FAITH AND REVELATION
A. WHAT IS REVELATION?
1. God’s Self-Disclosure
2. Three Stages of Revelation
B. KINDS OF REVELATION
1. Natural
2. Immediate
3. Mediate
4. Historical
5. Public
a. Deposit of Faith
6. Private
C. LOCI OF REVELATION
1. Scripture
a. Old Testament
b. New Testament
2. Tradition
a. Sensus Fidelium
b. Church Fathers
c. Church Councils
D. GUARDIAN OF REVELATION
1. Magisterium
a. Papal Infallibility
A. WHAT IS REVELATION?
God’s Self-Disclosure
When you speak to people about religion for any length of time, you notice a presupposition that
underlies much of their thinking. It’s revealed when they say things like, “Well, I guess we all search
for God in our own way,” or “All paths lead to God eventually,” or “Aren’t all religions ultimately
alike?”
Their assumption is that religion is strictly a human activity. People spend their entire lives
looking for God, and if they’re lucky they find Him. Jews might have insights about God which
Muslims do not, and Muslims might have insights which Christians do not. It’s not a matter of right
or wrong, but a matter of perspective. The religions of the world are like scattered groups of hikers
who begin climbing a mountain from different locations at the bottom. At first they cannot see each
other, and cannot imagine that they have much in common, but as they continue their ascent, they
move closer together, because they’re all seeking the same peak. By the time they reach the top they
are united.
There is much truth here. God is One, so it makes sense that those who seek Him with a sincere
heart cannot wander too far apart. It is certainly true that religions can learn from each other. Not
long ago, for example, Christians realized that Hindu meditation can be used to deepen their own
experience of prayer. And I think you will agree that spiritual people of any religion—Ghandi, for
example, or the Dalai Lama, or Martin Luther King—all have a real relationship with God.
But there is something very one-dimensional about all this. It assumes that God sits still on the
mountaintop, waiting to see who will find Him and who will not. Nothing could be further from the
truth. What Jesus said over and over again, is that God is in love with each one of us. Passionately.
Recklessly. Instead of just sitting on the peak, he is running down the mountain side in search of us.
If you want to know what God is doing right now, try to remember what you were doing the last
time you were in love. You probably couldn’t get the person out of your mind. You daydreamed
what it would be like to spend the rest of your life with that person. You took any opportunity to be
close to that person. And more than anything, you wanted that person to love you back. Why should
God be any different? If he’s really in love with us, he will want us to know that, in the hope that we
will love him back.
The Israelites were the first people to learn this great secret about God. They knew from
personal experience that Yahweh was never going to leave them alone, no matter how often they tried
to ignore him or replace him with another god. One Hebrew poet wrote that God is like a lovesick
young man who roams the country searching for his beloved:
I hear my love. See how he comes leaping over the mountains, bounding over the hills. My
love is like a gazelle, like a young stag. See where he stands behind our wall. He looks in
through the window, he peers through the opening. My love lifts up his voice, he says to me,
“Come then, my beloved, my lovely one, come. For see, winter is past, the rains are over and
gone.” (Song of Songs 2: 8-11, 3: 1-3)
This was the point Jesus made over and over again. Remember that in the parable of the
Prodigal Son, the father waited every day for his son to come home. Eventually he did. “And while
he was still a long way off, his father caught sight of him, and was filled with compassion. He ran to
his son, embraced him, and kissed him.” You cannot imagine how these words must have sounded to
Jesus’ listeners. In those days Jewish men didn’t run—that was beneath their dignity—nor did they
ever embrace other men in public. But this old man was so happy to see his son, that he hiked his
purple robes over his bony white legs and ran through the middle of town, and hugged his son in front
of everyone. Jesus’ point is that God is will do anything to get us back, even if it means making
himself look foolish.
The idea that God actively tries to communicate with human beings is called revelation. This
term is similar to the word “reveal,” which is no coincidence. They both come from the Latin
revelare, which means to reveal or to make known. What does God reveal? Truths about himself.
Therefore revelation is: God’s self-disclosure (self-revealing) to the human race. He does this
because He wants us to love Him for who He really is.
Here’s an example of what we mean by revelation. One of the core beliefs of Christianity is the
Trinity, that is, that God is three persons in one: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. They are not three
gods, but One God. They are not three “parts” or “aspects” of God, but each are fully God in
themselves. Now when I talk about the Trinity with students, someone inevitably rolls his eyes and
says, “I don’t understand why I have to believe this. Who makes up all this stuff anyway?” But he
totally misses the point.
Imagine you are dating someone whom you like a lot. You tell your girlfriend that, more than
anything, you want to be a doctor, because you want to help people and ease their suffering. Now
how you would feel if, after saying this, your girlfriend rolled her eyes and said, “Sheeeesh! Do I
have to know this stuff? You don’t expect me to remember it, do you? Are you sure you’re not just
making it up?”
We treat God the same way whenever we say things like, “Do I have to believe in the Trinity?”
In the entire 2,000 year history of the Church, there was never a group of bishops who huddled
together in a smoke-filled room and dreamed up the notion of three persons in one God. (Who would
make up something like that anyway?) Christians believe God exists as three persons because Jesus
revealed it to us. There’s no way we could have figured it out on our own. We consider it a privilege
and a gift to know this about God. He revealed it to us because he wants us to love him for who he
really is.
If you love me, you will keep my commandments. And I will ask the Father, and he will give
you another Advocate to be with you always, the Spirit of truth. (John 14:15-16)
Christianity, Judaism and Islam are called revealed religions because they all believe that God
has revealed himself to humanity. They might disagree about what God is saying, but they all agree
that God is someone who loves us, talks to us, challenges us, forgives us, and calls us home.
Sometimes we’re tempted to ignore Him when our relationship with Him becomes inconvenient, but
He has a way of gently working Himself back into our lives.
THREE STAGES OF REVELATION
God has revealed himself to us in stages throughout human history.1 First, He revealed himself
in a general way to everyone (and still does). He “provides men with constant evidence of himself in
created realities,”2 which is evidenced by the fact that almost every civilization in the world, no
matter how primitive or isolated, has worshipped some kind of higher power. God reveals himself in
the order and design of nature, the moral law written in our hearts, our sense of transcendence and
finitude, and our inescapable desires for justice, meaning, and immortality. As a result, almost
everyone has a general sense that God exists, although we may disagree about more specific things.
But God reveals himself in a still deeper way, one which they cannot figure out simply by
contemplating the created universe.3 For example, a person cannot know that God is all-merciful, or
that he exists as a Trinity, solely through the experiences mentioned above. If we are to know these
things, someone has to tell us more explicitly. So the second step in revelation began when, 4,000
1 C.C.C. #54-64
2 Dei Verbum 3
3 C.C.C. #50, Dei Verbum 6
years ago, God spoke in a special way to Abram, a Semitic nomad born near the city of Ur in
Mesopotamia.
God made a covenant (sacred promise) with Abram. If he and his descendants trusted Him and
worshipped only Him, God would bless and protect them, give them a home, and make them as
numerous as the stars. God’s long-term plan was to teach Abram’s descendants about himself (since
this would take a long time) and prepare them for the coming of Jesus. They would be the people
through whom God revealed himself to the world. In those days these people were called Israelites.
Today we call them Jews.
I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you; I will make your name great, so that
you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and curse those who curse you. All
the communities of the earth shall find blessing in you.
Look up at the sky and count the stars, if you can. Just so, shall your descendants be. I am
the LORD who brought you from Ur of the Chaldeans to give you this land as a possession.
(Genesis 12:2-3, 15:5, 7)
The Old Testament is the history of God revealing himself to the Israelites. It was not a simple
task. The earliest Israelites, like most of their neighbors, were generally primitive, warlike,
superstitious, polytheistic, backsliders, and practiced human sacrifices. And they naturally tended to
view God as much like themselves. This can be seen in many Old Testament stories, where God is
described as capricious and vengeful one minute, loving and merciful the next. Two thousand years
after Abram, when Jesus walked the earth, the Jews had certainly come a long way in their
understanding of God, but they still harbored many false ideas. (We will say more about this later.)
The third step in God’s revelation was the incarnation (becoming flesh), when he actually
became a human being and walked among us. This happened in the person of Yeshua bar Joseph
(as he was called by his contemporaries), an itinerant rabbi whose public ministry lasted three years.
In 29 A.D. he was executed by the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate; his alleged crime was sedition
against the Empire. Sixty years later Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian, wrote of Jesus’ life and
ministry in his book Antiquities of the Jews.
Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, a teacher of such men as receive the truth
with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles. When
Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross,
those who loved him at first did not forsake him, and the tribe of Christians, so named after
him, are not extinct at this day.
