Sociology 611
Spring 2011, Hogan
hoganr@purdue.edu
website: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~hoganr
307 Stone Hall, MW:10-11:30 or by appointment (494-4679)
Social Inequality: Class, Race, and Gender
This course surveys the sociological analysis of inequality (or stratification), including
race, class, and gender. A general text (Grusky) provides readings for this survey. In addition,
students will choose to read two additional books from a series of recommended texts that offer
different theoretical and methodological approaches to the analysis of inequality. In weekly
class meetings we will discuss the various theories and methods sociologists have used to study
inequality. We will consider, for example, subjective versus objective, distributional versus
relational, quantitative versus qualitative, historical versus structural approaches to inequality.
Ultimately, students will choose an approach/perspective on inequality and carry-out a limited
analysis that might provide the basis for future (potentially publishable) research. Since the
course will be conducted as a research seminar as well as a survey of the literature, students will
be asked to contribute not simply general discussion of the common readings but written and oral
reports on particular recommended readings and on progress in research. The goal is for us all to
learn together in a collective effort that should be greater than the sum of its parts.
All books will be available for purchase at Vons (in the village)
Required Text
David B. Grusky (editor), Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological
Perspective, Third Edition (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2001). ISBN 13-978-0-8133-4373-0
Recommended Readings
Margaret L. Andersen and Patricia Hill Collins, Race, Class and Gender: An Anthology
(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2001). ISBN 0-534-5689-4
Angela Y. Davis, Women, Race & Class (NY: Vintage Books, 1983 [Random House, 1981])
ISBN 0-394-71351-6.
Michèle Lamont, The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and the Boundaries of Race, Class, and
Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000). ISBN 0-674-00306-3
Robert Perrucci and Earl Wysong, The New Class Society: Goodbye American Dream? Third
Edition. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008). ISBN 13-978-0-7425-4554-0
Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley, CA: University California Press, 1998).
ISBN 0-520-22170-2
Erik Olin Wright, Class Counts: Student Edition (NY: University of Cambridge Press, 1997).
ISBN 0-521-55646-5
Weekly Topics and Readings
First Class Meeting: Getting organized—no assigned readings
Second Class Meeting: Thinking about stratification/inequality
- Grusky's approach: read preface and Part I: pp. 2-28 in Grusky
- stratification in American sociology: read Part II: pp. 30-72 in Grusky
- how you/we want to think and talk about inequality
- recommended readings:
- Wilbert E Moore, 1963, "But Some Are More Equal Than Others." American
Sociological Review:28:13-18.
- Arthur L. Stinchcombe, "Some Empirical Consequences of the Davis-Moore
Theory." American Sociological Review 28:805-810.
Third Class Meeting: Theories of Inequality (Part I): read pp. 74-186 in Grusky
- Marxist theories
- Weberian Theories
- Durkheimian
- relation to functional theories (last week)
- prospects for synthesis
- recommended readings
- Veblen and Bourdieu: pp. 862-893 in Grusky
- Richard Hogan, 2005, "Was Wright Wrong? High Class Jobs and the
Professional Earnings Advantage." Social Science Quarterly 86 (3):645-663.
- Robert Perrucci and Earl Wysong, 2003, The New Class Society: Goodbye
American Dream? (Rowan and Littlefield)
- Charles Tilly, 1998 Durable Inequality (Berkeley, CA: University California
Press).
- Erik Olin Wright, 1997, Class Counts: Student Edition (NY: University of
Cambridge Press).
Fourth Class Meeting: Graduational Theories of Inequality (Part II): read pp. 187-265 in Grusky
- occupational prestige, status attainments, and measurement
- recommended readings
- Patrick Horan, 1978, "Is Status Attainment Research Atheoretical?" American
Sociological Review 43:534-541.
- Michèle Lamont, 2000, The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and the
Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press)
- Steven Rytina, 1984, "Life Chances and the Continuity of Rank." American
Sociological Review 54:910-928.
- Ross M. Stoltzenberg, 1975, "Occupations, Labor Markets, and the Process of
Wage Attainment," American Sociological Review 40:645-665.
