LAC-14 MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE
THE ILIAD
Iliad: Scroll I
Summary
The poet invokes a muse to aid him in telling the story of the rage of Achilles, the greatest Greek hero to fight in the Trojan War. The
narrative begins nine years after the start of the war, as the Achaeans sack a Trojan-allied town and capture two beautiful maidens,
Chryseis and Briseis. Agamemnon, commander-in-chief of the Achaean army, takes Chryseis as his prize. Achilles, one of the Achaeans’
most valuable warriors, claims Briseis. Chryseis’s father, a man named Chryses who serves as a priest of the god Apollo, begs
Agamemnon to return his daughter and offers to pay an enormous ransom. When Agamemnon refuses, Chryses prays to Apollo for help.
Apollo sends a plague upon the Greek camp, causing the death of many soldiers. After ten days of suffering, Achilles calls an assembly of
the Achaean army and asks for a soothsayer to reveal the cause of the plague. Calchas, a powerful seer, stands up and offers his services.
Though he fears retribution from Agamemnon, Calchas reveals the plague as a vengeful and strategic move by Chryses and Apollo.
Agamemnon flies into a rage and says that he will return Chryseis only if Achilles gives him Briseis as compensation. Agamemnon’s
demand humiliates and infuriates the proud Achilles. The men argue, and Achilles threatens to withdraw from battle and take his people,
the Myrmidons, back home to Phthia. Agamemnon threatens to go to Achilles’ tent in the army’s camp and take Briseis himself. Achilles
stands poised to draw his sword and kill the Achaean commander when the goddess Athena, sent by Hera, the queen of the gods, appears
to him and checks his anger. Athena’s guidance, along with a speech by the wise advisor Nestor, finally succeeds in preventing the duel.
That night, Agamemnon puts Chryseis on a ship back to her father and sends heralds to have Briseis escorted from Achilles’ tent. Achilles
prays to his mother, the sea-nymph Thetis, to ask Zeus, king of the gods, to punish the Achaeans. He relates to her the tale of his quarrel
with Agamemnon, and she promises to take the matter up with Zeus—who owes her a favor—as soon as he returns from a thirteen-day
period of feasting with the Aethiopians. Meanwhile, the Achaean commander Odysseus is navigating the ship that Chryseis has boarded.
When he lands, he returns the maiden and makes sacrifices to Apollo. Chryses, overjoyed to see his daughter, prays to the god to lift the
plague from the Achaean camp. Apollo acknowledges his prayer, and Odysseus returns to his comrades.
But the end of the plague on the Achaeans only marks the beginning of worse suffering. Ever since his quarrel with Agamemnon,
Achilles has refused to participate in battle, and Thetis makes her appeal to Zeus, as promised. Zeus is reluctant to help the Trojans, for
his wife, Hera, favors the Greeks, but he finally agrees. Hera becomes livid when she discovers that Zeus is helping the Trojans, but her
son Hephaestus persuades her not to plunge the gods into conflict over the mortals. (sparknotes slightly edited)
Greek words

mênis: supernatural anger
o “Anger [mênis], sing it, O goddess, [the anger] of Achilles son of Peleus, which brought countless pains [algos] upon
the Achaeans” (ln 1)
o Apollo conceives mênis in Iliad I when his priest Chryseis is mistreated by Agamemnon, and sends a plague upon the
Achaeans (ln 75)

psukhê: essence of life while one is alive; conveyor of identity while one is dead
o “Many a brave soul [psukhê] did [anger of Achilles] send hurrying down to Hades an them it left as a prey to dogs”
(ln 2)

mantis: seer, prophet
o turn to priest/prophet to explain why Apollo is angry, and hence cause of plague (vengeful and strategic move by
Chryses and Apollo)

noos: designates realm of consciousness, of rational functions; intuition, perception; the principle that reintegrates thûmos (or
menos) and psukhê after death
o “Then Agamemnon said, ‘Achilles, valiant though you be, you shall not thus get the better of me in matters of the
mind [noos].’” (ln 130)
o Thetis tells Achilles “keep it not from me in your mind [noos]”

aitios: responsible, guilty; aitiâ responsibility, guilt; cause, case
o Achilles says, “I came to make ware here not because the the Trojans are responsible [aitios] for any wrong
committeed against me” but rather to gain satisfaction [tîmê, see below] from Agamemnon for having taken his wife
(ln 150)

tîmê, pl. tîmai : 'honor; honor paid to a supernatural force by way of cult'

akhos: grief, public expression of grief by way of lamenting or keening
o Achilles felt akhos after Agamemnon revealed that indeed he intends to take Briseis from him

kholos - an open-ended chemical chain-reaction; it can be visualized as yellow bile or venom
o Achilles had to restrain himself and check his anger [kholos] after the news he received from Agamemnon (see
above)
o Later, Achilles begain railing at Agamemnon for he had not yet desisted from his anger [kholos]

penthos: grief, public expression of grief by way of lamentation or keening
o Nestor says “Truly a great grief [penthos] has befallen the Achaean land” (ln 250)
o Achilles’ mother Thetis when speaking to Achilles before he tells her the news, “what is it that gives you grief
[penthos]” (ln 360)
-1-

biâ (biê in the language of Homeric poetry) 'force, violence'
o “At this [Thetis] left hinm, still furious at the losss of her that had been taken by force [bie from him” (ln 430)
Interesting Passages
FIRST: [1] SING, O goddess, the anger [mênis] of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans. Many a brave
soul [psukhê] did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so was the will of Zeus
fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out with one another.
The first lines of an ancient epic poem typically offer a capsule summary of the subject the poem will treat, and the first lines of the Iliad
conform to this pattern. Indeed, Homer announces his subject in the very first word of the very first line: anger [mênis]. He then locates
the anger within “Peleus’ son Achilles,” delineates its consequences (“cost the Achaeans countless losses . . .”), links it to higher forces
and agendas (“the will of Zeus”), and notes its origin (when “the two first broke and clashed, / Agamemnon . . . and brilliant Achilles”).
Interestingly, although these lines purport to focus on a human emotion, they interpret this emotion as unfolding in accordance with the
expression of Zeus’s will. Similarly, Homer conceives of the entire epic as the medium through which a divine being—a Muse—speaks.
As evident in this passage, the poem emphatically does not undertake to deal with the Trojan War as a whole. The poet does not even
mention Troy here, and he specifically asks the Muse to begin the story at the time when Agamemnon and Achilles first “broke and
clashed”—nine years into the ten-year conflict. Nor does he mention the fall of Troy or the Greek victory, referring only to a vague
“end” toward which Zeus’s will moves. This does not mean that the Trojan War does not play an important role in the poem. Homer
clearly uses the war not just as a setting but as a wellspring for the value system he celebrates, and a source of telling illustrations for his
statements on life, death, and fate. Nonetheless, the poem remains fundamentally focused on the conflict within a single man, and this
opening passage conveys this focus to the reader.
SECOND:
[104] With these words he sat down, and Agamemnon rose in anger. His heart was black with rage, and his eyes
flashed fire as he scowled on Kalkhas and said, "Seer [mantis] of evil, you never yet prophesied smooth things concerning me, but have
ever loved to foretell that which was evil. You have brought me neither comfort nor performance; and now you come seeing among
Danaans, and saying that Apollo has plagued us because I would not take a ransom for this girl, the daughter of Chryses. I have set my
heart on keeping her in my own house, for I love her better even than my own wife Clytemnestra, whose peer she is alike in form and
feature, in understanding and accomplishments. Still I will give her up if I must, for I would have the people live, not die; but you must
find me a prize instead, or I alone among the Argives shall be without one. This is not well; for you behold, all of you, that my prize is to
go elsewhere." And Achilles answered, "Most noble son of Atreus, covetous beyond all humankind, how shall the Achaeans find you
another prize? We have no common store from which to take one.
This passage follows the seer’s speech that the reason that there is a plague is because Apollo is angry that Agamemnon did not free
Chryses’ daughter or take a ransom for her. Agamemnon’s initial response shows his mênis, or anger, at being accused of indirectly
causing the plague and, in turn, being asked to give her up. It leads into the conflict that will ensue between Achilles and Agamemnon
because they cannot find “another prize.” This also touches on how in Greek society at this time, women were objectified and treated as
prizes that were won, traded and demanded.
THIRD: [414] Thetis wept and answered, "My son, woe is me that I should have borne or suckled you. Would indeed that you had lived
your span free from all sorrow at your ships, for it is all too brief; alas, that you should be at once short of life and long of sorrow above
your peers: woe, therefore, was the hour in which I bore you; nevertheless I will go to the snowy heights of Olympus, and tell this tale to
Zeus, if he will hear our prayer: meanwhile stay where you are with your ships, nurse your anger [mênis] against the Achaeans, and hold
aloof from fight…”
This passage is very interesting because it gives insight into Thetis’ emotions during this hard time for Achilles, her son, when he first
learns that he will lose Briseis. Like any mother, she wishes that his life would be free of sorrow. It also foreshadows Achilles’ death
(short of life). She is sad that she even had him but will continue to fight for him. This passage also references the Greek word, menis,
again, but in an unusual way: that Achilles should nurse his anger against the Achaeans. First, nurse is a strange use of word because it
implies to nurture and to help grow but it seems that that would only increase Achilles’ frustration and anger. Second, why should
Achilles’ nurse his anger against the Achaeans as opposed to Agamemnon, who seems to be the spark for Achilles’ anger?
Iliad Scroll II
Summary
To help the Trojans, as promised, Zeus sends a false dream to Agamemnon in which a figure in the form of Nestor persuades
Agamemnon that he can take Troy if he launches a full-scale assault on the city’s walls. The next day, Agamemnon gathers his troops for
attack, but, to test their courage, he lies and tells them that he has decided to give up the war and return to Greece. To his dismay, they
eagerly run to their ships. When Hera sees the Achaeans fleeing, she alerts Athena, who inspires Odysseus, the most eloquent of the
Achaeans, to call the men back. He shouts words of encouragement and insult to goad their pride and restore their confidence. He reminds
-2-
them of the prophecy that the soothsayer Calchas gave when the Achaeans were first mustering their soldiers back in Greece: a water
snake had slithered to shore and devoured a nest of nine sparrows, and Calchas interpreted the sign to mean that nine years would pass
before the Achaeans would finally take Troy. As Odysseus reminds them, they vowed at that time that they would not abandon their
struggle until the city fell.
Nestor now encourages Agamemnon to arrange his troops by city so that they can fight side by side with their friends and kin. The poet
takes this opportunity to enter into a catalog of the army. After invoking the muses to aid his memory, he details the cities that have
contributed troops to the Greek cause, the number of troops that each has contributed, and who leads each contingent. At the end of the
list, the poet singles out the bravest of the Achaeans, Achilles and Ajax among them. When Zeus sends a messenger to the Trojan court,
telling them of the Greeks’ awesome formation, the Trojans muster their own troops under the command of Priam’s son Hector. The poet
then catalogs the Trojan forces. (sparknotes slightly edited)
Greek words

pontos: sea 'crossing', with an underlying meaning of a dangerous crossing
o After Agamemnon gives a speech about not fighting at Troy: With these words he moved the hearts of the multitude,
so many of them as knew not the cunning counsel of Agamemnon. They surged to and fro like the waves of the
Ikarian Sea [pontos]”
o When people went back to their tents to prepare for battle “all the sea [pontos] is in an uproar”

nostos: return, homecoming; song about homecoming; return to light and life
o Shortly after the previous passage: “Then surely the Argives would have had a return [nostos] after a fashion that was
not fated.” (ln 155)
o Odysseus criticizes Thersites for talking too much about homecoming

akhos: grief, public expression of grief by way of lamenting or keening
o Athena finds Odysseus feeling “grief [akhos] and was sorry” because he had not yet laid a hand upon his ship
(because he wanted to go home)