Christians believe Jesus of Nazareth was the perfect, ultimate way that God revealed himself to
the world.4 The reason is simple. What better way can God show himself than by becoming a
visible, tangible person? Any other kind of revelation—even God’s revelation to Moses and the
Israelites on Mt. Sinai—pales in comparison. That is why we cannot accept what some say, that God
sent other prophets after Jesus (like Mohammed or Joseph Smith), that were greater or equal to Jesus,
or somehow essential for humanity. After all, if God came to us as a human being, is it possible that
what he said wasn´t enough?
That is why, forty years after Jesus’ resurrection, an anonymous Christian wrote:
In times past, God spoke in partial and various ways
to our ancestors through the prophets;
in these last days, he spoke to us through a son,
4 C.C.C. #66-67
whom he made heir of all things and through whom he created the universe,
who is the refulgence of his glory,
the very imprint of his being,
and who sustains all things by his mighty word.
When he had accomplished purification from sins,
he took his seat at the right hand of the Majesty on high,
as far superior to the angels
as the name he has inherited is more excellent than theirs.
--Hebrews 1:1-4
B. KINDS OF REVELATION
When we say “God spoke to Abram” or “The Lord spoke through Isaiah the prophet,” what does
that mean exactly? Are we speaking literally or figuratively? Did Isaiah really hear a disembodied
voice, or was he just a holy man with better ideas about God? We now explore these questions by
examining six different kinds of revelation.
Immediate Revelation
The prophets were individual Israelites chosen by God to convey a message to the people. For
example, Elijah, Samuel, Amos, Hosea, Jeremiah, Isaiah, Micah, Ezekiel, and John the Baptist were
men whose prayer was gifted with an extraordinary perception and openness to God’s voice. They
received insights and messages immediately (directly) from God, which is why we call them immediate revelations.
Prophets sometimes received immediate revelations in the form of supernatural visions, dreams,
trances (states of deep hypnosis), and ecstasies (intense joy caused by a direct experience of God,
accompanied by temporary loss of reason). Isaiah described a vision he received in the Temple in
742 B. C.
In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord seated on a high and lofty throne, with the train
of his garment filling the temple. Seraphim were stationed above; each of them had six
wings: with two they veiled their faces, with two they veiled their feet, and with two they
hovered aloft.
“Holy, holy, holy is the LORD of hosts!” they cried one to the other. “All the earth is filled
with his glory!” At the sound of that cry, the frame of the door shook and the house was filled
with smoke.” (Isaiah 6: 1-4)
Ezekiel, a Hebrew priest, specified the date of his first vision so precisely that modern scholars
can calculate it on our calendar as July 31, 593 B.C. His vision has since become known as
“Ezekiel’s Wheel”.
In the thirtieth year, on the fifth day of the fourth month, while I was among the exiles by the
river Chebar, the heavens opened, and I saw divine visions. On the fifth day of the month, the
fifth year, that is, of King Jehoiachin’s exile, the word of the LORD came to the priest
Ezekiel, the son of Buzi, in the land of the Chaldeans by the river Chebar. There the hand of
the LORD came upon me.
As I looked, a stormwind came from the North, a huge cloud with flashing fire, from the
midst of which something gleamed like electrum. Within it were figures resembling four
living creatures that looked like this: their form was human, but each had four faces and four
wings, and their legs went straight down; the soles of their feet were round. They sparkled
with a gleam like burning bronze. . . .
When I had seen it, I fell on my face and heard a voice that said to me: Son of man, stand up!
I wish to speak with you. As he spoke to me, spirit entered into me and set me on my feet,
and I heard the one who was speaking say to me: Son of man, I am sending you to the
Israelites. . . (Ezekiel 1:1-7, 1:28-2:3)
The prophet Samuel heard God speaking directly to him while still a young boy (Sam. 3).
Abraham sometimes fell into trances (Gen. 15:12) or was visited by messengers who were more than
they seemed (Gen. 18). God gave a message to the prophet Zechariah in a dream (Zech. 1:8). St.
Paul was knocked off his horse by a flash of light (Acts 9:1-9; 22:1-11; 26:12-18) and later
experienced an ecstasy which he describes in a letter to the Christians in Corinth (2 Cor. 12:1-4).
This is not to say that God’s immediate revelations to the prophets were always dramatic,
supernatural events. Many prophets like Amos, Hosea, and John the Baptist probably were inspired
through prayer, personal experiences, and deep intimacy with God. Hosea, for example, married a
woman who was continually unfaithful. Everyone in town knew about it, so that Hosea became a
laughingstock. They urged him to leave her. Hosea refused. He was deeply in love with her, and
would always take her back, no matter how often she strayed. The neighbors thought Hosea a fool.
How could he allow himself to be used like that? “Just leave her and find someone else,” they said.
But Hosea recognized in this painful experience a striking parallel of God’s relationship with Israel.
Better than anyone, Hosea understood what God meant when he said that he loved Israel and would
never leave them. Hosea used his unfortunate story to teach his people.
Again the LORD said to me: Give your love to a woman beloved of a paramour, an
adulteress, even as the LORD loves the people of Israel, though they turn to other gods and
are fond of raisin cakes. . . . Then I said to her: Many days shall you wait for me; you shall
not play the harlot or belong to any other man. I in turn will wait for you. (Hosea 3:1,3)
The role of the Israelite prophets was to interpret present events and predict future events. Think
of a modern-day “prophet” like Martin Luther King, who challenged his own people by saying that
Americans’ hatred and prejudices are not a true expression of our religious faith, and if left
unchecked, will eventually destroy our nation. Many Americans recognized the truth in King’s
words, and loved him for having the courage to speak out. Other Americans despised him. Israelite
prophets experienced exactly the same thing. Amos, for example, chastized his own people for their
idolatry and neglect of the poor. It is one of the beautiful ironies of history that, 2,500 years later, his
words were engraved on a memorial to Martin Luther King in Memphis, Tennessee.
Let justice surge like water, and goodness like an unfailing stream! (Amos 5:12, 24)
Mediate Revelation
When a prophet received an immediate revelation, he was not supposed to keep it to himself.
His mission was to repeat God’s message either to the king or to all the people. Since the Israelites
received God’s messages mediated through the prophets, we say the people received mediate
revelations.
Then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, “Whom shall I send? Who will go for us?” “Here
I am,” I said; “send me!” And he replied: Go and say to this people. . . (Isaiah 6:8-9)
Comfort, give comfort to my people, says your God. Speak tenderly to Jerusalem, and
proclaim to her that her service is at an end, her guilt is expiated. Indeed, she has received
from the hand of the LORD double for all her sins. (Isaiah 39:1-2)
The word of the LORD has brought me derision and reproach all the day. I say to myself, I
will not mention him, I will speak his name no more. But then it becomes like a fire burning
in my heart, imprisoned in my bones; I grow weary holding it in, I cannot endure it.
(Jeremiah 20:8-9)
Since most of us do not receive immediate revelations, we come up against a difficult problem.
How do we know which prophets really speak for God and which do not? How can we tell which are
frauds or mentally unbalanced? These are not new questions. Hebrew prophets faced continual
obstacles in false prophets who told people whatever they wanted to hear. Jeremiah complained,
I have heard the prophets who prophesy lies in my name and say, “I had a dream! I had a
dream! How long will this continue? Is my name in the hearts of the prophets who prophesy
lies and their own deceitful fancies? (23:25-26)
Ezekiel faced similar problems.
Thus the word of the LORD came to me: Son of man, prophesy against the prophets of Israel,
prophesy! Say to those who prophesy their own thought: Hear the word of the LORD: You
did not step into the breach, nor did you build a wall about the house of Israel that would
stand firm against attack on the day of the LORD. Was not the vision you saw false, and your
divination lying? Therefore, thus says the Lord GOD: Because you have spoken falsehood
and have seen lying visions, therefore see! I am coming at you, says the Lord GOD. (13:1-8)
St. Paul was often angry at self-appointed teachers who frustrated his work by spreading
confusion and falsehoods among early Christian communities. False teachers even managed to
convince some of the early Christians that Paul was a fraud!
And what I do I will continue to do, in order to end this pretext of those who seek a pretext for
being regarded as we are in the mission of which they boast. For such people are false
apostles, deceitful workers, who masquerade as apostles for Christ. And no wonder, for even
Satan masquerades as an angel of light. So it is not strange that his ministers also masquerade
as ministers of righteousness. Their end will correspond to their deeds. (2 Corinthians 11:215)
Alexander the coppersmith did me a great deal of harm; the Lord will repay him according to
his deeds. You too be on guard against him, for he has strongly resisted our preaching. (2
Timothy 4:14-15)
There were also false prophets among the people, just as there will be false teachers among
you, who will introduce destructive heresies and even deny the Master who ransomed them,
bringing swift destruction to themselves. (2 Peter 2:1)
The question remains, then, how the Israelites differentiated between true and false prophets.