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Fifth Class Meeting: Closure at the Extremes: Elites and the Poor: read pp. 268-417 in Grusky
- elites and masses
- poverty
- social policy
- recommended readings
- C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite
- G. William Domhoff, Who Really Governs
- Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, 1971, Regulating the Poor (NY:
Vintage)
Sixth Class Meeting: Mobility and Status Attainment: read pp. 420-515 in Grusky
- classical and contemporary studies
- from status attainment to human capital
- recommended readings
- Alan C. Kerchoff, 1984, "The Current State of Social Mobility Research."
Sociological Quarterly 25:139-153.
- Alan C. Kerchoff (editor), 1996, Generating Social Stratification: Toward a New
Research Agenda (Boulder, CO: Westview Press)
Seventh Class Meeting: education, aspirations, labor markets, networks and rationality
- psychological approaches: read pp. 516-549 in Grusky
- labor markets: read pp. 550-575 in Grusky
- networks: read pp. 576-609
- rationality: read pp. 610-622
- recommended readings
- Peter M. Blau, 1986, Exchange & Power in Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Books)
- Mary R. Jackman and Robert W. Jackman, 1983, Class Awareness in the United
States (Berkeley, University of California Press)
- Melvin L. Kohn, pp. 893-903 in Grusky
Eighth Class Meeting: racial inequality: read pp. 624-727 in Grusky
- recommended readings
- Margaret L. Andersen and Patricia Hill Collins, 2001, Race, Class and Gender:
An Anthology (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning).
- Richard Hogan, 2001, "Class, Race, and Gender Inequality." Race, Gender &
Class 8 (2):61-93.
- Melvin L. Oliver and Thomas M. Shapiro, 1997, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A
New Perspective on Racial Inequality (NY: Routledge)
Ninth Class Meeting: gender inequality: read pp. 730-860 in Grusky
- recommended readings
- Michelle J. Budig and Paula England, 2001, "The Wage Penalty of
Motherhood." American Sociological Review 66:204-225.
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- Richard Hogan, Carolyn C. Perrucci, and Autumn Behringer, 2005, "Enduring
Inequality: Gender and Employment Income in Late Career." Sociological
Spectrum 25:53-77.
- Barbara F. Reskin and Debra Branch McBrier, 2000, "Why Not Ascription?
Organizations' Employment of Male and Female Managers." American
Sociological Review 65:210-233.
- Donald Tomaskovic-Devey and Sheryl Skaggs, 2002, "Sex Segregation, Labor
Process Organization, and Gender Inequality at Work." American Journal of
Sociology 108:102-128.
- Alison J. Wellington, 1994, "Accounting for the Male/Female Wage Gap
Among Whites: 1976 and 1985." American Sociological Review 59:839-848.
Tenth Class Meeting: the future of inequality: read pp. 954-1062 in Grusky
Class Meetings 11-15: Your Projects and Related Issues. No assigned readings.
These last weeks will be reserved for student reports on research projects and discussion
of issues related to those reports. By this time we all should have read Grusky, two other
recommended books, and as much additional material as necessary to facilitate the research
project.
Additional Concerns
This will be a readings/research seminar for graduate students. The expectation is that
you will do all of the required readings prior to the class for which they are assigned and will
come to class prepared to discuss them. Similarly, it is expected that you know the rules
governing the appropriate use and citation of sources. Just for the record, plagiarism (the
presentation of other's ideas or words as one's own) is grounds for failure in the course and
disciplinary action that might well include expulsion from the university.
Your grade will be based on your class participation (~40%) and your final project
(~60%). We will discuss both in class.
This is the first time that I've offered this seminar, so it is very much a work in progress.
The books and articles selected as recommended readings, and even the textbook selected for
required reading, were selected tentatively. At this point, it seems most practical for us to read
Grusky together, while each of you develops ideas for a research project. My expectation is that
the Social Reserarch Institute (SRI) of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology will
provide you with as much technical assistance as you need to do secondary data analysis (which
is the path of least resistance, but not necessarily the easiest). Since this is likely to be a very
small class, I can offer individual assistance with both the theoretical and the methodological
problems that you are likely to encounter in your research.