Noos: mind, designates realm of consciousness, of rational functions; intuition, perception; the principle that reintegrates
thûmos (or menos) and psukhê after death
o Odysseus tells any king or chieftain he meets to stand by his post because they do not know the full mind [noos] of
Agamemnon, and thus they might actually have to fight

aidôs: shame, sense of shame; sense of respect for others; honorableness
o after someone (Thersites) insulted Achilles and said he showed no fight, Odysseus stood up for Achilles and told the
man that he would reveal his shame or aidôs

aphthiton: imperishable
o Agamemnon takes the imperishable staff of his father when he first gets ready to fight the Trojans

ponos ordeal, labor, pain
o Zeus accepts Agamemnon’s bull sacrifice, but increased their toil [ponos] continually
o Work [ponos] of preparing their feast right after sacrifice mentioned above

kleos plural klea: glory, fame (especially as conferred by poetry); that which is heard
o in reference to a sign (that Zeus sends of a serpent that ate eight fledglings and the sparrow that hatched them, so they
will fight 9 years at Troy) whose fame [kleos] will last forever

daimôn, pl. daimones: supernatural force (= unspecified god or hero) intervening in human life; eudaimoniâ: state of being
blessed with a good daimôn
o Odysseus says to anyone making noise (i.e. disobeying Agamemnon) “what kind of daimôn has possessed you”
Interesting Passages
FIRST: Calchas says, [324] ‘Why, Achaeans,’ said he, ‘are you thus speechless? Zeus has sent us this sign, long in coming, and long
before it be fulfilled, though its fame [kleos] shall last for ever. As the serpent ate the eight fledglings and the sparrow that hatched them,
which makes nine, so shall we fight nine years at Troy, but in the tenth shall take the town.’ This was what he said, and now it is all
coming true. Stay here, therefore, all of you, till we take the city of Priam."
Calchas, the soothsayer we meet in Scroll I who identified the cause of the plague, here is bringing to light the meaning of the sign that
Zeus gives. Calchas says that the Achaean people have been waiting for such a sign and that the fame [kleos] of this sign will live long.
Kleos can also have a double meaning here in that it not only refers to the fame of the sign that Zeus sent but also to the kleos of the
heroes who will be involved in this war, namely Achilles. The glory that Achilles will eventually gain through the Trojan war is also
“long in coming…its fame [kleos] shall last for ever.”
SECOND:
“[685] these had fifty ships, over which Achilles was in command. But they now took no part in the war, inasmuch as
there was no one to marshal them; for Achilles stayed by his ships, furious about the loss of the girl Briseis, whom he had taken from
Lyrnessos at his own great peril, when he had sacked Lyrnessos and Thebe, and had overthrown Mynes and Epistrophos, sons of king
Euenor, son of Selepus. For her sake Achilles was still in grief [akhos], but ere long he was again to join them.”
-3-
This comes in the later part of Scroll II when the Achean forces are getting ready for battle. The effects of Achilles’ decision to not take
part in battle is seen here with the inactivity of the fifty ships that he is in charge of. He is seen as discontent, filled with anger [menis]
about the loss of Briseis. Homer makes Achilles appear pathetic: standing by his ships, pitying himself for having lost Briseis, for whom
he had to put himself at great danger to get (“his own great peril”). Also, there is clear foreshadowing at the end, indicating that Achilles
will eventually go to battle.
Iliad Scroll III
Summary:
The Trojans army marches from the gate to meet with the Achaeans. Alexander (or Paris) came forward as champion on the
Trojan side. Menelaos, “glad as a hungry lion,” saw this as an opportunity to take revenge and came forward. Seeing Menelaos,
Alexander quailed and shrank in fear of his life as one who “comes suddenly upon a serpent in some mountain glade.” Hektor then
scolded at Paris severely as woman-crazed, and false of tongue, coward, etc.” Paris then agreed to deal with Menelaos and asked Hektor
to present the term to Manelaos—let the one who is victorious and prove to be the better man takes the woman and all she has, but let the
rest swear to a solemn covenant of peace. Gladly, Hektor presented the term and Manelaos agreed, with the condition that Priam himself
came to swear the covenant. The Trojans and Achaeans, wearied of war, were glad when they hear this, and immediately put down their
arms.
Meanwhile, Iris, disguised as Helen’s sister-in-law, Laodike, went to Helen. Helen was embroidering on the purple linen the
struggles [athloi] between Trojans and Achaeans that Ares had made them fight for her sake (note here micronarrative in the
embroidery—like Achilles’ shield). Iris urged Helen to go see the dual. Once heard of this, Helen’s heart yearned after her former
husband, her city and her parents. Helen then joined Priam and the city’s elders. The elders spoke to each other that though she is so
beautiful, they want to Achaeans to take her and go. Priam asked Helen to sit in front of him, and told her that she was not to blame but
the gods. Priam then asked Helen to identify the Achaean heroes: “who is yonder huge hero so great and goodly?”—Agamemnon, son of
Atreus, a good king and a brave warrior”; “who is that other, shorter by a head than Agamemnon, but broader across the chest and
shoulders?”—Odysseus, a man of great craft, son of Laertes. Antenor’s comment on Odysseus: he had the royal presence, and when
spoke, his words came driving from his deep chest like winter snow before the wind. Helen then identified huge Ajax and Idomeneus.
But to her disappointment, she couldn’t find her brothers—Castor and Pollux, so she mistook that they were angry at her, not knowing
that they were already death.
The heralds brought the holy oath-offerings: two lambs and wine, and bid Priam to go down to the plain. Oath-offering
followed: they mixed the wine in the mixing bowls, then poured water over the hands of the chieftains, Agamemnon cut wool from the
lambs’ heads and the men-servants gave to Trojan and Achaeans princes. Then Agamemnon prayed to Zeus and cut the throats of the
victims (lambs), then they poured wine in the cup and asked Zeus to punish those who first break the oath—the brains of them to be shed
upon the ground like wine, and wives become slaves of strangers. But Zeus would not grant their prayer.
Priam then went back for he did not dare to see the dual. Paris and Menelaos put on their armor. Paris took aim with his spear
first, struck the round shield but didn’t pierce. Menelaos, while took aim, praying to Zeus to punished Paris for he had done ill deeds in
the house of his host. But his spear didn’t touch Paris, and Menelaos sword broke in pieces. But then Menelaos caught Paris by his
helmet and almost chock Paris to death while dragging him if Aphrodite hadn’t came in time to break the strap of oxhide. Menelaos once
again almost killed Paris with a spear but Aphrodite snatched him up in time, hid him in a cloud of darkness and took him to his bed.
Then she went to Helen, disguised as an old lady, and told Helen that Paris was waiting for her. Helen, mad, recognized that it was the
goddess so she confronted Aphrodite, telling her to be a wife of Paris herself. Angry, Aphrodite threatened Helen, and so Helen, fearful
of her bad end, went to Paris as the goddess demanded. Helen scolded at Paris for his cowardice. But Paris excused himself then made
love to her.
Meanwhile no one in the filed knew where Paris went. Agamemnon then declared that Menelaos won and demanded the
Achaeans to give back Helen and pay penalty. The Achaeans shouted in approval.
Key words:
1. bie (might): he has neither might [bie] in his heart nor any strength.
2. pontos (sea): set sail on the sea [pontos]
3. demos (locale): you bring sorrow upon you whole locale [demos].
4. noos (mind): As the axe in his hand, so keen is the edge of your mind [noos].
5. athloi (struggle): the struggles [athloi] between Trojans and Acheans.
6. nemesis (retribution): There is no way to wish for retribution [nemesis] that Trojans and Achaeans should endure so much and
so long.
7. aitia (blame): I lay no blame [aitia] upon you.
8. aitioi (responsible): not you who are responsible [aitioi]
9. time (penalty): If Priam and his sons refuse such penalty [time] when Alexander has fellen…
10. telos (satisfaction): I will stay here and fight on till I have got satisfaction [telos]
a. (fall): Zeus and the other immortals alone know which shall fall [telos].
11. khoros (dance): he was going to a dance
12. akhos (grief): I have grief [akhos] on my mind
13. daimon (divinity): She followed the divinity [daimon] and unnoticed by the Trojan women.
Important Passages:
-4-
I. (Line 305): I will no go back to the wind-beaten city of Ilion: I dare not with my own eyes witness this fight between my son and
Menelaos, for Zeus and the other immortals alone know which shall fall [telos]
Priam told the Trojans and Achaeans after swearing an covenant with Agamemnon. Priam’s unwillingness to witness the fight shows that
he knew that Paris is no match with Menelaos in fighting, and he is fearful to see his son fall. However, he also rightly stated that the fate
of mortals belonged to the gods, as we will see later that Paris is indeed saved by Aphrodite. Notice the word “telos” here, in this context
it means fall, but in general telos also means “the end.” So we can also interpret his sentences as “the gods are the ones decided human’s
end/fate.”
II. (Line 450): the son of Atreus strode among the throng, looking everywhere for Alexander, and no man, neither of the Trojans nor of
the allies, could find him. If they had seen him they were in no mind to hide him, for they all of them hated him as they did death itself
Menelaos was looking for Paris after he mysteriously disappeared during the fight for Aphrodite had carried him off. The metaphor of
how much the Trojans themselves hated Paris here is very strong—they hated him as much as they hated death. It is also an appropriate
metaphor to use as Paris is the one who spark the war between the Trojans and the Achaeans, and as a result, brought death upon them.
Iliad Scroll IV
Summary:
Meanwhile, the gods engaged in their own duels. Zeus argued that Menelaus had lost the duel and that the war should end as the
mortals had agreed. But Hera, who had invested much in the Achaean cause, wanted nothing less than the complete destruction of Troy.
In the end, Zeus gave way and sent Athena to the battlefield to rekindle the fighting. Disguised as a Trojan soldier Laodokos, Athena
convinced the archer Pandarus to take aim at Menelaus. Foolishly hoping to win honor and gratitude from Trojans, Pandarus fired (pray
to Apollo, the famous archer), but Athena, who wanted merely to give the Achaeans a pretext for fighting, deflected the arrow so that it
only wounded Menelaus.
Agamemnon, with Eurymedon as his attendant, now rallied the Achaean ranks. He met Idomeneus, the two Ajexs, Nestor, who
were all getting their men ready. Agamemnon praised Nestor for his great advice to the soldiers. He then found Menestheus, Odysseus,
and Diomedes, among others, and spurs them on by challenging their pride or recounting the great deeds of their fathers—Agamemnon
told the story of Diomedes’s father, Tydus, in the battle against the Thebes. Battle broke out, and many were killed. Antilokhos,
Achaeans, killed Echepolus. King Elephenor tried to strip Echepolus of his armor, but Agenor came and killed Elephenor. Both sides
then fought over his body. Ajax killed Simoeisios (mini story of how Simoeisios got his name: he is bore by the bank of Simoeis).
Antiphus, son of Priam, hurled a spear at Ajax, but missed and killed Leucus, Ajax’s comrade instead. Furious, Ajax hurled back and
killed Demokoon, another son of Priam. Now the gods became involved: Apollo told the Trojans that Achilles is not fighting, and
encouraged them to push on, while Athena went urging the Achaeans. The efforts toward a truce have failed utterly.
Key Words:
Ilion – another name of Troy
1. ponos (trouble): is my trouble [ponos] to go for nothing?
2. kharis (gratitude): You will win honor and gratitude [kharis] from all the Trojans.
3. kosmos (ornament): the king keeps it as an ornament [kosmos]
4. akhos (grief): I have grief [akhos] for you
5. penthos
a. (grief): Some Trojan archer has wounded him with an arrow—to out grief [penthos], and to his own glory [kleos].