And how can we, looking back, place our own trust in people like Isaiah or Jeremiah? First, we must
admit that we can never prove with certainty that a certain prophet was authentic. In theory it is
always possible he or she was lying or deluded. But if we admit that God can and does speak to
people, then there must be a way to know with reasonable certainty. We begin by examining the
message itself. Is it consistent with what we know of God? Does it tell us what we want to hear, or
does it rouse the sting of conscience? Does the message leave us temporarily happy, but later
dissatisfied? Or is there something in it to which we return again and again, because we recognize a
timeless truth?
Thus says the LORD of hosts: Listen not to the words of your prophets, who fill you with
emptiness. Visions of their own fancy they speak, not from the mouth of the Lord. (Jeremiah
23:16)
We also need to consider the prophet. Does he have something to gain? Or does his message
bring him suffering? If it does, it seems unlikely that he’s a fraud. On the other hand, if he tells
people only what they want to hear, it’s a reason to suspect he’s false. The Israelite prophets
preached messages which were extremely unpopular at the time (and which, if taken seriously are still
unpopular today). Many faced bitter opposition and persecution. Jeremiah was thrown into a well.
Jezebel put a price on Elijah’s head. Amos was ridiculed as a country hick and expelled from the
city. Zechariah was murdered in his own Temple. John the Baptist was beheaded, as was St. Paul,
after repeated imprisonment and torture. Jeremiah complained
Woe to me, mother, that you gave me birth! a man of strife and contention to all the land! I
neither borrow nor lend, yet all curse me. Tell me, LORD, have I not served you for their
good? Have I not interceded with you in the time of misfortune and anguish? You know I
have.
Why is my pain continuous, my wound incurable, refusing to be healed? You have indeed
become for me a treacherous brook, whose waters do not abide! (1:10-11, 18)
Here’s how St. Paul defended himself from accusations that he was a false prophet. Notice how
his defense echoes criteria we mentioned above.
After we had suffered and been insolently treated, as you know, in Phillipi, we drew courage
through our God to speak to you the gospel of God with much struggle. Our exhortation was
not from delusion or impure motives, nor did it work through deception. But as we were
judged worthy by God to be entrusted with the gospel, that is how we speak, not as trying to
please human beings, but rather God, who judges our hearts. Nor, indeed, did we ever appear
with flattering speech, as you know, or with a pretext for greed--God is witness--nor did we
seek praise from human beings, either from you or from others, although we were able to
impose our weight as apostles of Christ. (1 Thessalonians 2:1-7)
Historical revelation
Sometimes God reveals himself in such a way that it can only be noticed by looking back at
historical events over a long period of time. For example, if anyone doubts that God really promised
to protect Abram and his descendants, one need only look at Jewish history to see that their survival
for the past four thousand years is nothing short of a miracle. Though they began as a small band of
smelly, illiterate nomads with no king or country, the Israelites outlived the Roman Empire, Ming
Dynasty, Holy Roman Empire, and powerful kingdoms in Egypt, Persia, Greece, Assyria, and
Babylon. All their Semitic neighbors in Mesopotamia--Hittites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Medes,
Philistines, Amorites--are now no more than names in history books, although all of them were once
more powerful and numerous than the Israelites. The Jews even survived repeated pogroms
(extermination attempts) by Antiochus IV, the Romans, and the Nazi party. It doesn’t take a genius
to see that something strange is going on.
Blaise Pascal noticed the same thing. In Pensées he wrote
Advantages of the Jewish people. In this inquiry the Jewish people first attract my attention
through a number of striking and singular features apparent in them.
I see first of all that they are a people wholly composed of brothers, and, whereas all other
peoples are made up of an infinite collection of families, these people, though unusually
numerous, are entirely descended from one individual, and being thus all one flesh and
members one of another comprise a powerful state of a single family: this is unique.
This family, or people, is the oldest known to man, which seems to me to earn it a special
respect. And above all in the inquiry we are conducting, since if God has throughout time
hold communication with men, it is to these that we must resort to know the tradition.
This people is not only of remarkable antiquity but has also lasted for a singularly long
period of time, extending continuously from its origin to the present day. For whereas the
peoples of Greece and Italy, of Sparta, Athens, Rome, and others who came so much later
have perished long ago, these still exist, despite the efforts of so many powerful kings who
have tried a hundred times to wipe them out, as their historians testify, and as can easily be
judged by the natural order of things over such a long spell of years. They have always been
preserved, however, and their preservation was foretold. And extending from the earliest to
the most recent times their history includes in its range that of all our histories.
My encounter with this people amazes me and seems worthy of attention. 5
Of all the historical events in the Jewish Scriptures, the Exodus holds pride of place for Jews and
Christians alike. That event represents like no other God’s power, majesty, and marvelous care for
his people. It is therefore not surprising that the oldest text in Jewish Scripture entire is a song
celebrating the Israelites’ escape from Egypt. Scholars believe the song was written before King
David’s conquest of Jerusalem in the 10th century before Christ.
I will sing to the LORD, for he is gloriously triumphant; horse and chariot he has cast into the
sea. My strength and my courage is the LORD, and he has been my savior. He is my God, I
praise him; the God of my father, I extol him. The LORD is a warrior, LORD is his name!
Pharoah’s chariots and army he hurled into the sea; the elite of his officers were submerged in
the Red Sea. . .
Who is like you among the gods, O LORD? Who is like you, magnificent in holiness? O
terrible in renown, worker of wonders, when you stretched out your right hand, the earth
swallowed them! In your mercy you led the people you redeemed; in your strength you
guided them to your holy dwelling. (Exodus 15:1-4, 11-13)
The Exodus is repeatedly celebrated throughout Jewish scriptures in psalms, prophetic writings,
and histories. Psalm 78 gives a sense of how important it was to the Israelites to remember their
history and pass it on to their children.
Attend, my people, to my teaching; listen to the words of my mouth. I will open my mouth in
story, drawing lessons from of old. We have heard them, we know them; our ancestors have
recited them to us. We do not keep them from our children; we recite them to the next
generation, the praiseworthy and mighty deeds of the LORD, the wonders that he performed.
(Psalm 78:1-4)
5 Trans. A. J. Krailsheimer. (Penguin Books, 1966) pp. 170-171, 177
The following chart is a brief history of the Jewish people. The middle column is the specific
historical event; on the right is a description of how Jews and Christians believe God revealed
Himself through it.
Date
circa. 1900 B.C.
Historical Event
Abraham moves from Haran to Canaan. His
father had moved from Ur in Babylon.
Religious Significance
God chooses Abraham to begin His revelation
in history. COVENANT begins.
Isaac and Jacob settle in Canaan; Jacob’s sons Jacob’s twelve sons mark beginning of twelve
seek relief in Egypt due to famine. Joseph
tribes of Israel. God brings good from evil.
becomes Egyptian prime minister.
circa 1700 B.C.
Hebrews enslaved in Egypt due to their
increasing numbers.
Yahweh’s promise that they will be numerous
as the stars is being fulfilled.
circa 1290 B.C.
The EXODUS
God delivers His people from extinction.
3 months later
Covenant at Mt. Sinai
Israelites make pact with God. Receive
Mosaic Law.
one year later
Israelites begin trek to Canaan.
Israelites’ sins and backsliding cause delays
and added hardships.
circa 1250 B.C.
Joshua leads Israelites into Canaan.
God gives them the Promised Land.
1200-1020 B.C.
Period of the Judges. One or more tribes war
with neighboring peoples.
Israelites forget their covenant; enemies
conquer them; Israelites repent; God sends a
war-hero like Samson to save them.
1020 B.C.
Samuel anoints Saul first human king of
Israel. Saul enjoys many victories in battle.
God fulfills promise to make Israel a great
nation; Israelites complain about not having a
human king.
1000 B.C.
Samuel anoints David second king of Israel.
David unites all 12 tribes into one nation; is
greatest king in Israelite history.
Although David sins greatly, he loves God
deeply. God promises the Messiah will come
from David’s ancestors.
961 B.C.
King Solomon, David’s son, builds the first
great Temple for Israelite worship. He is
famous for his great wisdom.
Solomon sins greatly by worshipping the false
gods of his wives.
930 B.C.
Solomon’s son Rehoboam stirs tax
controversy; Israelite kingdom splits in two.
10 northern tribes = Israel.
2 southern tribes = Judah.
Israel suffers consequences of Solomon
breaking the Covenant. THE DIVIDED
KINGDOM.
922 B.C.
Divided Kingdom subject to invasions.