There are, however, faculty and graduate student assistants who are specifically charged
with teaching methods and statistics. I have spent the last two decades teaching theory courses,
but I can certainly add to the recommended readings in order to tailor your readings to your
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individual interests. Plus, based on my research in this area, I have not only a fairly extensive
bibliography that we might draw upon but a fair amount of experience with different data sets
and different data-management and statistical software packages. At the moment, I have a 5%
sample of the national 1870 census of population and housing for the U.S., a complete
(population) set of comparable data for two adjacient towns in Georgia, and waves 1 (1992) and
5 (2000) of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) datasets on the hard drive of the computer in
my office. I also have some other data (summary statistics) that I've downloaded from the U.S.
Census website. John Stahura (director of SRI) has assured me that you/we can download just
about anything that you might need to do secondary data analysis (assuming that it is not illegal
or unethical and that you have passed the CITI tests and are qualified to do research on human
subjects at Purdue). The prospects for help in gathering your own data are more limited, but you
can always ask faculty (including me, although your major professor would be a good first
contact) for help.
My hope is that we will have stimulating discussions of the required and recommended
readings, leading to presentations of your research projects. As of now, I have no particular
agenda, other than providing a general background as a basis for a preliminary analysis of social
inequality. Your interests will shape the direction that we take, particularly in the closing weeks.
My intention is not to lecture but to facilitate discussion and to be a good secretary—taking notes
on our discussions that I might later expand into something like lecture notes.
My hope is that at the end of this semester each of you will have a paper that you might
be able to develop for publication. What I will have is a working bibliography, notes, and all the
other raw materials to produce an undergraduate version of this course (SOC 411), complete
with lectures, plus a better sense of what I might do the next time I teach this course.
Additional Readings (if you want more, just ask)
Abbott, Andrew. 1988. The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Agger, Ben. 1989. “Is Wright Wrong (Or Should Burawoy be Buried)? Reflections on the Crisis
of the ‘Crisis of Marxism,’” Berkeley Journal of Sociology 34:187-207.
Aldrich, Howard, and Jane Weiss. 1981. “Differentiation within the United States Capitalist
Class: Workforce Size and Income Differences,” American Sociological Review 46:279290.
Allessio, John and Julie Andrzejewshi. 2000. "Unveiling the Hidden Glass Ceiling: An Analysis
of the Cohort Effect Claim." American Sociological Review 65:311-15.
Anderson, Elijah and Douglas S. Massey. 2001. Problem of the Century: Racial Stratification in
the United States New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Baxter, Janeen and Erik Olin Wright. 2000. "The Glass Ceiling Hypothesis: A Comparative
Study of the United States, Sweden, and Australia." Gender & Society 14:275-94.
Behringer, Autumn, Rich Hogan, and Carolyn C. Perrucci. 2004. "Disentangling Disadvantage:
Race, Gender, Class, and Occupational Effects on the Employment Earnings of Older
U.S. Workers." International Journal of Contemporary Sociology 41, 2:147-162.
Bendix, Reinhardt, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds). 1966. Class, Status, and Power: Social
Stratification in Comparative Perspective. NY: Free Press.
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Bielby, William T., and Robert M. Hauser. 1977. “Response Error in Earnings Functions for
Nonblack Males,” Sociological Methods & Research 6, 1 (November):241-280.
Blau, Peter M., and Otis Dudley Duncan. 1967. The American Occupational Structure. NY: Free
Press.
Bowles, Samuel, and Herbert Gintis. 1976. Schooling in Capitalist America NY: Basic Books.
Burawoy, Michael. 1986. “Making Nonsense of Marx,” Contemporary Sociology 15, 5
(September):704-707.
Burawoy, Michael. 1989. “The Limits of Wright’s Analytical Marxism and an Alternative.”
Pages 78-99 in The Debate on Classes. NY: Verso.
Burawoy, Michael. 2003a. “Revisits: An Outline of a Theory of Reflexive Ethnography,”
American Sociological Review 68:645-679.