b. (shame): For the shame [penthos] will be his if we are vanquished.
6. therapon (attendant): He left his chariot and his panting steeds in charge of his attendant [therapon]
7. noos (thinking): In this wise was their thinking [noos]
8. bie (strength, force)
9. sema (omen): Zeus showed them unfavorable omen.
10. ponos (toil) Even such was the toil [ponos] and uproar of the hosts as they joined the battle.
Important Passage
I. (line 95): you will win honor and gratitude [kharis] from all the Trojans, and especially from prince Alexander—he would be the first
to requite you very handsomely if he could see Menelaos mount his funeral pyre, slain by an arrow from your hand
After the fighting among the gods, they agreed to rekindle the battle and the Trojans are to be the first to break the oath. Thus, Athena,
taking form of Laodokos, son of Antenor, deceived Pandaros into firing at Menelaos. In convincing him, Athena lured Pandaros with a
prospect of gaining honor, gratitude and rewards from Paris. This passage shows how foolish Pandaros was, how could he expect to gain
kharis from all the Trojans when all they wanted is the end of fighting. However, we should not forget that Zeus had just sent down a
sign, letting the Trojans and Achaeans know that he would not make peace between them. Thus, it might also be the gods’ will that
Pandaros must be persuaded. This passage also shows how mortals are easily tricked by the gods, who of course always come in
disguise.
-5-
II. (Line 365) “Son of Tydeus,” he said, “why stand you cowering here upon the brink of battle? Tydeus did not shrink thus, but was ever
ahead of his men when leading them on against the foe—so, at least, say they that saw him in battle, for I never set eyes upon him myself.
Agamemnon went to rally the Achaeans rank. Here he talked to Diomedes, son of Tydeus. Agamemnon made Diomedes ashamed by
telling him story about his father’s bravery and how it has gained him kleos as now Agamemnon is relating the story of him. Also, since
Agamemnon himself had never seen Tydeus fighting but had heard about his bravery shows Tydeus’s kleos has made him known to
many others. It is quite usual for the Greek to compare one to his ancestor. A clear example would be how they always mention a
character as son of someone. It is also considered shameful if one cannot live up to the standard that his ancestor has set. For kleos is
passed down through generation, if you failed to keep it up and pass it down to your children, then you have wronged the family and
should be ashamed.
Iliad Scroll V
Summary:
Diomedes, leading the Achaeans and helped by Athena and Hera, kills many famous Trojan warriors. Ares, Apollo, and Aphrodite help
Aeneas and Hektor, who lead the Trojans. The Greeks are dominant in this scroll with Trojans trying to recover. Diomedes at first backs
down from fighting Ares although he wounds Aphrodite. However, with Athena’s encouragement, Diomedes attaches Ares. The gods and
goddesses themselves take sides. A main theme is the lineage connections that heroes have with Zeus and the other gods and goddesses.
Their fates are affected by which divine powers intervene on their behalf. Yet their kleos is earned through their own choices to charge to
the front in battle. In this sense, death or being saved by divine intervention, either way kleos is achieved. Also note the theme of anger.
Diomedes is described like a lion – so fierce that even gods consider him a daimon. Also note the restraint that even angry warriors have
when it comes to confronting the gods. Diomedes, though angry, heeds Athena’s instructions not to fight any other gods except to wound
Aphrodite. This is seen in the Greeks’ retreating when Hektor charges toward them with Ares and Enyo by his side.
Greek Terms:
kleos – glory, fame ex. Capturing the horses of Tros from the Trojans.
menis – anger
ex. Anger of Zeus and anger of other gods.
therapontes – attendants
krino – read, sort
kharis – service
psukhe – life-breath, spirit (after life)
ichor – immortal blood
ex. Shed by Aphrodite and Ares from their wounds.
daimon – unnamed god
ex. Used several times by the gods to describe Diomedes.
ponos – busy, labor, stress ex. Warriors busy with fighting, struggles of battle.
time - honor
telos – end, conclusion (of life) ex. Used to describe deaths of the twin sons of Diokles.
demos – locale
akhos – grief
kosmos – reason
themis – right (as opposed to wrong)
pontos – sea
aidos – shame
ex. Not being brave enough in battle. Opposite of Achilles (V.785).
Important Passages (2-3):
See below in the Characters Lists for passages, their context and verse numbers.
V.245-250: Diomedes asserts his bravery – gains kleos.
V.460-465: Ares encourages Trojans to fight fiercely. Theme of divine instilling “heart and soul” into them all. This “heart and soul”
refers to the bravery ~ adrenaline rush, which ultimately causes some of the heroes to lose their psukhe. So it is like exchanging one form
of “heart and soul” (psukhe) for another form (that which can achieve kleos).
Divine Characters
Athena
– Greek side. Puts valor into heart of Diomedes.
– “She threw her tasseled aegis about her shoulders, wreathed round with Rout as
with a fringe, and on it were Strife, and Strength, and Panic whose blood runs cold; moreover there was the head of the dread
monster Gorgon, grim and awful to behold, portent of aegis-bearing Zeus. On her head she set her helmet of gold, with four
plumes, and coming to a peak both in front and behind – decked with the emblems of a hundred cities…” (V.735-740).
– Encourages Diomedes to fight Ares: “Fear neither Ares nor any other of the immortals, for I will befriend you. No, drive
straight at Ares ...” (V.825-830). Athena an Diomedes attach Ares and wound him, driving him up to Olympus.
Hera
– Greek side. Wife of Zeus.
– Encourages Greeks to fight: “Argives, shame [aidos] on cowardly creatures, brave in semblance only; as long as Achilles was
fighting, his spear was so deadly that the Trojans dared not show themselves outside the Dardanian gates…” (V. 785-790).
Hephaistos
– Trojan side. Saves Idaeus after Diomedes kills his brother Phegeus.
-6-
Aphrodite – Trojan side. Daughter of Zeus. Cyprian goddess, mother of Aeneas. Wounded in the hand by Diomedes’ spear.
Phoebus Apollo
– Trojan side. Protects Aeneas from Diomedes. Takes him to Pergamus.
– god of the silver bow.
Ares
– Trojan side. War god. Son of Zeus and Hera. Brother of Aphrodite. Lends her his chariot.
– assumes likeness of Acamas (chief of Thracians) to encourage Trojans to fight.
– wounded by Athena and Diomedes. Complains to Zeus, but Zeus calls him “Sir
Facing-bothways” (V.885).
Dione
– Mother of Aphrodite. “Bear it, my child and make the best of it. We dwellers in
Olympus have to put up with much at the hands of men, and we lay much suffering on one another.” (V.380ff).
– she lists examples of the gods suffering at the hands of mortals. (1) Ares: imprisoned by children of Aloeus in vessel of
bronze. (2) Hera: wounded by son of Amphitryon. (3) Hades: arrowed by son of Amphitryon.
– “Diomedes the bravest of the Achaeans.” (V.415).
Human Characters
Diomedes– Greek side (a.k.a. Argives, Danaan). Son of Tydeus the famous horseman.
– he is helped by Athena. Fire flares from his shield and helmet, and with Athena’s help, he brings down whole phalanxes of the
Trojans.
– his life, almost taken by Pandaros’ arrow, is saved by Athena.
– Told by Athena not to fight any other god but to wound Aphrodite.
– described like a lion.
– killed Phegeus, Astynoos, Hyperion (shepherd of his people), Abas and Polyidus (sons of old man dream reader Eurydamas),
Xanthos and Thoon (sons of Phainops).
– captured the horses of Tros after killing Pandaros and wounding Aeneas.
– “Talk not of flight, for I shall not listen to you: I am of a race that knows neither flight nor fear, and my limbs are as yet
unwearied.”
– quoted by Dione (mother of Aphrodite) as “Diomedes the bravest of the Achaeans.”
– described as equal to a daimon.
– “Diomedes shook with passion as he saw them [Hektor, Ares, dread Enyo]. As a man crossing a wide plain is dismayed to
find himself on the brink of some great river rolling swiftly to the sea – he sees its boiling waters and starts back in fear – even
so did the son of Tydeus give ground.”
– Diomedes: “give ground backwards, for we dare not fight with gods.”
Agamemnon– Greek side. King of the Argives. Son of Atreus. Brother of Menelaos.
– killed Odios (chief of Halizoni), Deikoon (son of Pergasus).
– encouraged the Greeks to fight: “my friends, acquit yourselves like brave men, and shun dishonor in one another’s eyes amid
the stress of battle. They that shun dishonor more often live than get killed, but they that flee save neither life nor fame [kleos].”
Sthenelos – Greek side. Son of Kapaneus.
– Spots Aeneas and Pandaros on chariot drawn by horses of Tros, speeding
toward Diomedes. Warns Diomedes about their approach.
– gives horses of Tros to Deipylos to take back to Greek ships.
Deipylos – Greek side. Given the horses of Tros by Sthenelos, who saw him as his chosen comrade, most like-minded to himself.
Menelaos – Greek side. Son of Atreus.
– killed Skamandrios (son of Strophios)
– encouraged by Ares to confront Aeneas. Saved by Antilokhos (son of Nestor).
Antilokhos– Greek side. Son of Nestor. Came to stop Menelaos from confronting Aeneas.
Crethon and Orsilokhos – Greek side. Twin sons of Diokles, grandson of the river Alpheus. Killed by Aeneas (“fell like high pine-trees to
the ground.”)
Ajax
– Greek side. Son of Telemon. Struck Amphios (son of Selagus of Paesus) with spear. Tried to take Amphios’ armor, but
surrounded by Trojans. He backs down.
Tlepolemus – Greek side. Son of Herakles. Grandon of Zeus. Fights Sarpedon and is killed. His death moved Odysseus to pity and to
fighting.
-7-
Odysseus – Greek side. Son of Laertes, husband of Penelope, father of Telemakhos. Moved to pity by and determined to fight after
Tlepolemus’ death at hand of Sarpedon.
– killed Koiranos, Alastor, Chromios, Alkandros, Halios, Noemon, Prytanis.
Idomeneus
– Greek side. Killed Phaesus
Meriones
– Greek side. Killed Phereklos (son of Tekton, grandson of Harmon).
Meges
– Greek side. Son of Phyleus. Killed Pedaeus (son of Antenor).
Eurypylus
– Greek side. Son of Euaemon. Killed Hypsenor (son of Dolopion).
Dares
– Trojan side. Priest of Hephaistos. Father of Phegeus and Idaeus.
Phegeus and Idaeus
– Trojan side. Sons of Dares. They fought Diomedes from their chariot.
– Phegeus was killed by Diomedes, but Idaeus was saved by Hephaistos.
Odios
– Trojan side. Chief of Halizoni. Killed by Agamemnon.
Phaesus – Trojan side. Son of Borus the Meonian from Varne. Killed by Idomeneus.
Skamandrios
Hektor
Aeneas
- Trojan side. Son of Strophios the huntsman. Taught by Artemis in archery.
– Trojan side. Son of Priam.
– Rebuked by Sarpedon. Advised to encourage the Trojans to fight fearlessly.
– aided by Ares and Enyo to confront Diomedes, who back down his men.
– killed Menesthes and Anchialus.
– with Ares’ help, Hektor killed Teuthras, Orestes (charioteer), Trechus,
Oenomaus, Helenus (son of Oinops), Oresbios.
– Trojan side. Son of Anchises and Aphrodite.
– seeks out Pandaros for help in fighting Diomedes. Convinces Pandaros to go on chariot with him and confront Diomedes.
– hip bone crushed by stone thrown by Diomedes. Saved by his mother Aphrodite. Protected by Phoebus Apollo after Aphrodite
is wounded by Diomedes.
– healed by Leto and Artemis.
Sarpedon – Trojan side. Son of Zeus.
– Rebukes Hektor for not doing enough to encourage the Trojans when they are
being utterly torn apart by the Greeks. He mentions his infant son and wife at home. “Where I have left my wife, my infant son,
and much wealth to tempt whoever is needy; nevertheless, I head my Lycian warriors and stand my ground against any who
would fight me though I have nothing here for the Achaeans to plunder…”
– fights Tlepolemus and is wounded.
– his comrades lay him underneath Zeus’ spreading oak tree. Almost loses his life
but regains it.
Pandaros – Trojan side. Son of Lykaon.
– Shot arrow at Diomedes, which would have killed him had not Athena
intervened.
– did not bring his horses (feared they would not be fed well) but only brought his bow and arrows.
– killed by Diomedes after attempting to spear Diomedes.
Phereklos– Trojan side. Son of Tekton, grandon of Harmon.
– of cunning workmanship, loved by Athena
– built the ships for Alexander, heeded not the decrees of heaven
Pedaeus – Trojan side. Son of Antenor. Brought up by Theano as one of her own children.
Hypsenor – Trojan side. Son of Dolopion.