North lasts until 820 B.C. South lasts until
587 B.C. (Border 10 miles north of
Jerusalem.) South retained Ark, Temple, and
Davidic monarchy, Jerusalem as capital.
North makes Jeroboam 1st king; renovates
shrine-cities Dan and Bethel to rival
Jerusalem. Omri (6th king) establishes
Samaria as capital.
Israelites’ hardships due to failure to remain
faithful to Covenant. Jeroboam built golden
calves in Dan and Bethel to replace Ark as
Yahweh’s seat. No one condemns this until
much later; sets the stage for idolatry to Baal,
when King Ahab marries Phoenician Jezebel.
Psalmists call for Messiah to restore Kingdom
of David.
900 B.C.
Beginning of age of Prophets.
Elijah, Elisha, Amos, Hosea in North.
Isaiah, Jeremiah in South.
Prophets keep faith alive in Israel; royal
advisors and spokesmen for God. Interpret
present events (like ML King, Jr.) or foretell
future, especially with regard to Messiah.
722 B.C.
Sargon II of Assyria conquers Northern
King-dom; divides it into 4 provinces:
Magidu, Duru, Gilead and Samaria. Israel
ruled latter. Most Israelites deported and
never heard from again; now called “lost
tribes of Israel”. Remnants intermarried
occupying forces and became “Samaritans”.
Israel ignored warnings of Amos, Hosea,
Elijah and Elisha; infidelity to Yahweh causes
“Day of the Lord” (Amos 5:20). Judah
remains confident because they are still led by
Davidic kings; soon they too drift into
idolatry. Micah and Isaiah step up warnings.
701 B.C.
Assyrian king Sennacherib marches on
Jerusalem; retreats next day after plague
devastates his forces.
Israelites experience close brush with
extinction; reminded of their need for
Yahweh.
640 B.C.
Boy-king Josiah realizes how perverted Judah
has become. Decrees religious reform;
backed by prophets Nahum, Zephaniah,
Habakkuk, and Jeremiah.
Jeremiah forced to confront sinful Israelites
by himself after Josiah is murdered; despite
eloquent pleas, he is rejected by the people
and thrown into pit. The Israelites’ hearts are
hardened against Yahweh.
587 B.C.
BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. Babylonian
king Nebuchadnezzar destroys Jerusalem,
capital of Southern Kingdom. People of
Judah deported to Babylon.
Exile to Babylon lowest point in Israelite
history. King dethroned, Temple destroyed,
Ark lost, nation of Israel in chains. Ezekiel
and Second Isaiah comfort the captives.
537 B.C.
Cyrus of Persia conquers Babylon, permits
Israelites to return and rebuild Temple.
Israelites called “Jews” for first time. Lack of
political freedom frees Jews to concentrate on
religion.
People rededicate themselves to Yahweh.
Prophet Ezra preaches devout adherence to
Mosaic Law. Scribes begin writing down the
oral tradition.
Jews gradually become isolationists.
Jews think Yahweh cares only for them.
Malachi preaches universality of God’s
kingdom; Jonah sent to Assyrians at Nineveh.
Isolationism ends when Alexander the Great
defeats Persians under Darius II (Egypt and
Near East). After his death Palestine changes
hands between Egyptian and Syrian empires.
Synagogue meetings and Temple worship
remind Jews of their destiny as a nation.
Scripture codified into final form.
333 B.C.
200 B.C.
Syrian king Antiochus IV attempts forcible
Hellinization of Jews. Commands worship of
pagan gods and construction of temples.
Prophet Daniel consoles Jews using tales of
boy-hero named Daniel; also has mystical
prophecies of Messiah.
168-142 B.C.
Maccabean brothers incite revolt, regain
control of Temple. Their descendants,
Hasmoneans, rule until Roman occupation.
Jews see God’s hand in saving them from
destruction.
63 B.C.
Pompey conquers Jerusalem.
Romans give Jews permission to worship
Yahweh freely.
37 B.C.
Romans crown Herod the Great puppet king
of Judah.
Herod serves as bridge between Old and New
Testaments.
4 B.C.
Jesus of Nazareth born in Bethlehem.
The fulfillment of Messianic prophecies.
Public Revelation
Revelation which God intends for everyone’s benefit is called public revelation. The reason it is
intended for everyone is that it pertains to knowledge which is necessary for one’s salvation or a
correct understanding of God and his salvific work in Jesus Christ.6
Public revelation assumes several forms. When the prophets received immediate revelations,
they were not supposed to keep it to themselves. God usually instructed them to transmit the
messages to the people. Thus, even though these revelations first came to an individual, they are also
called public revelations. Natural revelation is also public, since, by definition, it is accessible to all
people at all times.
The sacred truths of the Christian faith which God revealed to us in public revelation are called
the Deposit of Faith. Specifically, what does this deposit include? Those truths found in Old
Testament scriptures, e.g., that God is Creator of the universe, or that there was a Fall of Man, are part
of the deposit. The teachings of the apostles, including St. Paul, and those of the other New
Testament writers, also belong to the deposit. And since Jesus, as we said before, is the perfect
revelation of the Father, all his teachings and commandments are included in the deposit. We can
phrase this another way by saying that the doctrines (beliefs and teachings) of the Christian faith,
e.g., that God exists as Trinity, or that Jesus redeemed us by his death and resurrection, are part of the
sacred deposit because they are knowledge which was revealed publicly and which concern essential
aspects of our Faith.
Orthodoxy means the correct teachings of the Church, as found in the Deposit of Faith. For
example, that Jesus is both fully human and fully divine is an orthodox teaching of the Church.
Orthodoxy’s opposite is heresy (false teaching) an assertion which distorts, ignores, or contradicts a
doctrine in the Deposit of Faith. The Arian heresy of the fourth century, for example, maintained that
Jesus was human but not divine. Docetism was another early heresy which held the Jesus was divine
but not human. An example of an early heretic is Marcion, a Christian who believed the Jewish
scriptures should be removed from the Bible because they have no relevance for Christians. The
early Church rejected Marcion’s assertion and eventually excommunicated him.
6 C.C.C. #74-75, Dei Verbum 6
Private Revelations
Since the time of Jesus, certain Christians continue to receive visions or insights from God.
They are called mystics, especially if they receive these revelations on more than one occasion.
Famous mystics include St. Paul, St. Theresa of Avila, St. John of the Cross, and St. Ignatius Loyola.
St. Paul, if you remember, was knocked to the ground by a vision of the resurrected Jesus (Acts 9:1-9,
22:3-16, 26:2-18, 1 Cor. 15:8), and in his second letter to the Corinthians (12:1-4) he describes an
ecstasy in which he had a supernatural experience of Paradise. And St. Ignatius recounts in his
autobiography that, while recovering from an injury to his leg, he saw the Blessed Mother holding the
Child Jesus. It changed his life forever.
These revelations are called private because they are not intended for everyone. They are
addressed to one or several Christians, in order to strengthen their faith or give them consolation in a
particular time and situation. When St. Ignatius received his vision of the Blessed Mother, for
example, he was struggling to decide whether to continue his life of chivalry or follow Christ into a
new kind of battle. His vision helped him make that decision.
Marian apparitions are one example of private revelations. The authority of the Church
acknowledges that the Blessed Mother has probably appeared to certain individuals over the
centuries. Lourdes, Fatima, and Guadalupe are three instances where the Church investigated the
supposed revelations, and concluded that there is sufficient reason to believe the visions are genuine.
However--and this needs to be stressed--private revelations are not intended for everyone, and
therefore do not form part of the Deposit of Faith. Catholics are not obliged by the authority of the
Church to believe in specific private revelations, if they believe the evidence for a particular claim is
not compelling. It is not essential to Christian faith to believe the Blessed Mother appeared to
Bernadette at Lourdes. Whatever Mary said, it was not intended to supplement or correct anything in
the Deposit of Faith--as if Jesus would have forgotten to tell us something important!7
C. LOCATION OF REVELATION
Where do we find the Deposit of Faith? Where is this body of knowledge which God has
revealed partially through the prophets, and perfectly in his Son? Where can one go to discover
God’s communications to the human race? Catholics believe it is located in two closely-related
sources, Scripture and Tradition. We will examine them both in turn.
Sacred Scripture (the Bible)
All scripture is inspired by God and useful for refuting error,
for guiding people’s lives and teaching them to be upright.
--2 Timothy 3:16
God is the author of Sacred Scripture. This doesn’t mean the Bible fell out of the sky in its
present form, although some Christians seem to think it did. Nor does it mean the writers took
dictation while God whispered in their ears. Instead we say the writers were inspired (influenced by
the Holy Spirit).