Burawoy, Michael. 2003b “South Africanizing U.S. Sociology,” From the Left, the newsletter of
the Section on Marxist Sociology of the American Sociological Association , 24, 3
(Fall):1, 12-13.
Cancio, Silvia A., T. David Evans, and David J. Maume, Jr. 1996. "Reconsidering the Declining
Significance of Race: Racial Differences in Early Career Wages." American Sociological
Review 61:541-56.
Carchedi, Guglielmo. 1975. “On the Economic Identification of the New Middle Class,”
Economy and Society 4:1-86.
Carchedi, Guglielmo. 1989. “Classes and Class Analysis.” Pages 105-125 in The Debate on
Classes. NY: Verso.
Cohen, Lisa E., Joseph P. Broshak and Heather A. Haveman. 1998. "And Then There Were
More? The Effects of Organizational Sex Composition on the Hiring and Promotion of
Managers." American Sociological Review 63:711-27.
Colclough, Glenna, and Patrick M. Horan. 1983. “The Status Attainment Paradigm: An
Application of a Kuhnian Perspective,” The Sociological Quarterly 24:25-42.
Cotter, David A., JoAnn DeFiore, Joan M. Hermsen, Brenda Marstellar-Kowalewski and Reeve
Vanneman. 1997. “All Women Benefit: The Macro-Level Effect of Occupational
Integration on Gender Earnings Equality.” American Sociological Review 62:714-34.
Cotter, David A., Joan M. Hermsen, Seth Ovadia and Reeve Vanneman. 2001. "The Glass
Ceiling Effect." Social Forces 80:655-82.
Davis, Kingsley, and Wilbert E. Moore. 1945. “Some Principles of Stratification,” American
Sociological Review 10:242-249.
DiQuattro, Arthur. 1984. “A Note on the Dispensibility of the Labor Theory of Value,” Review
of Radical Political Economics 16, 2/3:199-203.
England, Paula, Joan M Hermsen, and David A. Cotter. 2000. “The Devaluation of Women’s
Work: A Comment on Tam.” American Journal of Sociology 105:1741-60.
Feagin, Joe R. and Eileen O’Brien. 2003. White Men on Race: Power, Privilege, and the Shaping
of Cultural Consciousness. Boston: Beacon.
Ferree, Myra Marx and Bandana Pukayastha. 2000. "Equality and Cumulative Disadvantage:
Response to Baxter and Wright." Gender & Society 14:809-13.
Firestone, Juanita M., Richard J. Harris, Linda C. Lambert. 1999. “Gender Role Ideology and the
Gender Based Differences in Earnings.” Journal of Family and Economic Issues
20(2):191-215.
Fischer, Norman. 1984. “A Response to Arthur DiQuattro’s, ‘A Note on the Dispensability of the
Labor Theory of Value,’” Review of Radical Political Economics 16, 2/3:205-210.
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Griffin, Larry J. 1978. “On Estimating the Economic Value of Schooling and Experience,”
Sociological Method & Research 6, 3 (February):309-336.
Grusky, David B., and Jesper B. Sørensen. 1998. “Can Class Analysis Be Salvaged?” American
Journal of Sociology 103:1187-1234.
Halaby, Charles N., and David L. Weakliem. 1993 “Ownership and Authority in the Earnings
Function: Nonnested Tests of Alternative Specification,” American Sociological Review
58:16-30.
Halaby, Charles N. 1993. “Reply to Wright,” American Sociological Review 58:35-36.
Hall, Richard H. 1983. “Theoretical Trends in the Sociology of Occupations,” The Sociological
Quarterly 24:5-23.
Hauser, Robert M., Peter J. Dickinson, Harry P. Travis, and John N. Koffel. 1975 “Structural
Changes in Occupational Mobility Among Men in the United States,” American
Sociological Review 40:585-598.
Heyns, Barbara. 1978 “Review Essay, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and
the Contradictions of Economic Life. By Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis.” American
Journal of Sociology 83:999-1006.
Hogan, Richard. 2001. "Class, Race, and Gender Inequality." Race, Gender & Class 8 (2):61-93.
Hogan, Richard. 2005. "Was Wright Wrong?" High Class Jobs and the Professional Earnings
Advantage." Social Science Quarterly 86 (3):645-663.
