Basic Beekeeping Course
The Basic or Beginning Beekeeping Course is designed to familiarize you with the BASICS
needed to advance to higher education as far as beekeeping goes. Of course it is not intended to be
all inclusive nor all encompassing. Beekeeping is for many a hobby, art or perhaps a profession
with many different facets. Our intent is to help you on your way to a beegin with your new hobby.
The Apis Mellifera or honey bee. The bee that most everyone is familiar with and is seen on plants
pollinating or collecting nectar. Of this genus there are several (24) different races of bees. That may
sound like a lot of bees, but we will be discussing the basic bee most everyone uses--the Italian honey
bee (A. mellifera ligustica). It was introduced to the United States around 1859.
Chapter 1
A lesson on races of bees:
Italian (Apis mellifera linguistica) Probably the most widely used bee in the United States. It varies
in color from blonde to a rustic brown. One will normally see the term three banded Italians. That is
because you will see the bands (rings of darkness) on the abdomen. The Italian honey bee builds
large populations of bees, use a lot of nectar and pollen to feed this large population, produce honey
crops in some areas of 200 pounds per hive, and over-winters well in large clusters. Most are gentle
and easy to work.
Carnolian (Apis mellifera carnica) This is a dark bee. In fact the queen is very hard to find in a
hive unless they are marked. They thrive in cooler climates. Although they go into winter cluster
with smaller populations than the Italian, they use up less food and build up fast in the spring of the
year when nectar and pollen become available. Pure Carnolians are very gentle bees and are
recommended to the hobbyist who is just beginning "the beekeeping experience." They do
demonstrate a tendency to swarm. Cross-bred Carnolian bees seem to be a bit aggressive.
Caucasian (Apis mellifera caucasica) This a gray bee. It comes from a region of the Caucasus
Mountains in Europe. Pure Caucasians are gentle and prolific. They winter well and do not swarm
excessively. The chief criticism is that they tend to build burr comb between frames and gather and
use large amounts of propolis.
German Black (Apis mellifera mellifera) Originally from throughout northern Europe, this was the
first honey bee brought to the New World. They are brown/black in color and winter well. German
black bees are nervous, aggressive and build up slowly in spring.
Africanized Honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata) and its hybrids - These honey bees originated
throughout east Africa. In the 1950s, this race was imported to Brazil and began migrating northward.
Compared to European races, this bee and its hybrids are extremely defensive, have smaller nests, the
queen emerges earlier and swarm more frequently.
Other names will pop out at you from the various ads. These will include: Starline, Midnite, Double
Hybrid, Russian, Buckfast, New World Carnolian, Minnesota Hygienic Italians, Russian, etc. These
bees are still lines developed from the above races of bees.
As a new beekeeper, experiment with different races or lines of bees. This is to find which breed
works best for you in your area or particular requirement. It is almost like comparing a Chevrolet and
a Ford. They both get you to where you want to go most of the time.
Chapter 2
Workers - Reproductively underdeveloped females that do all the work of the colony. A colony may
have 2,000 to 60,000 workers. The workers tend the queen and young drones as well as the young
brood. All bees develop through a complete metamorphosis: after three days, the egg hatches into a
worm-like larva which feeds voraciously and grows and molts each day for about four days. It then
goes into a resting stage, the pupa, which lasts for another few days in a capped cell until the bee
emerges as an adult. This process takes 16-24 days depending on season and class of bee. As
mentioned previously, workers feed the young larvae and seal the pupa into the cell. They also feed
the emerged young adults until they are old enough to fend for themselves. The young worker tends
larvae (nurse bee) and uses its wings to help ventilate the hive. As it gathers strength, it will start
cleaning out old used cells for reuse, may tend the queen (attendants) or young drones, or work on
capping cells. Depending on the season, and after a few days have passed, the worker works at
gathering operations. The bee will fly out of the hive and visit flowers in search of nectar and pollen
(field bee), or will visit trees for harvesting resin to make propolis. The propolis is used as glue and
caulk to seal cracks in the hive. The nectar and pollen are collected and returned to the hive for use
and/or storage.
Queen - A fully fertile female specialized for producing eggs.
When a queen dies or is lost, workers select a few young worker larvae and feed them a special food
called "royal jelly." These special larvae develop into queens. Therefore, the only difference between
workers and queens is the quality of the larval diet. There is usually only one queen per colony. The
queen also affects the colony by producing chemicals called "pheromones" that regulate the behavior
of other bees.
Drones - Male bees. A colony may have 0 to 500 drones during spring and summer.
Drones fly from the hive and mate in the air with queens from other colonies. Drones are tolerated in
the hive only when there is a possibility that they may mate with a queen. Thus a few are tolerated in
spring and fall, more in the summer, but none in the winter. The workers keep the drones out of the
hive to starve to death in the autumn. Drones, like queens, lack the body parts to effectively harvest
nectar or pollen to feed themselves. Drones also lack a stinger of any kind. They are designed for
mating only.
Chapter 3
Life Stages of a Bee.