To compose the sacred books, God chose certain men who, all the while he employed them in
this task, made full use of their own faculties and powers so that, though he acted in them and
by them, it was as true authors that they consigned to writing whatever he wanted written, and
no more.
7 C.C.C. #66-67
Since, therefore, all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as
affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly,
faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished
to see confided to the sacred Scriptures.8
“For the sake of our salvation” is a key phrase. The truths necessary for us to reach heaven are
revealed without error in the Bible--but this does not mean that every sentence should be understood
literally in matters of science and history. Biblical writers, like all writers, are a product of their
culture. Many of them used images, phrases, stories, codes, and literary devices which were popu-lar
in their day. Their relatively limited knowledge of physics and astronomy was also reflected in their
writing.
“The Bible was written to show us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go.”
--Galileo Galilei
The Old Testament (Jewish Scriptures)
The Old Testament is a collection of books, written at widely different times and places, which
reflects the long history and rich culture of the Jewish people. People tend to forget that today. When
they ask questions like, “Is the Old Testa-ment literally true or not?” they treat it as if it were one
book written by a single author. But that’s as silly as asking, “Is the library true or not?” It depends
on what shelf of books you’re talking about. A library contains books devoted to history, fiction,
theology, philosophy, music, and mythology. So does the Old Testament.
Genesis 1-11:
Genesis 12-50:
Exodus:
Leviticus:
Judges:
Job:
Psalms:
Proverbs:
Ecclesiastes:
Isaiah, Jeremiah, etc.
I and II Kings:
I and II Maccabees:
Mythology
History with some mythical elements
History with some mythical elements
Religious laws
Popular legends with historical bases
Dramatic poem
Song lyrics
Didactic poetry
Philosophy
Prophetic Writings
Israelite history
Israelite history
circa 600 B.C.
circa 600 B.C.
circa 600 B.C.
circa 600 B.C.
circa 950 B.C.
circa 500 B.C.
circa 600-200 B.C.
circa 425 B.C.
circa 300 B.C.
circa 600-100 B.C.
circa 610 B.C.
circa 100 B.C.
When students learn that certain stories in the Old Testament should not be taken at face value,
someone inevitably says, “Well, if one part of the Old Testament is symbolic, then maybe the whole
thing is!” But this is childish reasoning. The fallacy becomes evident when you apply the same logic
to a library: “If some of the library’s books are fictional, then maybe they all are!” In theory it’s
possible. But in reality we know they’re not. How do we know? By analyzing the books
themselves.
When scholars examine the creation stories in Genesis, for example, they recognize three things
right away. First, in most places the stories contradict what has been definitively established by
science. Second, their style (but not their theological content!) is often similar to the creation stories
of neighboring cultures at that time. Third, there are two separate creation stories in Genesis, which
contradict each other if taken literally. The person who compiled the oral traditions of the Israelites
8 Dei Verbum 11
into the book we call Genesis9 was no fool; he chose to include two stories even though it is obvious
they contradict; therefore he could not have expected them to be taken literally. Put these pieces
together and it becomes obvious that the first two chapters of Genesis should not be classified as
“history” in the modern sense of the word.
Now, what about someone like King David, one of the greatest heroes in Jewish history? He is
the principal figure in a number of Old Testament books, especially 1 and 2 Kings. Seventy three
psalms are attributed to him, and Jesus refers to him often in the gospels. How do we know whether
the stories about David are true? As a matter of fact, many scholars denied they were. Some even
went so far as to say that David never existed. But they were wrong. Archaeologists have recently
discovered stone tablets in Palestine which refer to King David of the Israelites. Second, many of the
customs, rituals, and beliefs mentioned in 1 and 2 Kings match what historians know to be true about
the Middle East at that time, so we know these books are reasonably accurate in the details. Third,
archaeologists have unearthed ancient cities mentioned in 1 and 2 Kings, cities whose inhabitants
were allies or enemies of the Israelites. Lastly, the books’ writing style, which lacks hyperbole or
poetic structure, strongly indicates the texts were intended to be historical narratives.
Scripture scholars also appeal to a principle called the criterion of embarrassment. This means
it is unlikely people would write humiliating stories about themselves unless the stories were true and
the people felt a need to remember them. The ancient Jews were a proud people. Old Testament
accounts of their enslavement to the Egyptians, the Babylonian Exile, their infidelity to Yahweh, and
their backsliding and sinfulness, make them look very bad. If the Jews wanted to write stories about
why their God was so great, one thinks they could have done it without humiliating themselves.
Messianic Prophecies
One of the repeated themes throughout the Old Testament is the prediction of a Messiah
(anointed one) who would one day overthrow the enemies of the Israelites and lead them into a
glorious new kingdom. Many Israelites thought the Messiah would be a military hero. Reading the
prophecies, itÕs easy to see why they thought so. But other Israelites were convinced the prophecies
foretold the coming of a spiritual savior, not a military one.
For a son is born to us, a son is given us, upon his shoulder dominion rests. They name him
Wonder-Counselor, God-Hero, Father-Forever, Prince-of-Peace. His dominion is vast and
forever peaceful, from David’s throne, and over his kingdom, which he confirms and sustains
by judgment and justice, both now and forever. The zeal of the Lord of hosts will do this!
(Isaiah 9: 5-6)
But you, Bethlehem-Ephrathah, too small to be among the clans of Judah, from you shall
come forth for me one who is to be ruler in Israel; whose origin is from of old, from ancient
times. He shall stand firm and shepherd his flock by the strength of the LORD, in the
majestic name of the LORD, his God; and they shall remain, for now his greatness shall reach
to the ends of the earth; he shall be peace. (Micah 5: 1, 3-4)
If Jesus is the fulfillment of these Messianic prophecies, is the Old Testament now obsolete?
Absolutely not. (Remember, that’s what the heretic Marcion believed.) It remains the Word of God,
which is why we hear a passage from the Jewish scriptures at every Sunday Mass. The New
Testament completes the Old Testament, but does not render it void. The Jewish scriptures contain
many sacred truths, some of which we understand better than the Jews did at the time, because they
did not know Jesus.
9 Genesis was put in its present form by an editor who pulled together stories and histories from a variety
of sources. Therefore it is incorrect to refer to a single writer.
For in the context of the human situation before the era of salvation established by Christ, the
books of the Old Testament provide an understanding of God and man and make clear to all
men how a just and merciful God deals with mankind. These books, even though they
contain matters imperfect and provisional, nevertheless show us authentic divine teaching. 10
Christians should accept with veneration these writings which give expression to a
lively sense of God, which are a storehouse of sublime teaching on God and of sound
wisdom on human life, as well as a wonderful treasury of prayers; in them, too, the
mystery of our salvation is present in a hidden way.11
Interpretation of the Old Testament
The Old Testament is a history of God’s revelation to the Israelites. We would expect their
understanding of him to be somewhat less refined at earlier periods in their history, 12 and when we
examine Jewish scripture, we find this is indeed the case. Remember, before God made his covenant
with Abraham, he and his people were polytheistic idolaters, just like all the other tribes in Mesopotamia. God had his work cut out for Him; changing their beliefs and attitudes was not going to
happen overnight. It is not surprising then, that in the Pentateuch (first five books of the Old
Testament) the Israelites describe God as loving and tender one minute, but angry and vengeful the
next. For example
For I, the LORD, your God, am a jealous God, inflicting punishment for [sinners’]
wickedness on the children of those who hate me, down to the third and fourth generation; but
bestowing mercy down to the thousandth generation, on the children of those who love me
and keep my commandments.13
[The Israelites] complained against God and Moses, “Why have you brought us up from
Egypt to die in this desert, where there is no food or water? We are disgusted with this
wretched food!” In punishment the LORD sent among the people saraph serpents, which bit
the people so that many of them died.14
Today we understand that God cannot will anything that is evil, like inflicting punishment on the
descendants of sinners or sending snakes to bite people. Jesus made it clear that God does not cause
anyone to suffer, nor does He punish anyone for their sins.15 Rather, sin punishes itself. But the
theology of the ancient Israelites wasn’t quite that sophisticated yet. They were still working out of
the old mentality that Yahweh was like them: irritable, fickle, and vengeful. So what really
happened with the snakes? To be honest, we don’t know for sure. Perhaps the best way to interpret
the incident is that when the Israelites grumbled against Moses, they violated their covenant with
Yahweh by choosing not to trust in his care. Without his protection the Israelites were left to their
own resources, and as a result wandered into dangerous territory. When they repented, God saved
them.
10
11
12
13
14
15
Pius XI, Encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, 14 March 1937: AAS 29 (1937), p. 151.
Dei Verbum 15
C.C.C. #122; Dei Verbum 15.
