were indirectly brought by the growth of nationalism and liberalism. This had to dated back to the French Revolution in 1789.
During the Napoleonic Era, military victories brought to the French, there was centralized administration and efficient government, fair taxation and mass conscription. These helped the growth of the Declaration of Rights of Men, liberalism among the French rose. They began to look for more liberties and right to vote. As in both revolutions, most revolutionaries did not have franchise and the government was oppressive, revolution broke out.
Politically, the revolutions happened because of the repressive measures adopted by the government. In the reign of Charles X, there was strict press censorship. Most of the French could not vote. Under Louis Philippe, the Law of
Association was passed to forbide all political gatherings. Thus, these oppressive act of government led to the revolutions.
The results of revolutions were also similar in that they both led to series of revolutions in Europe. After July Revolution, people in Belgium, Italian states,
German states and Poland revolted. After 1848 February Revolution, revolutions

also started in Austria, Italy and Germany.
There were also underlying weaknesses of both kings. As Charles X and
Louis XIII were restored by the statesmen in 1815, they were not welcomed by all
Frenchmen in 1815, they were not welcomed by all Frenchmen. Also, there were contradictions as there was restoration of monarch and granting of Charter. Besides,
Louis Philippe was seen as a weapons to avoid a republic. He was elected by French people and it implied that those who elected him had the right to get ride of him if he did not live up to their expectation. Thus, both the Bourbons and Orleans did not have firm foundation. Therefore, it indirectly contributed to the revolutions.
Moreover, the nature of the revolutions is the same. They were both based on liberalism. They demanded for more liberal concessions and broadened franchise rather than nationalism.
Nevertheless, the two revolutions differed in a lot of ways. First of all, 1830 revolution overthrew the rule of aristocracy – Ultra-Royalist. As under Charles X, the Ultra-Royalist government led by Villele and Poliquac. They tried to adopt a theocracy. Education were under Church control. There was compensation to
Emigres and law of Sacrileges. These made the French people discontented.
However, in the case of Louis Philippe, he did not revive Church power. It was a rule of plutocracy. The people mainly asked for a widened franchise.
Secondly, the people under Louis Philippe did not like his weak foreign policy as seen in the Belgian revolt, polish and Italian revolts. Portuguese and Spanish revolts, Syrian Question and Spanish Marriages Question. He determined to avoid war and to please Britain. But under the Bourbons, there was successful foreign policy as seen in the French intervention in Spanish revolts. This was one of the differences.
Moreover, under the Guizot government (1840-1848), it was corrupt and inefficient. He used bribes and tricks to keep his position. He promised promotion to deputies and granted favour to businessmen. He also denied to extend the franchise. These led to greater discontent and finally led to the revolution in July
1830. But these did not happen in 1848.
The results of the revolutions also differed. After 1830, monarchy still remained. Only the ruling royal family changed from Bourbons to Orleans. Louis

Philippe was being supported to the throne to avoid setting of a republic. However, after February revolution 1848, the Second Republic was set up in France, bringing about the end of Monarchy.
In short, the two revolutions similar in nature and underlying causes --- political, social discontent. Also, as romanticism was developing, the French people demanded more freedom. These led to the outbreak. On the other hand, 1830 and
1848 revolutions in France differed in that one was against aristocracy and one was against plutocracy. Monarchy ended after 1848 but not after 1830. Weak and cautious foreign policy also led to the downfall of Louis Philippe.

F. 7 – the Fourth History Test (France 1815-1914)
Choose one of the following questions.
1.
Account for the reasons for the stability of the Third Republic from 1971-1914 ?
2.
Discuss the impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon upon the political development of France up to 1875 ?
F. 7 – the Fourth History Test (France 1815-1914)
Choose one of the following questions.
1.
Account for the reasons for the stability of the Third Republic from 1971-1914 ?
2.
Discuss the impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon upon the political development of France up to 1875 ?
F. 7 – the Fourth History Test (France 1815-1914)
Choose one of the following questions.
3.
Account for the reasons for the stability of the Third Republic from 1971-1914 ?
4.
Discuss the impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon upon the political development of France up to 1875 ?
F. 7 – the Fourth History Test (France 1815-1914)
Choose one of the following questions.
3.
Account for the reasons for the stability of the Third Republic from 1971-1914 ?
4.
Discuss the impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon upon the political development of France up to 1875 ?
F. 7 – the Fourth History Test (France 1815-1914)
Choose one of the following questions.
5.
Account for the reasons for the stability of the Third Republic from 1971-1914 ?
6.
Discuss the impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon upon the political development of France up to 1875 ?