– Priest of the river Skamandros. Honored by locals as though he were a god.
Astynoos – Trojan side. Killed by Diomedes.
Hyperion – Trojan side. Shepherd of his people. Killed by Diomedes.
Abas and Polyidus – Trojan side. Sons of old man dream reader Eurydamas. Killed by Diomedes.
-8-
Echemmon and Chromios – Trojan side. Sons of Priam. Attacked by Diomedes and thrown from their chariot.
Deikoon – Trojan side. Son of Pergasus. Respected by Trojans as equal to sons of Priam.
– Always volunteer at forefront of battle. Killed by Menelaos.
Xanthos and Thoon
– Trojan side. Sons of Phainops. Killed by Diomedes.
Iliad Scroll VI
Summary:
Five major events happen in this scroll: (1) Menelaos is about to spare the life of Adrastos but is rebuked by Agamemnon. They kill the
captive, and this shows that heroes are capable of lacking any mercy whatsoever. (2) Diomedes and Glaukos bond in friendship and
exchange gifts even though they are on opposing sides. This shows how lineage and friendships of ancestors carry into the warriors’
contemporary relationships. Also touches upon gift exchange and its symbolism. (3) Hektor is advised by his brother Helenus the augur to
instruct his mother and Trojan matrons to go pray to Athena for her help in protecting Troy. Athena does not answer their prayers. (4)
Hektor visits his wife Andromache and his baby son for the last time, and Andromache begs him to stay. He is grieved by her lamentation
more than anything else about the war. Hektor is all of mother, father, brother, and dear husband to Andromache. (5) Hektor urges his
reckless brother Alexander to fight his own battle, and expresses disappointment at Alexander’s lack of judgment and sensibility. He has a
brief conversation with Helen also. Helen talks about the theme song of the Iliad. She references the macronarrative. Important to note
is Hektor’s comment to Andromache that a man’s fate is sealed from birth, and when time comes, whether he chooses to be hero or
coward, he must come to his end either way. This scroll is full of tension between peace (Diomedes and Glaukos) and war (Trojans and
Greeks), love (Hektor and Andromache) and rage (Diomedes against Trojans; Agamemnon against all Trojans, even the unborn), nostos
(returning home to wife and kids) and kleos (giving to society’s need for heroes and defending one’s people).
Greek Terms:
kleos – glory, fame ex. Capturing the horses of Tros from the Trojans.
therapon – attendant
daimones – gods
hora – spring (this is interesting since it also refers to time… maybe beginning – or spring – is the marker for time?) Use in Glaukos’
reply to Diomedes about generations coming and going.
demos – locale
sema – signs, markings (Bellerophon’s tablet of baneful signs), tomb (referring to Andromache’s father’s tomb-elm grove) (VI.420).
krino – selected, chosen
time – honor
nemesis – ill-will, dishonor
ate – derangement
ponos – toil
alethea – truth
ex. When Hektor asks maid about where Andromache is, she tells him truthfully.
Important Passages (2-3):
See below in the Characters Lists for passages, their context and verse numbers.
Divine Characters
Divine intervention is not the focus of this scroll. The first verse of this scroll says “The fight between Trojans and Achaeans was now
left to rage as it would, and the tide of war surged here and there over the plain…” (VI.1). Instead, this passage focuses on the human
characters, in particular, Diomedes and Glaukos, Hektor and Andromache, Alexander and Helen.
Athena– Greek side. Daughter of Zeus. She does not answer the prayers of Priam’s wife and the Trojan matrons.
Antaea– Micronarrative. Wife of Proteus. Lusted after Bellerophon (most beautiful). Because Bellerophon rejected her upon his honor,
she told lies about him to Proteus and made Proteus angry at Bellerophon. Thus, Bellerophon suffered toils from his father-in-law.
Human Characters
Diomedes– Greek side. Son of Tydeus.
– killed Axylus (son of Teuthranus, beloved by all men as a host) and his attendant Calesius.
- fights in single combat with Glaukos (son of Hippolokhos). He has never seen Glaukos in battle until they meet for this fight.
Diomedes says to Glaukos that if he is immortal, then he won’t fight him. Tells a story about Lykourgos (who fought the gods
and lost). “Therefore I will not fight with the blessed gods; but if you are of them that eat the fruit of the ground, draw near and
meet your doom” (VI.120-140).
-9-
– he finds out Glaukos’ lineage and connects with him as friends because they’re ancestors were friends. “Great Oineus once
entertained Bellerophon for twenty days, and the two exchanged presents. Oineus gave a belt rich with purple, and Bellerophon
a double cup, which I left at home when I set out for Troy … Henceforth, however, I must be your host in middle Argos, and
you mine in Lycia … let us avoid one another’s spears even during a general engagement … we two, then, will exchange armor,
that all present may know of the old ties that subsist between us” (VI.215-230).
Menelaos – Greek side. Son of Atreus. “of the loud war cry” (VI.35).
– took Adrastos alive (VI.45) and thus was rebuked by Agamemnon.
“My good Menelaos, this is no time for giving quarter. Has, then, your house fared so well at the hands of the Trojans? Let us
not spare a single one of them – not even the child unborn and in its mother’s womb; let not a man of them be left alive, but let
all Ilion perish, unheeded and forgotten.” (VI.55-60).
– Menelaos gives Adrastos to Agamemnon, who kills him.
Agamemnon – Greek side. Son of Atreus, brother of Menelaos. King of Argives (“king of men” VI.30). Killed Elatus of Pedasos and
Adrastos (though he begged for mercy).
Nestor– Greek side. Father of Antilokhos. Encourages the Greeks by saying: “Let us kill as many as we can; the bodies will lie upon the
plain, and you can despoil them later at your leisure.” The narrator continues: “With these words he put heart and soul into them all. And
now the Trojans would have been routed and driven back into Ilion…” (VI.70).
Ajax
– Greek side. Son of Telamon. “Tower of strength to the Achaeans” (VI.5).
– killed Acamas (son of Eussorus), best man among the Thracians.
Euryalos – Greek side. Son of Mecisteus.
– killed Dresus and Opheltios.
– pursued to kill Aisepos and Pedasos (sons of naiad nymph Abarbarea and
Bucolion son of Laomedon).
Polypoetes
– Greek side. Killed Astyalus, Odysseus Pidytes of Perkote, Teucer Aretaon.
Antilokhos
– Greek side. Son of Nestor. Killed Ablerus.
Leitus
– Greek side. Killed Phylakos.
Eurypylus
– Greek side. Killed Melanthos.
Glaukos – Trojan side. Son of Hippolokhos. “Son of Tydeus, why ask me of my lineage? Men come and go as leaves year by year upon
trees. Those of autumn the wind sheds upon the ground, but when spring [hora] returns the forest buds forth with fresh vines.
Even so is it with generations of mankind, the new spring up as the old are passing away” (VI.145).
– His descent: he is son of Hippolokhos and grandson of Bellerophon. Bellerophon is a descendant of Sisyphus (craftiest of all
mankind) and put through many trials by his father-in-law.
– through his story of lineage, Glaukos connects with Diomedes.
– in exchanging present with Diomedes, Glaukos exchanges his golden armor for bronze.
Adrastos – Trojan side. Captured by Menelaos. He caught Menelaos by the knees and begged for life. “Take me alive, son of Atreus, and
you shall have a full ransom for me: my father is rich and has much treasure of gold, bronze, and wrought iron laid by in his
house. From this store he will give you a large ransom should he hear of my being alive and at the ships of the Achaeans”
(VI.45-50).
– killed by Agamemnon, who will have no mercy on any Trojan, even the unborn.
Helenus – Trojan side. Son of Priam (one of several), brother of Hektor. Wisest of augurs.
– Told Hektor and Aeneas: “you two are the mainstays [ponos] of the Trojans and Lycians, for you are foremost at all times,
alike in fight and counsel; hold your ground here … Then when you have put heart into all our companions, we will stand firm
here and fight the Danaans” (VI.75-80).
– Tells Hektor to ask their mother to gather all the matrons at the temple of Athena and lay her largest, fairest robe upon the
knees of Athena, promise to sacrifice twelve yearling heifers, if Athena will take pity on the town, and keep Diomedes from
advancing. “For he [Diomedes] fights with fury and fills men’s souls with panic. I hold him mightiest of them all; we did not
fear even their great champion Achilles, son of a goddess though he be, as we do this man: his rage is beyond all bounds, and
there is none can vie with him in prowess” (VI.85-100).
Hektor
– Trojan side. Son of Priam, brother of Helenus. Listens to Helenus’ advice and urges Trojans to fight. They are able to push
back the Greek offense.
– Hektor instructs his mother to gather the women of Troy and to offer prayers to Athena to stop Diomedes from advancing. He
also says: “while I seek Paris and exhort him, if he will hear my words. Would that the earth might open her jaws and swallow
- 10 -
him, for Zeus bred him to be the bane of the Trojans, and of Priam and Priam’s sons. Could I but see him go down into the
house of Hades, my heart would forget its heaviness” (VI.280-285).
– Visits his own home to find Andromache and his infant son. Hektor finds Andromache weeping at the high wall with his
infant son.
– He has a final conversation with Andromache: “My own wife, do not take these things too bitterly to heart. No one can hurry
me down to Hades before my time, but if a man’s hour is come, be he brave or be he coward, there is no escape for him when
he has once been born” (VI.485).
– Later when Alexander catches up with Hektor, Hektor says to him: “My good brother, you fight bravely, and no man with any
justice can make light of your doings in battle. But you are careless and willfully remiss. It grieves me to the heart to hear the ill
that the Trojans speak about you, for they went through much toil [ponos] on your account. Let us be going, and we will make
things right hereafter, should Zeus grant that we set the cup of our deliverance before ever-living gods of heaven in our own
homes, when we have chased the Achaeans from Troy” (VI.520-525).
Andromache – Trojan side. Wife of Hektor. Daughter of great Eetion ruler of Thebe and king of Cilicians. Mother of Skamandrios (aka
Astyanax).
– She begins to lament about Hektor’s choice to go back onto the battlefield. “Dear husband, your valor will bring you to
destruction; think on your infant son, and on my hapless self who before long shall be your widow - … I shall have nothing left
to comfort me when you are gone, save only grief [akhos] … Nay – Hektor – you who to me are father, mother, brother, and
dear husband – have mercy upon me …” (VI. 405-430).
Alexander (Paris) – Trojan side. Son of Priam, brother of Hektor.
– Rebuked by Hektor to go fight. Alexander says: “I am not here so much through rancor or ill-will [nemesis] towards the
Trojans, as from a desire to indulge my grief. My wife was even now gently urging me to battle, and I hold it better that I
should go, for victory is ever fickle” (VI.335).
Helen
– Woman who is the cause of the war between Trojans and Greeks. Wife of Menelaos, but abducted by Alexander to be his
wife. She comments to Hektor that Alexander is reckless, and she feels sorry for Hektor who must bear all the burden of
fighting: “This fellow [Paris] was never yet to be depended upon, nor never will be, and he will surely reap what he has sown.
Still, brother, come in and rest upon this seat, for it is you who bear the brunt of that toil [ponos] that has been caused by my
hateful self and by the derangement [ate] of Alexander – both of whom Zeus has doomed to be a theme of song among those
that shall be born hereafter” (VI.350-355).
Theano
– Trojan side. Priestess of Athena. Daughter of Cisseus and wife of Antenor.
She prays to Athena asking her to break Diomedes’ spear. She says Troy will offer twelve yearling heifers. But Athena does not
grant her prayer.
Axylus
– Trojan side. Son of Teuthranus, beloved by all men since he was a generous host. Yet none of his guests came to his aid.
Killed by Diomedes.
Astyalus – Trojan side. Killed by Polypoetes.
Odysseus Pidytes of Perkote – Trojan side. Killed by Polypoetes.
Teucer Aretaon
– Trojan side. Killed by Polypoetes.
Ablerus – Trojan side. Killed by Antilokhos.
Elatus
– Trojan side. Killed by Agamemnon.
Phylakos – Trojan side. Killed by Leitus.
Melanthos
- Trojan side. Killed by Eurypylus.
Iliad Scroll VII
Summary:
Zeus meets with Apollo and Athena. They agree that Hektor should challenge one of the Greeks to a fight. Everyone is seated and