Exodus 20: 5-6
Numbers 21: 5-6
Cf. Luke 13:1-5
A similar explanation might hold for the ten plagues which prompted Pharoah’s release of the
Israelite slaves (Exodus 7-12). For the most part the plagues are similar to natural phenomena
common in the Nile valley. The river has been known to turn red during flood season when the water
sweeps up clay and mineral deposits. It then stagnates in pools, which attracts disease-carrying frogs,
gnats, flies, and locusts. Do not misunderstand, Christians firmly believe that God is responsible for
freeing his people, but perhaps he did it by working through these natural phenomena. Perhaps the
Nile’s annual flooding was much worse than usual the year Moses was arguing with Pharoah, and
both men recognized God’s hand in the situation.
As the centuries progressed the Israelites’ understanding of God began to change. In the book of
Wisdom, for example, written only a hundred years before Jesus, the reader can see a new belief in
personal immortality, as opposed to the Israelites’ earlier belief in annihilation. The sacred writer,
like most of the later prophets, also began to place more emphasis on God’s love, mercy, and
patience, and less emphasis on God’s anger and vengeance.
But the souls of the just are in the hand of God, and no torment shall touch them. They
seemed, in the view of the foolish, to be dead; and their passing away was thought an
affliction, and their going forth from us, utter destruction. But they are in peace. For if before
men, indeed, they be punished, yet their hope is full of immortality. . . (Wisdom 3:1-4)
God did not make death, nor does he rejoice in the destruction of the living. For he fashioned
all things that they might have being; and the creatures of the world are wholesome, and there
is not a destructive drug among them. . . (Wis. 1:13-14)
But you [God] have mercy on all, because you can do all things; and you overlook the sins of
men that they may repent. For you love all things that are, and loathe nothing that you have
made; for what you hated, you would not have fashioned. . . But you spare all things, because
they are yours, O LORD and lover of souls, for your imperishable spirit is in all things.
Therefore you rebuke offenders little by little, warn them, and remind them of the sins they
are committing, that they may abandon their wickedness and believe in you, O LORD!
(Wisdom 11: 24, 26; 12: 1-2.)
The New Testament (Christian Scriptures)
The New Testament is a collection of twenty seven books and letters written by first century
Christians after the Pentecost. The four gospels in particular are the core of Christian Scripture,
because they are “the principal source for the life and teaching of the Incarnate Word, our Savior.”16
New Testament texts, like the Old, are of different styles, and were composed by different
authors at different times. Its breakdown looks something like this:
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John
theological biographies of Jesus
circa 65-95 A.D.
Acts of the Apostles
early church history
circa 80-90 A.D.
Romans, Galatians, Ephesians,
1 & 2 Corinthians, Colossians, etc.
letters from St. Paul to specific churches
(13 total)
circa 50-65 A.D.
Hebrews
religious essay
circa 70-80 A.D.
16 Dei Verbum 18, C.C.C. #125
James, 1 & 2 Peter, Jude, 1, 2, 3 John
letters to entire church (7 total)
circa 60-100 A.D.
Revelation
encoded message to particular churches;
perhaps also a description of private
revelation to John of Patmos
circa 80-100 A.D.
St. Paul’s letter to the Christians in Thessolonika, written about the year 51, is the oldest text in
the New Testament. If Paul wrote earlier letters, we do not know about them. During his missionary
journeys Paul wrote dozens of letters to various Christian communities around the Empire, many of
which were included in the New Testament. He continued these letters right up until the time he was
martyred in Rome in the year 67.
Of the four gospels, scholars generally agree that Mark was written first. Its author was not one
of the twelve apostles. John Mark, a young Christian whom Paul mentions several times in his
letters, wrote this gospel sometime between 65-70. There is some evidence that Mark’s gospel is
based on stories which he heard from the apostle Peter, and which he translated from Aramaic
(Peter’s language) into Greek. The gospels of Matthew and Luke were written sometime between 7585, while John’s gospel was later, near the end of the first century.
The Book of Revelation, also called the Book of the Apocalypse, was written last. Scholars
generally agree that it was composed by an otherwise unknown Christian named John of Patmos17
about the turn of the century. Patmos is a small island off the west coast of modern Turkey, which
the Romans used for a penal colony. Systematic persecution of the Christians had already begun by
John’s time, and many speculate that the book’s highly symbolic imagery may have been an attempt
to prevent Romans from understanding its contents.
Obviously the evangelists (gospel writers) could not write down everything that Jesus said and
did during his earthly life. They had to choose which memories of him to include and which to omit,
something that must have been painfully difficult to do. But Christians believe they made their
decisions under the sacred guidance of the Holy Spirit. That’s partly what we mean when we say the
New Testament is inspired. The Spirit guided the evangelists not only in the selection of the stories,
but also in their description, so that the gospels provide true and certain knowledge of the life of our
Lord.
Holy Mother Church has firmly and with absolute constancy maintained and continues to
maintain, that the four Gospels just named, whose historicity she unhesitatingly affirms,
faithfully hand on what Jesus, the Son of God, while he lived among men, really did and
taught for their eternal salvation, until the day when he was taken up. For, after the Ascension
of the Lord, the apostles handed on to their hearers what he had said and done, but with that
fuller understanding which they, instructed by the glorious events of Christ and enlightened
by the Spirit of truth, now enjoyed. The sacred authors, in writing the four Gospels, selected
certain of the many elements which had been handed on, either orally or already in written
form, others they synthesized or explained with an eye to the situation of the churches, the
while sustaining the form of preaching, but always in such a fashion that they have told us the
honest truth about Jesus. Whether they relied on their own memory and recollections or on
the testimony of those who “from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the
Word,” their purpose in writing was that we might know the “truth” concerning the things of
which we have been informed (cf. Lk. 1:2-4).18
17 Some believe John of Patmos is the same person as the apostle John, but this is highly unlikely.
18 Dei Verbum 19
The books and letters we now have in the New Testament were not the only ones written. St.
Paul and other Christians wrote letters which we no longer possess. And literally dozens of gospels
about Jesus were written in the first and second centuries. They bear names like Gospel of Thomas,
The Secret Gospel of Mark and the Proto-Evangelium of James. While many of these gospels
probably contain real sayings and deeds of Jesus, they were eventually rejected by the early Church
because they were at least partially inaccurate. (One common reason is that their writers were not
actually Christian, but members of a sect called Gnosticism.) Those texts which the early Church
rejected we call apocrypha. The 27 texts used by the early Church as early as the fourth century, and
which the Catholic Church considers the “official” list of sacred books, we call the canon.
Tradition
Twenty years passed between the resurrection of Jesus and the writing of Paul’s first known
letter. Another twenty years passed before Mark’s gospel was set to paper. And, although scholars
are not sure of the date, the canon we have today was probably not codified until well into the fourth
century. (The earliest known list of the 27 canonical texts dates to 367 A.D.)19
Why is that important? It means hundreds of years passed between Pentecost and the
compilation of the Bible into its present form. Does this mean the Church did not exist during that
time? Of course not. During the early years of the Church thousands of eyewitnesses to Jesus’ life
and ministry passed their memories of him by word of mouth from one person to the next. Today we
call this the oral tradition of the Church.
St. Paul, for example, may have been converted by a vision of the risen Jesus, but everything he
learned about Jesus’ life and teachings from other Christians. In his first letter to the Corinthians he
wrote
Now I am reminding you, brothers, of the gospel I preached to you, which you indeed
received, and in which you also stand. . . . For I handed on to you as of first importance what
I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures; that he was
buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures; that he appeared
to Kephas, then to the Twelve. (1 Cor. 15: 1,3-4. emphasis added)
The Christian scriptures were written by people who were already Christians, and the canon was
selected by bishops who were already successors to the apostles. Christian faith was alive and well
long before the New Testament even existed. This is not to disparage the Bible’s importance in any
way, but it serves to show why, strictly speaking, Christian faith is not based on the Bible. I received
my faith from my parents, who received it from their parents, who received it from their parents, who
were converted to Christianity by other Christians, who got it from their parents, and so on, all the
way back to the first believers. This knowledge of the faith as it has existed in the minds and hearts
of Christians for two thousand years is called Tradition (with a capital “T”). Think about it. Few
people, if any, are converted to Christianity simply by reading the Bible. They are almost always
converted by the witness of other Christians.
The Bible is a crucial source of knowledge for our faith, but it’s not the only source. Look at it
this way. Suppose all the Bibles in the world were suddenly to disappear--would the Church
disappear with it? Would Christians’ faith fade away? Of course not. We would sit down together,
share our memories of Jesus’ life and teachings, and then commit these memories to writing once
again. It would be a long process. Individual Christians would naturally forget certain stories or
details, or remember them incorrectly, but after everyone’s writings were submitted to the group for
19 The Catholic Church did not explicitly declare these 27 books canonical until the Council of Trent in
1546. At that time Martin Luther wanted to remove the Letter of James from the Christian scriptures because it
disagreed with his theology.
examination, the church as one body would evaluate the writings for accuracy and completeness.