Hogan, Richard, Mesook Kim, and Carolyn C. Perrucci. 1997. "Racial Inequality in Men's
Employment and Retirement Earnings." The Sociological Quarterly 38 (3):431-438.
Hogan, Richard and Carolyn C. Perrucci. 1998. "Producing and Reproducing Class and Status
Differences: Racial and Gender Gaps in U.S. Employment and Retirement Income."
Social Problems 45:528-49.
Hogan, Richard, Carolyn C. Perrucci and Autumn Behringer. 2005. "Enduring Inequality:
Gender and Employment Income in Late Career." Sociological Spectrum 25:53-77.
Horan, Patrick M. 1978 “Is Status Attainment Research Atheoretical?” American Sociological
Review 43:534-541.
Kalleberg, Arne L. 1983. “Work and Stratification: Structural Perspectives,” Work and
Occupations 10, 3 (August):251-259.
Kalleberg, Arne L., and Larry J. Griffin. 1980. “Class, Occupation, and Inequality in Job
Rewards,” American Journal of Sociology 85:731-768.
Kerckhoff, Alan C. 1984 “The Current State of Social Mobility Research,” The Sociological
Quarterly 25:139-153.
Lazonick, William H. 1978 “Social Institutions, Imperfect Information, and the Distribution of
Income: A Comment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 92:179-184.
Lindsey, J.K. 1983 “Classes in Marxist Theory,” Review of Radical Political Economics 15, 1
(spring):149-152.
Lord, George F., III, and William W. Falk. 1980. “An Exploratory Analysis of Individualist
Versus Structuralist Explanations of Income,” Social Forces 80:376-391.
Lord, George F., III, and William W. Falk. 1982. “Dual Economy, Dual labor, and Dogmatic
Marxism: Reply to Morrisey,” Social Forces 82:891-897.
Marx, Karl. 1844 “The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844.” Pages 66-125, in
Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader, Second Edition, NY: Norton, 1978.
Marx, Karl. 1867. Capital, volume 1. NY: International Publishers, 1967.
Marx, Karl. 1894. Capital, volume 3. NY: International Publishers, 1967.
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Maume, David J., Jr. 1999a. "Occupational Segregation and the Career Mobility of White Men
and Women." Social Forces 77:1433-59.
Maume, David J., Jr. 1999b. "Glass Ceilings and Glass Elevators: Occupational Segregation and
Race and Sex Differences in Managerial Promotions." Work and Occupations 26:483509.
Maume, David J., Jr. 2004. "Wage Discrimination over the Life Course: A Comparison of
Explanations." Social Problems 51:505-27.
McNall, Scott G., Rhonda F. Levine, and Rick Fantasia (eds.). 1991. Bringing Class Back In:
Contemporary & Historical Perspectives. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Morgan, Laurie A. 1998. "Glass-Ceiling Effect or Cohort Effect? A Longitudinal Study of the
Gender Earnings Gap for Engineers, 1982 to 1989." American Sociological Review
63:479-83.
Morgan, Laurie A. 2000. "Is Engineering Hostile to Women? An Analysis of Data from the 1993
National Survey of College Graduates." American Sociological Review 65:316-21.
Morrissey, Marietta. 1982. “The Dual Economy and Labor Market Segmentation: A Comment
on Lord and Falk,” Social Forces 82:883-890.
O’Brien, Robert M., and Val Burris. 1983. “Comparing Models of Class Structure,” Social
Science Quarterly 64:445-459.
Oliver, Melvin L. and Thomas M. Shapiro. 1997. Black Wealth/White Wealth: New Perspectives
on Racial Inequality. New York: Routledge.
Ozawa, Martha N. and Hak-Ju Kim. 2001. "Money's Worth in Social Security Benefits: BlackWhite Differences." Social Work Research 25 (1):1-14.
Parcel, Toby L., and Charles W. Mueller. 1983. “Occupational Differentiation, Prestige, and
Socioeconomic Status,” Work and Occupations 10, 1 (February): 49-80.