Hektor asks for one person to fight him. No one rises up to the challenge, and Hektor becomes mad. Menelaos was going to get up but
King Agamemnon stopped him. Nestor the orator then gets up and speaks of Greek heroes past and rebukes the Greeks for not standing
up to Hektor.
Finally 9 people get up, and they cast lots. The lot fell on Ajax. Ajax arms himself and faces Hektor. They throw their spears and then
fell upon on another. They pierce each others’ shields and Hektor suffers a neck wound, and as they continued to fight heralds from both
sides came and told them to stop fighting because night was falling. They parted while exchanging gifts.
- 11 -
King Agamemnon sacrificed a bull and they feasted. Nestor suggested that they cease fighting the next day and collect their dead and
burn them, and to construct a high wall as well as a deep trench in defense against the Trojans.
In Troy, people are in disagreement over whether they should give up Helen. Paris disagrees and said that he would give up the wealth
that came with her. King Priam decides that they should go down to the Greeks and ask for a ceasefire in order to bury the dead.
The next day Idaeus went to the Trojans to deliver the terms: that they would return the treasure, but not Helen, and to ask for a ceasefire.
The Trojans don’t agree to the treasure, but do agree to the ceasefire. Everyone collected their dead, and the Greeks made a pyre, then a
common tomb, and a high wall. Poseidon was unhappy upon seeing this wall, because the Greeks haven’t taken the gods into counsel and
was afraid the wall itself would have greater kleos than he would. Zeus reprimanded him saying that Poseidon can destroy the wall when
the Greeks go home. The Greeks again laid out a banquet, but Zeus showed his displeasure with some thunder and they made offereings
to him.
Greek words:
Sema
Line 85: that the Achaeans may bury him at their ships, and then build him a tomb [sema] by the wide waters of the Hellespont.
Pontos
Line 85: Then will one say hereafter as he sails his ship over the sea [pontos]
Kleos
Line 90: Thus will one say, and my fame [kleos] shall not perish
Therapontes
Line 120: With these words of reasonable counsel he persuaded his brother, whereon his attendants [therapontes[
gladly stripped the armor off his shoulders.
Penthos Line 120: “Truly,” said he, “the Achaean land is fallen upon grief [penthos]”
Daimon Line 290: Hereafter we will fight anew till heaven [daimon] decide between us, and give victory to one or to the other
Psukhai Line 330: and their spirits [psukhai] have gone down to the house of Hades
Noos
Line 445: “Father Zeus, what mortal in the whole world will again take the gods into his counsel [noos]?”
Passages of notes:
I) Line 75 onward: Thus I say, and may Zeus be a witness between us. If your champion slay me, let him strip me of my armor and take it
to your ships, but let him send my body home… Then will one say hereafter as he sails his ship over the sea, ‘This is the marker [sema] of
the one who died long since a champion who was slain by mighty Hektor.’ Thus will one say, and my fame [kleos] shall not perish.”
This is said by Hektor while he challenges the Greeks to find one man who would stand up to him, and promising that if either of them
perish, the other should return the bones to the people so that they can erect a tomb with a marker (sema). Having one’s bones return to
one’s country, having a physical resting place for that body, is very significant in the culture of a Greek hero worship, since hero cults are
associated with a place. Two key words in this passage are sema and kleos. A hero’s legacy is both visual and aural – one must be able
to see the resting place of his body, and one must hear of his fame, so that this hero would live on forever in the memories of future
generations. This passage is also significant because it sort of foreshadows the later conflict over body of Hektor (and in parallel, the
body of Patroklos). The danger that Priam is willing to go under in order to retrieve his son’s body further shows the significance of
returning a body to its home.
II) Line 445 onward: but Poseidon, Lord of the earthquake, spoke, saying… Zeus was displeased and answered… “but your fame [kleos]
reaches as far as dawn itself… you can cover the beach with sand again, and the great wall of the Achaeans will then be utterly effaced.”
This passage is rather interesting. Poseidon is watching on in horror as the Greeks build their wall and trench, and he is afraid that the
kleos of this wall will be far-reaching, and that men would eventually no longer rely on gods. This shows the insecurity of gods.
Whereas in many religions, particularly monotheistic ones, the God involved is all-mighty and does not quite rely so much on the
constituents, the Greek gods have very human-like emotions and constantly require attention (through sacrifices), ego stroking, and the
like. In addition, this passage also shows that the Greeks themselves have some freedom of making their own choices without consulting
the gods, but that in the end, Zeus can still bend any situation as he sees fit, because ultimately, no one can achieve great kleos without
divine blessing.
Iliad Scroll VIII
Summary:
Zeus calls a council of all the gods again, and warns them not to cross his will. The others agree, but Athena once again pleads on behalf
of the Greeks. Zeus then sat down on his throne at Ida.
- 12 -
The Greeks and Trojans meet in battle. At noon, Zeus took the balance of fates, and the Greek side fell. Nestor horseman of Gerene was
having trouble because one of his horses was struck. Diomedes was the only one left to help him. They mounted Diomedes’ chariot.
Diomedes struck Hektor’s attendant Eniopeus. Hektor finds a new driver. Zeus flames a thunderbolt and it frightens Diomedes’ horses.
Nestor advises Diomedes to turn back his horses. While turning, Hektor mocks Diomedes.
While Hektor boasts upon realizing that Zeus was in the Trojans’ favor, Hera is angry and asks Poseidon why he doesn’t do anything.
Hera puts it in the mind of Agamemnon to encourage the Greeks so that the ships would not be burned. Agamemnon shouts
encouragement to the Greeks and prays to Zeus. Zeus pities them and ruled that hey would not die, and sends an eagle with a young fawn
in its talons.
The Greeks take this sign as positive and ride out again on the offensive and kill many people. Teucer the archer especially had many
hits. He keeps on aiming at Hektor but the gods save him. Hektor hurls a stone at Teucer and hits him at the collar-bone. The Trojans
again drive the Greeks to the trench.
Athena is angry that Zeus should favor Thetis. She and Hera were set to go out when Zeus sends Iris to stop them. She warns the
goddesses that Zeus would lame their horses. Zeus tells them that the tides will not turn until Hektor forces Achilles to fight after the
death of Patroklos.
Night falls, and Hektor orders that watch fires be built so that the Greeks don’t escape by sea. They made offerings, but the gods did not
partake in them.
Greek words:
Therapon
Line 104: age is heavy upon you, your attendant [therapon] is naught, and your horses are slow to move.
Psukhe Line 112: [Diomedes]…. struck… Eniopeus son of noble Thebaeus in the breast by the nipple… so that he lost his life[breath
[psukhe] there and then
Akhos
Line 112: Hektor was greatly grieved at the loss of his charioteer, but let him lie for all his sorrow [akhos]
Daimon Line 157: …for I shall give you with my own hand a death-daemon [daimon]
Sema
Line 167: Thrice did he doubt, and thrice did Zeus thunder from the heights of Ida as a sign [sema] to the Trojans that he would
turn the battle in their favor
Kleos
Line 184: Haste in pursuit, that we may take the shield of Nestor, the fame [kleos] of which ascends to heaven
Ate
Line 228: Father Zeus, did you evr bring such ruin [ate] to a great king and rob him so utterly of his greatness?
Athloi
Line 357: He forgets how often I saved his son when he was worn out by the labors [athloi] Eurystheus had laid on him.
Pontos
Line 469: for all I care, you may go to the lowest depths beneath earth and sea [pontos]
Passages of note:
I) Line 66 onward: …the sire of all balanced his golden scales, and put two fates of death within them… Then he thundered aloud from
Ida, and sent the glare of his lightning upon the Achaeans
It is during another day of fighting, and Zeus weighs the fates of the two sides at midday, and whoever’s rises to the heavens, would fare
well that day. In this context it happened to be the Trojans, and sure enough, they almost would have burned the Greek ships had night
not come. One would think that the gods, who control so much of what is going on in the Iliad, would rely on their own noos to make the
final decisions, but here, we can see that even Zeus is guided by a power, the fate, that is greater than him. This adds towards the epic
grandeur of the story and gives the audience also more of a sense that certain things were meant to happen.
II) Line 130 onward: All had then been lost and no help for it… had not the sire of gods and men been quick to mark… “see you not that
the hand of Zeus is against you?... no man, however brave, may thwart the purpose [noos] of Zeus, for he is far stronger than any.”
Diomedes was close towards pinning Hektor down when Zeus sent down thunderbolts to scare his horses. The one speaking in this
passage is Nestor, who is one of the wisest of the Greeks. Diomedes had already been trying for some time to kill Hektor, but Zeus (and
as we later shall see, Apollo) is determined to keep the Trojan hero alive. Once again, this passage emphasizes the power of the gods and
that no matter how great a human’s noos is, he cannot defy the gods. In addition, there is another struggle in this scroll between Zeus and
the goddesses Hera and Athena, who wished to intervene on the Greeks’ behalf. However, the father of the gods also stops them from
taking any action by his sheer power. While no one else dared to argue with him in the scroll, Nestor’s words succinctly outline the
lesson that everyone in this particular scroll would
- 13 -
Iliad Scroll IX
Summary
Agamemnon, with tears, says that the war is lost and suggests sailing back (IX v.12~). Then Diomedes says that he will fight until Troy
falls (32~). Then Nestor suggest a feast for Agamemnons councilors (65~), and during the feast, he says that Agamemnon should try to
bring Achilles back to the war (96~). Agamemnon says he will offer many gifts as well as Briseis (115~), and also offer his daughters
(135~). Nestor suggests him to send Phoenix, Ajax, Odysseus, Odios, and Eurybates to go to Achilles’ tent (163~). Achilles, in his tent, is
playing on a lyre next to Patroklos, and Odysseus and Ajax come in. Achilles treats them well with foods and drinks. Odysseus then
persuades Achilles to come back to the battle, and he lists all the gifts that Agamemnon offers (225~306). Achilles tells him the
wrongdoing of Agamemnon and says he won’t be bribed by anything (307~409), then also says Thetis’ foretelling that he will die if he
choose to fight (410~). Pheonix then says to Achilles how and why he became a friend to Achilles and how important Achilles is for him,
and urges him to accept Agamemnon’s offer (430~526). He then says a story (micronarrative) about the Curetes and Aetolians fighting
each other for the head and skin of a boar sent by Artemis, and ends the story by again urging Achilles to come back (I think you should
read this micronarrative)(527~605). Achilles answers no to him, and ask him not to serve Agamemnon (606~619). Ajax blames Achilles
in hostile manner (620~643), but Achilles still remains adamant in his decision. The envoys, except Pheonix sleeping in Achilles’ tent,
come back to Agamemnon’s tent and Odysseus delivers Achilles’ rejection ( 669~691). Then Diomedes tells that they should prepare to
defend the ships in whatever possible ways without Ackilles, and other chieftains agree to his suggestion (692~713).
Terms (alphabetical order, excluding obvious ones such as kleos and nostos)
akhos bitterly (250)
aphthiton imperishable (411)
arête might (491)
ate derangement (14, 115, 494, 512)
demos locale (636)
ekhthros hateful (309, 375)
kharis thanks (311) gratification (609)
kholos anger (553)
krino select (517)
litai appeals (493, 496)
lyssa wolfish rage (231, 305)
menis anger (515)
noos judgement (107) thinking (514)
poine fine (as in money) (635)
pontos sea(3)
telos end (53, 410)
themis right (32) ordinances (151) manner (270)
time honor (312, 605, 618) majesty (491) reverence (513)