Faulty writings would be rejected as apocryphal, and accurate writings accepted as canon. (And as a
matter of fact, that’s exactly how the real New Testament was written.)
Thus we say the New Testament is based on Tradition, or, more accurately, the New Testament
is Tradition in written form. Now let’s take this to the next logical conclusion. If the Christian
scriptures are inspired, it makes sense that their source must be inspired too, namely the people who
wrote them. But the people who wrote the scriptures learned their faith from other Christians, so
these Christians must be inspired too. Ultimately, we must conclude that the Spirit’s inspiration is
found not only in a book, but also in the Church which formed it. Thus Catholics believe Tradition is
inspired just like the Bible. Individual Christians might err in matters of belief, but the Church as a
whole cannot. The Holy Spirit protects her.
I have told you this while I am with you. The Advocate, the holy Spirit that the Father will
send in my name--he will teach you everything and remind you of all that I told you. (John
4:25-26)
What is the relation between Scripture and Tradition? Is one superior to the other? No. Both
sources transmit the Word of God, both were created and guided by the power of the Holy Spirit, and
both seek the same end: “to make present and fruitful in the Church the mystery of Christ, who
promised to remain with his own ‘always, to the close of the age.’”20 The Catholic Church does not
claim to “derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture
and Tradition must be accepted and honored with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.”21
Catholics view the Church as a living organism, through which the Holy Spirit works to preach
the gospel and draw all people to the Father. By “Church” we do not mean only the Pope, bishops,
priests, and deacons, but all the baptized faithful. Catholics believe that when the entire Church
affirms a certain belief with one voice, then she is infallible (incapable of error), because the Holy
Spirit, which can neither deceive nor be deceived, is with us. We call this the sensus fidelium or
sense of the faithful.
The whole body of the faithful who have an anointing that comes from the holy one cannot err
in matters of belief. This characteristic is shown in the supernatural appreciation of the faith
(sensus fidei) of the whole people, when, “from the bishops to the last of the faithful”, they
manifest a universal consent in matters of faith and morals. By this appreciation of the faith,
aroused and sustained by the Spirit of truth, the People of God, guided by the sacred teaching
authority (magisterium), and obeying it, receives not the mere word of men, but truly the
word of God, the faith once for all delivered to the saints. The People unfailingly adheres to
this faith, penetrates it more deeply with right judgement, and applies it more fully to daily
life.22
A specific example of the sensus fidelium at work is Pius IX’s infallible proclamation of the
Immaculate Conception in 1854. (We will say more about papal infallibility soon.) The Immaculate
Conception is the Catholic doctrine that Mary was conceived in her mother’s womb without original
sin. This doctrine is not found explicitly anywhere in Scripture (therefore Protestants do not believe
it), but the idea has been present in Christian thinking since the early years of the Church. Before the
pope publically proclaimed this doctrine, he consulted all the bishops around the world and asked
them whether Catholics in their dioceses believe in the Immaculate Conception. The universal
20 C.C.C. #80
21 Dei Verbum 9.
22 Lumen Gentium 12.
answer was affirmative. Therefore, since the entire Church shares this belief, Pope Pius knew he
could proclaim it infallibly.
Church Fathers
The sensus fidelium is only one form of Tradition. Church Fathers were saintly writers who
lived during the first eight centuries after Christ, and whose sermons and theological writings are now
recognized by the Church to possess a certain level of inspired authority. Their ranks include laymen
and bishops, theologians and philosophers, popes and monks, martyrs and mystics. A “Father of the
Church” is so named if he and his writings meet four criteria: antiquity, orthodoxy, sanctity, and
acceptance by the early church.
The Fathers are classified into two groups, Latin and Greek Fathers, according to the language in
which they wrote. The most famous Latin Father is St. Augustine (bishop) of Hippo (354-430), an
intellectual genius whose many works include the Confessions and City of God. St. Ignatius
(bishop) of Antioch (35-107) is perhaps the most famous Greek Father. As a result of Emperor
Trajan’s persecutions Ignatius was forced to march in chains from Antioch to Rome to be thrown to
the lions. Along the way he wrote seven letters which still exist today.
Famous Latin Fathers of the Church
Famous Greek Fathers of the Church
St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (340-97)
St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (354-430)
St. Benedict, founder of monasticism (480-546)
St. John Cassian, abbot (360-435)
St. Cornelius, Pope (d. 253)
St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (d. 258)
St. Gregory the Great, Pope (540-604)
St. Jerome, priest, translator (343-420)
St. Leo the Great, Pope (390-461)
St. Peter Chrysologus, Abp of Ravenna (400-50)
Tertullian, first Western theologian (160-223)
St. Athanasius, Archbp of Alexandria (297-373)
Athenagoras, apologist (second century)
St. Basil the Great, Arbp of Caesarea (329-79)
St. Clement of Alexandria, theologn (150-215)
St. Clement I, Pope (30-101)
St. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem (315-86)
St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (35-107)
St. John Chrysostom, Ptrch of Constant. (347-407)
St. Justin Martyr, apologist (100-65)
Origen, head of school in Alexandria (184-254)
St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (69-155)
Here follows a few samples of writings from the Fathers. The first is from St. Athanasius of
Antioch, on the Incarnation of the Second Person of the Trinity.
The Word of God, incorporeal, incorruptibile and immaterial, entered our world. Yet it was
not as if he had been remote up to that time. For there is no part of the world that was ever
without his presence; together with the Father, he continually filled all things and places.
Out of his loving-kindness for us he came to us, and we see this in the way he revealed
himself openly to us. Taking pity on mankind’s weakness, and moved by our corruption, he
could not stand aside and see death have the mastery over us; he did not want creation to
perish and his Father’s work in fashioning man to be in vain. He therefore took to himself a
body, no different from our own, for he did not wish simply to be in a body or only to be seen.
If he had wanted simply to be seen, he could indeed have taken another, and nobler, body.
Instead, he took our body in its reality. 23
23 Oratio de incarnatione Verbi 8-9: PG 25, 110-111.
The next reading is from St. Leo the Great on Peter and the papacy.
That faith which Christ commended in the prince of the apostles remains forever unshaken.
And, just as Peter’s faith in Christ endures, so does Christ’s foundation upon Peter. The
structure of truth persists; blessed Peter retains his rock-like strength and has not abandoned
the helm of the Church which he took over.
Peter is called the rock; he is declared to be the foundation; he is made doorkeeper of the
heavenly kingdom; he is made judge of what is to be bound or loosed, and his judgements
remain valid even in heaven; in these various ways, he is assigned a rank above the others.
By reflecting on the hidden meaning of these titles of his, we can come to appreciate how
close he is to Christ.
In our day he carries out his trust over a wider field and with greater power; he attends to
every department of his duties and responsibilities in and along with him who gave him that
dignity.
And so, if I do anything well, if my judgement is sound, if I obtain anything from God’s
mercy by my daily prayer, all this is due to the achievement and the deserts of Peter; it is his
power that lives on in his See, it is his prestige that reigns. 24
Church Councils
When bishops from various dioceses gather to discuss matters of faith and morals, it is called a
church council (or synod). Catholics believe that church councils are also inspired by the Holy Spirit,
because bishops are the divinely appointed shepherds of the faithful. Plenary councils occur when
all the bishops of a certain country or region meet in one place; for example, when all the bishops in
the United States gather annually in Washington, D.C. to discuss matters which affect the local
church. Their gathering is called the “National Conference of Catholic Bishops”. It is responsible for
such things as authorizing an English translation of Scripture for use in Catholic churches in the
United States, or drafting official statements and requests to American politicans.
One of the most extraordinary events in the church is when all the world’s bishops come
together to confront a particular crisis or heresy. There have been only 21 such ecumenical councils
in the church’s 2,000 year history. The first was called in 325 to respond to the widespread Arian
heresy that Jesus was human but not divine. The response of the council, held in Nicea, Italy, was to
write a creed (now known as the Nicene Creed) which clearly defined the church’s belief that Jesus is
both fully human and fully divine. The most recent ecumenical council was Vatican Council II, held
in Rome between 1962-65.
The following list includes the twenty one ecumenical councils in Church history.
Council of Nicea
325
Wrote Nicene Creed in response to Arian heresy.
Council of Constantinople
381
Elaborated Nicene Creed against followers of Macedonius,
who denied the divinity of Christ.
Council of Ephesus
431
Declared Mary theotokos (Mother of God) against
Nestorius; affirmed Jesus as true God and true man.