Under normal circumstances the queen lays all the eggs in the hive. There are four stages of embryo
development--egg, larva, pupa, and adult. This kind of development is called complete
metamorphosis. Workers and queens develop from fertilized eggs and drones from non-fertilized
eggs. The egg is incubated in the nursery region called a brood nest at a temperature of
approximately 91°- 97° F. Once hatched, the larva is fed between 150-800 times a day. and gains
about 900 times the weight of the egg by the fifth day. They are mass-fed brood food called workerjelly and gradually changed over to pollen and honey. Now the cells are capped over and develop
into what their genetic traits and food sources allow them to become. As she emerges, she will
become a vital part of hive life. This may include feeding and cleaning larva, tending to the queen,
building new comb, capping cells of brood--honey or pollen, heating or cooling the hive or other
duties as necessary. Afterwards she will become a field worker, gathering pollen, nectar or water.
The queen develops from a fertilized egg after 3 days to a larva at about day 4.5, then develops into a
pupa at day 7.5 becomes capped, then emerges at day 16. The worker develops from a fertilized egg
after 3 days, to a larva at about day 5, then develops into a pupa at day 9 becomes capped, then
emerges at day 21. The drone hatches from an egg on day 3, develops into a larva on day 5, becomes
capped at day 10 then emerges at day 24.
The lifespan of a queen is 2-5 years, a worker 15-38 days in the summer and 140-320 days in the
winter, while the drone lives a mere 4-8 weeks...
The queen lays all her eggs in hexagonal beeswax cells built by workers. Developing young honey
bees (called "brood") go through four stages: the egg, the larva (plural "larvae"), the inactive pupa
(plural "pupae") and the young adult. Newly emerged workers begin working almost immediately.
As they age, workers do the following tasks in this sequence: clean cells, circulate air with their
wings, feed larvae, practice flying, receive pollen and nectar from foragers, guard hive entrance and
forage. The castes have different development times.
Development time of honey bee.
Days after Laying Egg
Stage
Queen
Worker
Drone
3
3
3
Cell capped
8 +- 1
9 +- 1
10 +-1
Emerges from cell
16 +- 1
20 +- 1
24 +-1
Laying, foraging / flying
28 +- 5
42 +- 7
38 +- 5
Hatching
Unlike colonies of social wasps and bumble bees, honey bee colonies live year after year. Therefore,
most activity in a bee colony is aimed at surviving the next winter.
During winter, bees cluster in a tight ball. In January, the queen starts laying eggs in the center of the
nest. Because stored honey and pollen are used to feed these larvae, colony stores may fall
dangerously low in late winter when brood production has started but plants are not yet producing
nectar or pollen. When spring "nectar flows" begin, bee populations grow rapidly. By April and May,
many colonies are crowded with bees, and these congested colonies may split and form new colonies
by a process called "swarming." A crowded colony rears several daughter queens, then the original
mother queen flies away from the colony, accompanied by up to 60 percent of the workers. These
bees cluster on some object such as a tree branch while scout bees search for a more permanent nest
site - usually a hollow tree or wall void. One of the daughter queens that was left behind inherits the
original colony. After the swarming season, bees concentrate on storing honey and pollen for winter.
By late summer, a colony has a core of brood below insulating layers of honey, pollen and a honeypollen mix. In autumn, bees concentrate in the lower half of their nest, and during winter they move
upward slowly to eat the honey and pollen.
Chapter 4
BEE BIOLOGY.
Main Structures: The bee has 3 main external structures. The head, thorax and the abdomen.
Located on the head are five sets of eyes, the antennae and feeding structures. On the thorax or
middle section of the bee are the muscles that control the wings, the 3 pair of legs and the respiratory
system. The abdomen is the longest part of the bee and contains the wax secreting glands, the sting,
and ovaries (queen only). There are numerous other parts which will be covered later.
The Head: Bee vision: 5 sets of eyes-- three simple (ocelli) and two compound. The compound eyes
are composed of many light sensitive cells called ommatidia. This is how bees perceive color, light,
and directional information. The feeding structures of the bee include the tongue (proboscis), and the
jaw or mandible. The tongue is used for lapping or sucking fluids such as nectar, honey or water.
The jaws are used for shaping beeswax, manipulating pollen and glandular secretions and moving
objects.
Thorax: The thorax has the muscles which control the legs and wings. On the legs have special
pollen collecting structures or hairs which are used for grooming also. Here on the abdomen is
located the spiracles. These are the respiratory system for the bee--this is the site of tracheal mites.
The thorax also has an armor plating to keep the bee from drying out just like on the abdomen.
Abdomen: The abdomen is the longest section of the bee and has armor plating called tergites (top)
and sternites (bottom) that protect the bee and keep it from drying out. The wax secreting glands are
located on the underside of the abdomen and a scent gland located just above the sting. The hind legs
have pollen baskets in which to carry the fresh pollen back to the hive for use to feed young bees.
This section also contains the sting. This is a barbed object which penetrates the skin and continues
to pump in venom into the victim until it is scraped off. Honey bees can only sting once, since it
ultimately causes their death--unlike the yellow jacket or hornet, which may sting several times.