Passage
(527~605) Pheonix tells a micronarrative in Achilles’ tent. In his story, Curetes parallel to Achaeans and Aetolians to Trojans. Boar sent
by Artemis may represent Helen, daughter of Zeus, and Curetes and Aetolians fight over the boar’s head and skin. Also, another
micronarrative in this story about Meleager who is parallel to Achilles. Yet Meleager stands up and fight at least and get honored, and
Pheonix tells Achilles that he will also be honored if he stands up and fight.
Iliad Scroll X
Summary
Agamemnon and Menelaos is unable to sleep cause they are concerned. Agamemnon talk to Menelaos and order him to call Ajax and
Idomeneus while he goes to wake up sleeping Nestor in his tent. After Agamemnon shows his anxiety and expresses that he want to wake
others up as well, Nestor wakes up and go out to wake others up (87~). Nestor wakes up Diomedes and tell him to wake Ajax up. At the
council where chiefs of the Achaeans called to be, Nestor suggests to send a scout to the Trojan camp , and Diomedes volunteers
(203~226). Several others also volunteered and Agamemnon let Diomedes to choose who to go with, and Diomedes pick Odysseus
(227~253). They pray to Pallas Athena and set out (254~295). In the Trojan camp, Hektor also seek for a scout, and Dolon, son of
Eumedes, volunteers, but asks Hektor to make an oath to give him a chariot and Achilles’ horse (299~331). But Diomedes catches him
alive by throwing a spear and purposely miss him thus Dolon will stop with fear (332~381). Dolon beg for life and Odysseus promises his
life and ask him some informations, and Dolon answers them all (382~446). Then Diomedes kills him and Odysseus offer Dolon’s
belongings to Athena (447~464). They then go to camps of Thrace, which they know from Dolon, that they are unprotected, and
Odysseus free the horses and Diomedes slaughters many Thracians until Athena come to him and tell him to run away before Apollo
wake up other Trojans (465~514). Achaeans welcome two warriors and Nestor asks where the horses from, and Odysseus tells him what
happened (526~563). Then two warriors take a ritual bath (564~579)
Terms (excluding obvious ones such as sema, and one that appears in previous chapter such as krino if same meaning)
aidos respect (238)
akhos grief (146)
demos people (31)
kerdos opportunity (220)
kosmos in order (470)
noos sense (120), wit (221) notion (391)
ponos labor (88, 163) ordeal (242) hardships (278)
therapontes attendants (227)
Passage
(454~465) Diomedes kills Dolon “by struck him in the middle of his neck (455)” as if he is making a sacrifice. Not only animal, but also
human get sacrificed by cutting the throat, as we have seen, in the lecture, the carving of Achilles’ burial where Priam’s daughter is
sacrificed in this way. Also, when the blood spilled is still warm, Odysseus offer Dolon’s belongings to Athena and ask her to speed them
up to Thracian camp. This is in a way microcosm of a sacrifice before a battle; Odysseus and Diomedes are making a sacrifice before they
began their small battle.
- 14 -
Iliad Scroll XI:
SummaryA great battle occurs between the Trojans and Achaeans. No gods are involved except Discord since Zeus is still set on granting Achilles
honor. At first Agamemnon wastes the Trojan army until the Achaeans reach the Trojan wall. Then Zeus turns the tide of the fighting and
the two armies are deadlocked again. Many important Achaean leaders are hurt (Agamemnon, Odyssesus, etc.). After Agamemnon is
hurt, the battle turns in favor of Hektor and the Trojans. Achilles sends Patroklos to see what has been happening. When Patroklos
arrives at Nestor’s tent, Nestor tells Patroklos to encourage Achilles to fight or to at least send Patroklos under Achilles’ armor to fight.
Greek Words[434] With these words he struck the shield of Odysseus. The spear went through the shield and passed on through his richly wrought
cuirass, tearing the flesh from his side, but Pallas Athena did not suffer it to pierce the entrails of the hero. Odysseus knew that his hour
[telos] was not yet come, but he gave ground and said to Sokos, "Wretch, you shall now surely die. You have stayed me from fighting
further with the Trojans, but you shall now fall by my spear, yielding glory to myself, and your life-breath [psukhê] to Hades of the noble
steeds."
Telos= goal, fulfillment, completion, end of life
Psukhe= life force, spirit. Essence of life while one is alive, conveyor of identity when one is dead.
Other words used (that are common to entire Iliad): kleos, penthos, therapon, ponos (see below passages)
Important Passages[218] Tell me now you Muses that dwell in the mansions of Olympus, who, whether of the Trojans or of their allies, was first to face
Agamemnon? It was Iphidamas son of Antenor, a man both brave and of great stature, who was brought up in fertile Thrace the mother of
sheep. Kissês, his mother’s father, brought him up in his own house when he was a child - Kissês, father to fair Theano. When he reached
manhood, Kissês would have kept him there, and was for giving him his daughter in marriage, but as soon as he had married, he went
away from the bride chamber, looking for glory [kleos] from the Achaeans. He came with twelve ships: these he had left at Perkote and
had come on by land to Ilion. He it was that now met Agamemnon son of Atreus. When they were close up with one another, the son of
Atreus missed his aim, and Iphidamas hit him on the belt below the cuirass and then flung himself upon him, trusting to his strength of
arm; the belt, however, was not pierced, nor nearly so, for the point of the spear struck against the silver and was turned aside as though it
had been lead: King Agamemnon caught it from his hand, and drew it towards him with the fury of a lion; he then drew his sword, and
killed Iphidamas by striking him on the neck. So there the poor young man lay, sleeping a sleep as it were of bronze, killed in the defense
of his fellow-citizens, far from his wedded wife, of whom he had had no joy [kharis] though he had given much for her: he had given a
hundred-head of cattle down, and had promised later on to give a thousand sheep and goats mixed, from the countless flocks of which he
was possessed. Agamemnon son of Atreus then despoiled him, and carried off his armor into the host of the Achaeans.
This passage is not likely to appear on the exam, but it does give a good example of the micronarrative, the pursuit of kleos, the ascending
scale of affection, etc.
“Achilles saw and took note, for he was standing on the stern of his ship watching the hard stress [ponos] and struggle of the fight. He
called from the ship to his comrade Patroklos, who heard him in the tent and came out looking like Ares himself - here indeed was the
beginning of the ill that presently befell him. "Why," said he, "Achilles do you call me? what do you what do you want with me?" And
Achilles answered, "Noble son of Menoitios, man after my own heart, I take it that I shall now have the Achaeans praying at my knees,
for they are in great straits; go, Patroklos, and ask Nestor who is that he is bearing away wounded from the field;”
[line 596] Achilles speaking to Patroklos. The important issue is that Patroklos came out looking like Ares, marking him to die, as it is
only in death or marriage that a man becomes like a god, or daimon. [daimon=supernatural force, unspecified god or hero]
[655] And Nestor answered, "Why should Achilles care to know how many of the Achaeans may be wounded? He recks not of the grief
[penthos] that reigns in our host; our most valiant chieftains lie disabled, brave Diomedes son of Tydeus is wounded; so are Odysseus and
Agamemnon; Eurypylos has been hit with an arrow in the thigh, and I have just been bringing this man from the field - he too wounded with an arrow; nevertheless Achilles, so valiant though he be, cares not and knows no ruth. Will he wait till the ships, do what we may,
are in a blaze, and we perish one upon the other?
From Nestor to Patroklos: This is the second questioning of Achilles’ scale of affection. Nestor, who had previously attempted to tell
Achilles a micronarrative/tale to convince him to forgive and come fight, again asks Patroklos what do his comrades matter to Achilles.
“Who knows but with the help of a daimôn you may talk him over, for it is good to take a friend’s advice. If, however, he is fearful about
some oracle, or if his mother has told him something from Zeus, then let him send you, and let the rest of the Myrmidons follow with you,
if perchance you may bring light and saving to the Danaans. And let him send you into battle clad in his own armor, that the Trojans may
mistake you for him and leave off fighting; the sons of the Achaeans may thus have time to get their breath, for they are hard pressed and
there is little breathing time in battle. You, who are fresh, might easily drive a tired enemy back to his walls and away from the tents and
ships."
From Nestor to Patroklos: This is the plan that Nestor proposes to Patroklos that will lead to Patroklos’ death. It reflects several ideas: 1)
that of the therapon = attendant, minister, ritual substitute; Nestor suggests that Patroklos (who is already an attendant to Achilles)
become his ritual substitute and take up his comrade’s clothing. 2) Patroklos looks like Ares (like a daimon) right before this
conversation so he is starting to ‘come into season’, that is, he is near his death where he will clasp his kleos and become a hero.
- 15 -
Iliad Scroll XII
SummaryThe battle continues, centered around the Trojan’s attempt to break the Achaean wall. Zeus helps his son, Sarpedon break the wall on one
side, and also helps Hektor break another side. (not much happens here, there really isn’t much to know)
Greek Words- no new ones here (the passage is very short)
Passages- note: most of this scroll is description of battle and is consequently lacking in meatier material.
[230] Hektor looked fiercely at him and said, "Polydamas, I like not of your reading. You can find a better saying than this if you will. If,
however, you have spoken in good earnest, then indeed has heaven robbed you of your reason. You would have me pay no heed to the
counsels of Zeus, nor to the promises he made me - and he bowed his head in confirmation; you bid me be ruled rather by the flight of
wild-fowl. What care I whether they flee towards dawn or dark, and whether they be on my right hand or on my left? Let us put our trust
rather in the counsel of great Zeus, king of mortals and immortals. There is one omen, and one only - that a man should fight for his
country. Why are you so fearful? Though we be all of us slain at the ships of the Argives you are not likely to be killed yourself, for you
are not steadfast nor courageous. If you will. not fight, or would talk others over from doing so, you shall fall forthwith before my spear."
Hektor to Polydamas: Polydamas has just suggested that the Trojans turn around and not attempt to take the gate of the Achaeans. The
passage sheds light on Hektor as he chooses to ignore the sign of the eagle and snake and instead hold to one omen only: that a man
should fight for his country.
Iliad Scroll XIX
Summary
In this scroll, Thetis has just brought Achilles the newly-made armor from Hephaistos, and he is still weeping by the body of Patroklôs.
She encourages him to make amends with Agamemnon and prepare to fight. Agamemnon accepts Achilles’ apology and tells a
micronarrative of how the goddess Atê [meaning derangement] can cause men to lose reason, much as Agamemnon himself was in taking
away Achilles’ prize. Atê played a part in Hera’s trick of causing Heraklês to lose the throne to his cousin Eurystheus by having Zeus
swear to crown the boy who was born on a certain day. Agamemnon blames his actions on that temporary loss of reason and offers the
presents he had promised Achilles previously. Achilles is impatient and wants to begin fighting the Trojans immediately, but Odysseus is
able to convince him to allow the Achaeans to eat and also helps to mediate a peaceful settlement between Agamemnon and Achilles.
Briseis laments over the body of Patroklôs, while Achilles fasts in sorrow, but Zeus has Athena fill his body with nectar and ambrosia so
that he does not go hungry nor lose strength. Achilles then dons his armor and scolds his horses for not bringing Patroklôs’ body back,
but one of the horses answers (Hera gave it the gift of speech) with a foretelling of Achilles’ death, that he will fall to a man and a god.
Achilles knows this already, and heads off for the front.
Greek words