Parker, Robert Nash, and Rudy Fenwick. 1983. “The Pareto Curve and Its Utility for OpenEnded Income Distributions in Survey Research,” Social Forces 61:872-885.
Perrucci, Robert, and Earl Wysong. 1999. The New Class Society. Lanham, MD: Rowman and
Littlefield Publishers.
Portes, Alejandro, and Min Zhou. 1996. “Self-Employment and the Earnings of Immigrants,”
American Sociological Review 61:219-230.
Reskin, Barbara F. and Debra Branch McBrier. 2000. “Why Not Ascription? Organizations’
Employment of Male and Female Managers.” American Sociological Review 65:210-33.
Resnick, Stephen, and Richard D. Wolf. 1982 “Classes in Marxian Theory,” Review of Radical
Political Economics 13, 4 (winter): 1-18.
Resnick, Stephen, and Richard D. Wolf. 2003. “The Diversity of Class Analyses: A Critique of
Erik Olin Wright,” Critical Sociology 29, 1:7-27.
Robinson, Robert V. 1984. “Structural Change and Class Mobility in Capitalist Societies,” Social
Forces 63:51-71.
Robinson, Robert V. and Jonathan Kelley. “Class as Conceived by Marx and Dahrendorf: Effects
on Income Inequality and Politics in the United States and Great Britain,” American
Sociological Review 44:38-58.
Roemer, John, (ed.).1986. Analytical Marxism. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, Kevin B. 1981. “Class Structure and Intergenerational Mobility from a Marxian
Perspective,” The Sociological Quarterly 22:385-401.
Stabile, Donald. 1983 “The New Class and Capitalism: A Three-and-Three-Thirds-Class
Model,” Review of Radical Political Economics 15, 4:45-70.
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Stinchcombe, Arthur. 1968. Constructing Social Theories. NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Stinchcombe, Arthur. 1988 “Education, Exploitation, and Class Consciousness,” Critical
Sociology 15, 1 (spring):67-71.
Stolzenberg, Ross M. 1975 “Occupations, Labor Markets and the Process of Wage Attainment,”
American Sociological Review 40:645-665.
Tam, Tony. 1997. "Sex Segregation and Occupational Gender Inequality in the United States:
Devaluation of Specialized Training?" American Journal of Sociology 102:1652-92.
Tilly Charles. 1998. Durable Inequality. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Tomaskovik-Devey, Donald and Sheryl Skaggs. 2002. "Sex Segregation, Labor Process
Organization, and Gender Earnings Inequality." American Journal of Sociology 108:10228.
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Wellington, Alison J. 1994. "Accounting for the Male/Female Wage Gap Among Whites: 1976
and 1985." American Sociological Review 59:839-48.
Western, Mark, and Erik Olin Wright. 1994. “The Permeability of Class Boundaries to
Intergenerational Mobility among Men in the United States, Canada, Norway, and
Sweden.” American Sociological Review, 59, 606-629.
Wilson, William Julius. 1980. The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing
American Institutions. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Pp. 22-36 in Caste and Class Controversy on Race and Poverty, 2nd ed., edited by
Charles V. Willie. Dix Hills, NY: General Hall, Inc.
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Wright, Erik Olin. 1980. “Class and Occupation,” Theory and Society 9:177-214.
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Wright, Erik Olin. 1985. Classes. London: Verso.
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Wright, Erik Olin. 1989. “What is Analytical Marxism?” Socialist Review 19, 4(OctoberDecember):35-56.
Wright, Erik Olin. 1997. Class Counts: Comparative Studies in Class Analysis. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Wright, Erik Olin. 2000. “Metatheoretical Foundations of Charles Tilly’s Durable Inequality,”
Comparative Studies in Society and History 42, 2 (April):458-474.
Wright, Erik Olin. 2002. “The Shadow of Exploitation in Weber’s Class Analysis,” American
Sociological Review 67:832-853.
Wright, Erik Olin, Janeen Baxter and Gunn Elisabeth Birkelund. 1995. "The Gender Gap in
Workplace Authority: A Cross-National Study." American Sociological Review 60:40735.
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American Sociological Review 42:32-55.
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