Council of Chalcedon
451
Defined two natures in Christ (human and divine) against
Eutyches, who was excommunicated.
Second Council of Constantinople
553
Confirmed authority of four previous councils; condemned
errors of Origen and Theodore of Mopsuestia.
24 Sermon 3 de natali ipsius 2-3: PL 54, 145-146.
Third Council of Constantinople
680-681
Ended Monothelism by defining two wills in Christ, divine
and human. Anathematized Sergius, Pyrrhus, Paul,
Macarius, and their followers.
Second Council of Nicea
787
Regulated veneration of holy images.
Fourth Council of Constantinople
869
Condemned decrees of irregular council convened by
Photius against Pope Nicholas; condemned Photius.
Ninth Ecumenical Council at the
Lateran in Rome
1123
Concerned church discipline and Crusades, which were
attempts to expel Muslims by force from Jerusalem and
Europe. (Urban II summoned 1st crusade in 1095.)
Second Lateran Council
1139
Condemned errors of Arnold of Brescia.
Third Lateran Council
1179
Condemned heresies of Albigenses and Waldenses;
issued decrees on reformation of morals.
Twelfth Ecumenical Synod
1215
Condemned Albigenses and Trinitarian errors of Abbot
Joachim. Published 70 decrees on church reform. Most
important council in Middle Ages.
First General Council of Lyons
1245
Excommunicated Emporer Frederick II. Directed new
crusade under St. Louis, King of France, against Saracens
and Mongols.
Fourteenth Ecumenical Council
1274
Established rules for papal elections. Temporarily
reunited Greek church with Rome. Considered ways to
recover Pale-stine from Turks.
Fifteenth Ecumenical Council
at Vienne, France
1311-1313
Concerned crimes and errors of Knights Templars, Fraticelli, Beghards, and Beguines. Considered clergy reform
and another crusade.
Council of Constance
1414-1418
Ended Great Western Schism by electing Pope Martin V.
Seventeenth Ecumenical Council
at Basle, Ferrara, and Florence
1431-1439
Concerned religious pacification of Bohemia. Quarrels
caused council to be relocated twice.
Fifth Lateran Council
1512-1517
Issued disciplinary decrees. Planned another crusade, but
was interrupted by Protestant Reformation.
Council of Trent
1545-1563
Condemned errors of Martin Luther and others.
Extensive-ly reformed church practices. Issued largest
number of decrees. Two members of new Society of Jesus
(the Jesuits) highly influential at the council.
Vatican Council I
1869-1870
Concerned Modernist crisis, which was attempt to reinterpret doctrine in light of modern science, philsophy and
history. Defined papal infalliblity.
Vatican Council II
1962-1965
Most sweeping reforms in Church history. Reintroduced
practices and enthusiasm of early church. Considered
every aspect of Catholic faith: liturgy, doctrine,
ecumenism, canon law, spirituality, religious life.
Encouraged religious to return to charism of their
founders.
D. GUARDIAN OF REVELATION
The Magisterium
It would be rather odd if Jesus charged his apostles to instruct and lead the infant church, but did
not intend others to continue that role after the apostles died. Apparently the apostles thought so too.
Their first order of business after Jesus’ ascension was to replace Judas, who committed suicide after
his betrayal. Judas’ successor had to be a worthy, upright man, who walked with Jesus during his
ministry and saw the resurrected Lord. The eleven apostles narrowed their options to two men,
Joseph and Matthias, and then settled on Matthias.25
But even a group of twelve needs a leader. Jesus chose Simon bar Jonah, a fisherman from
Galilee, to be “prince of the apostles”. At first glance Simon seems a strange choice. The gospels do
not portray him as the sharpest knife in the drawer. He was certainly a weak man who spoke before
he thought. But Jesus knew that Peter loved him. He also recognized in his friend a deep, perceptive
faith. By placing this unlikely man in charge, it would serve as reminder to everyone that ultimately
the Church is protected not by human strength and intelligence but by God himself.
Jesus renamed his friend kepa, which means “rock” in Aramaic. It’s one example of Jesus’
sense of humor, since calling Simon “Rock” was like calling a fat man “Slim”. But the story is
startling for another reason. In Jesus’ day Jews believed a person’s name was given him or her by
God. (Although parents chose the name, God was speaking through them.) The modern practice of
legally changing one’s name was unthinkable back then, since only God could do such a thing--and
who would presume to change a name which God had given them? You can imagine, then, how the
apostles must have reacted when Jesus renamed Simon. Their teacher was making an implicit claim
to be God.
Blessed are you, Simon, son of Jonah. For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but
my heavenly Father. And so I say to you, you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my
church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it. (Matthew 16:17-18)
Simon’s nickname took many forms in the early church. When Paul mentions Peter in his letters
he uses Kephas, the Greek transliteration of Kepa. But Paul sometimes substituted the actual Greek
word for rock, petra, the masculine form of which is Petros. From that we get the English name
Peter.
[God] who worked in Peter [Petros] for an apostolate to the circumcised worked also in me
for the Gentiles. (Galatians 2:8)
And when Kephas came to Antioch, I opposed him to his face because he clearly was wrong.
(Galatians 2:11)
25 Acts 1: 15-26
When Jesus forgave Peter for denying that he knew him, he also reaffirmed Peter as leader of his
church. It is difficult to imagine what this display of confidence must have meant to Simon, who for
the rest of his life had to live with the memory that he abandoned his best friend in his hour of need.
Although he continued to make mistakes as the first pope, he was in a deeper sense a changed person.
Years later this weak and hypocritical man was crucified by the Romans, upside down at his request,
because he felt unworthy to die the same way as his master.
When they had finished breakfast, Jesus said to Simon Peter, “Simon, son of John, do you
love me more than these?” He said to him, “Yes, Lord, you know that I love you.” He said to
him, “Feed my lambs.” He then said to him a second time, “Simon, son of John, do you love
me?” He said to him, “Yes, Lord, you know that I love you.” He said to him, “Tend my
sheep.” He said to him the third time, “Simon, son of John, do you love me?” Peter was
distressed that he had said to him a third time, “Do you love me?” and he said to him, “Lord,
you know everything; you know that I love you.” Jesus said to him, “Feed my sheep.”
Amen, amen, I say to you, when you were younger, you used to dress yourself and go where
you wanted; but when you grow old, you will stretch out your hands, and someone else will
dress you and lead you where you do not want to go.” He said this signifying by what kind of
death he would glorify God. And when he had said this, he said to him, “Follow me.” (John
21:15-19)
Today the bishops of the Catholic Church are the successors of the twelve apostles. And just as
Peter was the head of the Twelve, the Pope as bishop of Rome26 enjoys primacy among the bishops.
Together the bishops and Pope make up the Magisterium (Latin magister = teacher), the teaching
authority of the Catholic Church. The role of the Magisterium is to teach the faithful, preserve the
orthodox teachings contained in the Deposit of Faith, and protect the Church from heresies that would
otherwise split her apart. The source of the Magisterium’s authority was reaffirmed at the Second
Vatican Council:
This sacred synod, following in the steps of the First Vatican Council, teaches and declares
with it that Jesus Christ, the eternal pastor, set up the holy Church by entrusting the apostles
with their mission as he himself had been sent by the Father. He willed that their successors,
the bishops namely, should be the shepherds in his Church until the end of the world. In order
that the episcopate itself, however, might be one and undivided he put Peter at the head of the
other apostles, and in him he set up a lasting and visible source and foundation of the unity
both of faith and communion.
That divine mission, which was committed by Christ to the apostles, is destined to last until
the end of the world, since the Gospel, which they were charged to hand on, is, for the
Church, the principle of all its life for all time. For that very reason the apostles were careful
to appoint successors in this hierarchically constituted society. 27
Do we really need a Magisterium? Protestant Christians usually say “no”. A major point of
contention behind the Reformation was their rejection of all church authority, whether it be priest,
bishop, or pope. The Protestant slogan Sola Scriptura! “Scripture alone!” signified their belief that
the Bible should be the only source of knowledge for a Christian’s faith. No “authority” should stand
between a person and his God. For this reason Protestantism is sometimes called “a religion of the
book” because they say their faith is based on the Bible. Given what we’ve already studied about the
26 Peter eventually left Jerusalem to become bishop of Rome, where he was martyred about the year 64.
James assumed leadership of the church in Jerusalem after Peter left. See Acts 12:17, Galatians 1:19, 2:9.
27 Lumen Gentium 18, 20
role of Tradition in the Church, one can easily see a substantial disagreement between Protestants and
Catholics on this point. We won’t get into arguments about it here, but it is important to be aware of
these very different Christian approaches to public revelation.