mênis: supernatural anger
o unsay your anger [mênis] against Agamemnon
o and the Achaeans rejoiced in that he had put away his anger [mênis].

therapôn, pl. therapontes: attendant, minister; ritual substitute
o squires [therapontes] of Ares

aitios: responsible, guilty; aitiâ responsibility, guilt; cause, case
o but it was not I who was responsible [aitios]

atê, plural atai: veering, aberration, derangement; disaster; punishment for disaster
o Erinys that walks in darkness struck me with derangement [atê] when we were assembled on the day that I took from
Achilles the prize that had been awarded to him.
o Father Zeus, truly you give atê to men and bane them

telos: coming full circle, rounding out, fulfillment, completion, ending, end; successfully passing through an ordeal; ritual, rite
o and will not hold to the finality [telos] of your word

akhos: grief, public expression of grief by way of lamenting or keening
o On this Zeus was stung to the very quick with grief [akhos],
o the horseman Phoenix, who stayed behind and tried to comfort him in the bitterness of his sorrow [akhos]
o his eyes gleamed like fire, for his grief [akhos] was greater than he could bear.

âthlos (also spelled aethlos): contest, ordeal; âthlêtês: athlete
o he saw his son groaning under the cruel labors [athloi]

daimôn, pl. daimones: supernatural force (= unspecified god or hero) intervening in human life; eudaimoniâ: state of being
blessed with a good daimôn
o neither shall I take the name of a daimôn in vain.
Interesting Passages
[282] Briseis, fair as Aphrodite, when she saw the mangled body of Patroklos, flung herself upon it and cried aloud, tearing her breast, her
neck, and her lovely face with both her hands. Beautiful as a goddess she wept and said, "Patroklos, dearest friend, when I went hence I
left you living; I return, O prince, to find you dead; thus do fresh sorrows multiply upon me one after the other. I saw him to whom my
- 16 -
father and mother married me, cut down before our city, and my three own dear brothers perished with him on the self-same day; but you,
Patroklos, even when Achilles slew my husband and sacked the city of noble Mynes, told me that I was not to weep, for you said you
would make Achilles marry me, and take me back with him to Phthia, we should have a wedding feast among the Myrmidons. You were
always kind to me and I shall never cease to grieve for you."
Briseis sings a lament for Patroklôs here, and we see the penthos of her grief as she “cried aloud, tearing her breast, her neck, and her
lovely face with both her hands”. She is also as “beautiful as a goddess” during this lament, much as the prima donna of a chorus is like
to a goddess during the climax of her performance.
[315] "Hapless and dearest comrade, you it was who would get a good dinner ready for me at once and without delay when the Achaeans
were hastening to fight the Trojans; now, therefore, though I have meat and drink in my tents, yet will I fast for sorrow. Grief greater than
this I could not know, not even though I were to hear of the death of my father, who is now in Phthia weeping for the loss of me his son,
who am here fighting the Trojans in a strange land [dêmos] for the accursed sake of Helen, nor yet though I should hear that my son is no
more - he who is being brought up in Skyros - if indeed Neoptolemos is still living. Till now I made sure that I alone was to fall here at
Troy away from Argos, while you were to return to Phthia, bring back my son with you in your own ship, and show him all my property,
my bondsmen, and the greatness of my house - for Peleus must surely be either dead, or what little life remains to him is oppressed alike
with the infirmities of age and ever present fear lest he should hear the sad tidings of my death."
Achilles at this point, has just made his decision now to pursue his klêos, but he is now not only mourning the death of his comrade, but
also his impending forfeiture of nostos. Achilles, as always, has been the man of constant sorrow, and even now, he speaks to Patroklôs,
his most philoi comrade.
[404] Then fleet Xanthos answered under the yoke - for white-armed Hera had endowed him with human speech - and he bowed his head
till his mane touched the ground as it hung down from under the yoke-band. "Dread Achilles," said he, "we will indeed save you now, but
the day of your death is near, and we will not be responsible [aitioi], for it will be heaven and stern fate that will destroy you. Neither was
it through any sloth or slackness on our part that the Trojans stripped Patroklos of his armor; it was the mighty god whom lovely Leto
bore that slew him as he fought among the foremost, and granted a triumph to Hektor. We two can fly as swiftly as Zephyros who they
say is fleetest of all winds; nevertheless it is your doom to fall by the hand of a man and of a god."
[418] When he had thus spoken, the Erinyes stayed his speech, and Achilles answered him in great sadness, saying, "Why, O Xanthos, do
you thus foretell my death? You need not do so, for I well know that I am to fall here, far from my dear father and mother; none the more,
however, shall I stay my hand till I have given the Trojans their fill of fighting."
Achilles enters the fray, even as he knows that he has made the decision that will lead to his death. We also see a reference to Achilles’
downfall by the hand of Apollo, much as Patroklôs fell before him.
Iliad Scroll XX
Summary
The narrator addresses Achilles as he enters the battle “Thus, then, did the Achaeans arm by their ships round you, O son of Peleus”.
Zeus calls a counsel of the gods and declares that he will now sit out of the battle, but the others gods may join in as they wish, so the
break-up is as follows: Achaeans – Hera, Athena, Poseidon, Hermes, Hephaistos; Trojans – Ares, Apollo, Artemis, Leto, Xanthos,
Aphrodite. While the gods matched themselves up with each other, Achilles focused on tracking down Hektor, which Apollo tried to
thwart by setting Aeneas against Achilles. Aeneas is reluctant to fight Achilles, but Apollo uses Aeneas’ lineage as a son of an Olympian
goddess (Aphrodite) as opposed to Achilles’ lineage of a “goddess of inferior rank” (Thetis). Hera wants the gods to rally to Achilles, but
Poseidon calms her by telling her to wait until Apollo directly fights against Achilles, at which point the gods will come to Achilles’ aid.
Achilles meets Aeneas at the forefront of the battle and taunts him, reminding him of how he beat him before. Aeneas retorts with a jibe
about his better lineage and tells a whole micronarrative about his forefathers. Aeneas throws his spear which pierces through 2 of the 7
layers of Achilles’ shield, and then Achilles throws his spear, but Aeneas ducks. Meanwhile, Achilles’ hefts a large rock and is about to
kill Aeneas, but Poseidon feels sorry for Aeneas and whisks him away.
Hektor then rallies the troops and declares that he will fight Achilles, but Apollo tries to dissuade him from doing so, telling him to hide
between the crowds for protection. Achilles then begins a killing spree to take out anyone who is in the way between him and Hektor.
Greek words

noos: designates realm of consciousness, of rational functions; intuition, perception; the principle that reintegrates thûmos (or
menos) and psukhê after death
o and help either side as you may be severally disposed in your thinking [noos]

telos: coming full circle, rounding out, fulfillment, completion, ending, end; successfully passing through an ordeal; ritual, rite
o if heaven would let me fight him to the finish [telos] on even terms
o Even so the deed of Achilles will fall somewhat short of the outcome [telos] of his word

tîmê, pl. tîmai : 'honor; honor paid to a supernatural force by way of cult'
o Is it that you hope to reign over the Trojans, partaking of the honor [timê] of Priam?

aretê: striving for a noble goal, for high ideals; noble goal, high ideals
o Such do I declare my blood and lineage, but as for valor [aretê], Zeus gives it or takes it as he will, for he is lord of all
- 17 -


o He, in his folly and showing off the excellence [aretê] of his speed
akhos: grief, public expression of grief by way of lamenting or keening
o Aeneas though he had avoided the spear, stood still, blinded with fear and grief [akhos]
o Alas, I feel grief [akhos] for great Aeneas
o Why should this man suffer grief [akhos] when he is guiltless, to no purpose, and in another’s quarrel?
daimôn, pl. daimones: supernatural force (= unspecified god or hero) intervening in human life; eudaimoniâ: state of being
blessed with a good daimôn
o When he rushed forward for the fourth time as though he were a daimôn he shouted aloud saying
o even so furiously did Achilles rage, wielding his spear as though he were a daimôn
Interesting Passages
[288] Aeneas would then have struck Achilles as he was springing towards him, either on the helmet, or on the shield that covered him,
and Achilles would have closed with him and dispatched him with his sword, had not Poseidon lord of the earthquake been quick to mark,
and said forthwith to the immortals, "Alas, I feel grief [akhos] for great Aeneas, who will now go down to the house of Hades, vanquished
by the son of Peleus. Fool that he was to give ear to the counsel of Apollo. Apollo will never save him from destruction. Why should this
man suffer grief [akhos] when he is guiltless, to no purpose, and in another’s quarrel? Has he not at all times offered acceptable sacrifice
to the gods that dwell in heaven? Let us then snatch him from death’s jaws, lest the son of Kronos be angry should Achilles slay him. It is
fated, moreover, that he should escape, and that the race of Dardanos, whom Zeus loved above all the sons born to him of mortal women,
shall not perish utterly without seed or sign. For now indeed has Zeus hated the blood of Priam, while Aeneas shall reign over the
Trojans, he and his children’s children that shall be born hereafter."
This is the confrontation between Aeneas and Achilles, but we see that Poseidon, although on the side of the Greeks, feels sorry for
Aeneas, a warrior of the Trojan side. There seems to be a contradiction, as, if Aeneas is fated to survive, why does Poseidon need to save
him? Are the gods themselves also subject to fate?
[438] He hurled his spear as he spoke, but Athena breathed upon it, and though she breathed but very lightly she turned it back from
going towards Achilles, so that it returned to Hektor and lay at his feet in front of him. Achilles then sprang furiously on him with a loud
cry, bent on killing him, but Apollo caught him up easily as a god can, and hid him in a thick darkness. Thrice did Achilles spring towards
him spear in hand, and thrice did he waste his blow upon the air. When he rushed forward for the fourth time as though he were a daimôn
he shouted aloud saying, "Hound, this time too you have escaped death - but of a truth it came exceedingly near you. Phoebus Apollo, to
whom it seems you pray before you go into battle, has again saved you; but if I too have any friend among the gods I will surely make an
end of you when I come across you at some other time. Now, however, I will pursue and overtake other Trojans."
Here is the scene where Achilles is giving chase to Hektor, but Apollo keeps him back. This is similar to when Patroklôs was giving
chase to Hektor. Once, twice, thrice, the warrior chases and tries to overtake, but Apollo keeps him back. We see Achilles’ fury at
Hektor’s thwarting, not only from his death, but also from Achilles’ glory.
Iliad Scroll XXI:
Summary:
After having killed a bunch of Trojans randomly, Achilles comes upon the river Xanthos (Skramandros – mortal name for the river)
which the Trojans are trying to ford in order to escape. Achilles jumps in and kills many men with his sword and then takes twelve youths
captive for sacrifice to Patroklus later.
The river gets mad with Achilles, because he is polluting it with blood and guts and corpses. The river then has his grandson (yes, the
river had a son with a woman), Asteropaeus, try to fight Achilles. Achilles kills him and then insults his lineage, saying something to the
effect that his immortal parents > Asteropaeus’ parents, thus Achilles > Asteropaeus.
Xanthos then asks Achilles to stop killing people in its water, Achilles agrees but says he will still kill the Trojans elsewhere. The river
takes pity on the Trojans and tries to attack Achilles (like LOTR style with the wraiths). Achilles tries to outrun the river but the river
comes pretty close to overcoming Achilles with floodwaters. Achilles cries out to Zeus for help.
Athena and Poseidon reassure him that the river won’t get him. Hera sends Hephaestus to go and boil and burn the river with his fire
(coming from a bellow). So Hephaestus boils the river into submission and the river promises to stop interfering and trying to save the
Trojans.
Then the rest of the gods fight. Ares attacks Athena, but she knocks him with a big rock and he falls and gets all messed up. Aphrodite
tries to help Ares up, and Athena shoves Aphrodite and she falls down too. Poseidon goads Apollo to fight but Apollo pretty much says
its not worth fighting over mortals. Artemis and Hera go at it, and Hera beats the crap out of Artemis, who runs off crying to her daddy
Zeus. And then all the Gods go to Olympus, either happy for kicking butt or sad.
Meanwhile the Trojans retreat behind the walls as Achilles and the Achaeans chase after them. Apollo saves them by telling the
guardsmen to open the gates and by disguising himself as a hero to distract Achilles’ attention from the people rushing to the gate.
- 18 -
Iliad Scroll XXII:
Summary:
Achilles then realizes he’s been tricked and runs back across the plain to the city. Priam sees him first and notes that he looks like
“Orion’s Hound,” a star that shines most brightly at harvest time. Then Priam sees that Hektor is still outside the gates, pondering
whether to fight Achille’s or not. Priam goes into a long lament telling Hektor to go inside and hide and protect the Trojan people some
more. Without Hektor they have no one. Priam says that if Hektor dies they will destroy all of Illion and Priam will suffer a most horrible
death (an aged man being torn apart by his own hounds.).
Hektor’s mother also implores him to come in. She appeals with all these memories of maternal love. However Hektor says that he must
face Achilles because he cannot bear to come into the city and face his comrades. He was too proud and did listen to Polydamas to retreat
when Achilles first showed up at the trenches the night before. Now that Achilles has kicked everyone’ butt, Hektor can’t handle the
shame of having cost his people so many deaths because of his blind bloodlust and pride.
While he still perplexed so, Achilles comes running up and starts chasing Hektor. They run around the city three times and are described
as resembling a chariot race. However, they are racing for Hektor’s life. They run around the city three times and are in a stalemate but
Athena disguises herself as Hektor’s brother and persuades him to go fight Achilles with her. However, when they begin to fight Athena
disappears. Achilles and Hektor exchange spear tosses but both miss. Athena returns Achille’s spear to him, but Hektor must resort to
pouncing on Achilles with his sword. Achilles easily stabs Hektor in the throat. Hektor lies dying and begs to have his body returned to
his parents after it has been despoiled of armor.
Here comes the famous part: Achilles, who shows the great extent of his rage says that he will feed Hektor to the dogs near the ship, but
that he would rather cut Hektor into pieces and eat his flesh raw.
The Achaeans then surround Hektor’s body as Achilles is stripping it and they begin to stab him and mutilate his body. Achilles pokes
holes in Hektor’s heels (ironically right at the ACHILLES TENDONS) and then strings these holes with ropes which he attaches to his
chariot. He starts to drag Hektor.
Story shifts to the people at the walls and Priam and his wife Hecuba. They lament and cry and tear at themselves. Its really tragic and
you all should read it for yourselves. Summary doesn’t begin to describe the emotion in this scroll. Andromache is at her loom and
doesn’t know anything but she hears the wailing of Hecuba. She rushes out to find out what happens and once she does goes into a long
lament. She curses herself and Hektor and their sad fate as a couple. She worries for their son Astyanax, who is now fatherless and
stripped of his place in society. She describes Hektor as the only defense of the Trojans. And she laments and laments. Exactly what
Professor Nagy describes in one of the earlier lectures about the lament.
Passages and Greek Words
As far as passages.. Scroll 21 is mostly the gods being pissy amongst themselves. There are not many greek words in this scroll. If
anything, this scroll is building to the climax in scroll 22. It just describes how Achilles is killing everyone and how a river is chasing
after him. There is a good passage that relates to the hero and the sema at line 298. However, I am using the 2004 sourcebook so it may be
a little off in terms of line number.
You may also want to remember the word “lyssa” which mean wolf. It is used to describe Achille’s rage [537].
Scroll 22 is hard to even describe. It’s the most emotional part of the Illiad. It is anger and hate on Achille’s part and it is grief on the part
of the Trojans, especially Hektor’s dear ones. The last two paragraphs in the scroll are Andromache’s lament of Hektor’s death. It’s very
laden with emotion [460, 486]
Obviously, the end of scroll 22 is very important. It has two exemplifying laments and features the line that embodies Achilles rage [334].
I think the words for anger in Greek is – MENIS. And word for derangement is ATE.
It is my overall recommendation that you read scroll 20 and 22 if you haven’t. It’s got to be the best parts of the Illiad. The anger of
Achilles and how it intertwines with his destiny finally comes to the forefront.
- 19 -