The sting of a bee also releases an alarm odor readily picked up by other bees--so in order to reduce
the number of stings--remove the sting as quickly as possible and smoke the area to cover the odor.
Chapter 5
Bee Nutrients
Pollen: Pollen is stored in broodcomb cells and is the main supply of protein and vitamins for the
hive. Pollen is 6 to 28% protein by weight and usually contains the 10 amino acids essential for bees.
Nectar: Nectar is from 5 to 80% sugar but is less than 0.2% in protein, so nectar is the carbohydrate
supply for the hive. Nectar is placed in honeycomb cells and the bees tending the honeycomb
evaporate the water from the nectar by rapid wing movement to create ventilation. When the amount
of water remaining in the nectar is less than 18%, the mixture is called honey and the bees cap off the
cells. A mixture of honey and pollen is called "bee bread" and is the food for most larvae and bees.
When a worker egg has been selected to become a queen, it is moved to a much larger queen cell and
is fed large quantities of "royal jelly" which is similar to bee bread but contains more mandibular
gland secretions and more honey (34% vs 12%). The larger cell for growth, larger food supply,
additional carbohydrate, and more worker secretions results in the development of a queen.
Chapter 6
SUPPLIES
Not all beekeepers use all of these components. Many variations are dependant upon individual
beekeeping style, purpose, environmental conditions, etc...
Bee veils: Purpose: To protect the head from bee stings. Bees are defensive insects and will seek
out anything that disturbs the hive. They are attracted especially to the eyes and nose. They also
become entangled in one's hair. For the beginner, it is not a comfortable feeling to have a bee
crawling around in one's hair. Choices include square, round, and jackets with attached veils. Prices
vary. If you can afford the expense, we would recommend a complete suit with attached bee veil.
This type of suit will provide the maximum of protection from stings.
Gloves: They protect the hands from stings. Some people just beginning may select the least
expensive glove -- a canvas glove. But, bees will sting through light canvas gloves. They will
provide some protection but not enough. You money will be better spent on a good pair of gloves
that have sleeves sewn on them to keep bees from crawling up you arms. Gloves will come in a
variety of sizes from children size to large adult.
Protective clothing: Bee catalogs will offer a variety of bee suits -- with and without veils. A good
loose fitting shirt that can be zipped or buttoned up tight will be a good alternative. Avoid dark
colors. Bees see dark colors as attractive and will be more likely to pay attention to you. For pants a
new beekeeper should find something light in color - tan or white. Wear white socks. Pant legs can
be folded over at the ankle and the tops of the sock pulled up to hold the pant legs in place. It also
prevents bees from crawling up ones pant leg.
Shoes: Many beekeepers have high top worker boots to wear when working bees. It is not
required. If one places the pant legs in the socks, the beekeeper should not experience any trouble
unless they make the mistake of wearing navy or black socks. Bees will get on the socks and sting
through them. Heavy athletic socks work just fine.
As a new beekeeper, it is like going to war. You want to avoid a sting. However, sooner or later, you
will have to deal with a sting or more than one sting. If you do face a situation in which you receive a
sting or two, remember you can back away from a hive and wait for the bees to settle down. They
will. A little ice applied to the sting will relive some of the pain. If attacked by bees your best
defense is to run. Remember, a beekeeper does not have to put up with aggressive bees. You do not
need to wait for us to tell you why. Here is the answer: All worker bees in a hive are produced by a
queen. They will display the characteristics of the genetic pool the queen represents. To change the
character of a hive all one has to do is replace the old queen with a queen known for gentleness.
Hardware Accessories
Smoker:
A smoker is one of the most valuable pieces of equipment you can own. Its purpose: Subdue and
move the bees. It is important to learn that you can over smoke bees. A smoker is designed to
produce a cloud of smoke and smoke can be directed in the direction the smoker is pointed. All it
takes is a puff or two. You may be asking yourself right now "what do I use as fuel?" There are so
many fuels for smokers and everyone seems to have a favorite. Pine needles, grass or leaves. It
produces a cool white smoke that is actually pleasant, but still gets the job done.
A hive tool: The purpose of a hive tool is to allow you to pry boxes apart and assist in freeing frames
to be removed from the hive. This is a handy item for scraping and removing burr comb. Hive tools
come in many sizes and shapes. You just have to decide which is best for you.
A bee brush: Purpose: To brush bees off comb when removing honey. When you have only two
or three hives, it serves its purpose quite well. However, to use it, you must pull frames out of boxes
and brush bees off. They don't like that. There are other ways to get bees out of the honey supers
besides brushing them off.
A wheel barrow: The other piece of equipment that comes in handy is a wheel barrow for carrying
bee equipment from your garage to your bees. It sure saves the back. A garden cart works as well.
Woodenware/Equipment
Most wooden bee equipment is build from white pine. Cypress is known for its long life but pine is
an excellent choice. A beekeeper needs to paint all equipment so that it is protected from the
weather. A complete standard hive that includes: boxes for the brood chamber with frames and
foundation, boxes for the honey supers and frames with foundation, a telescoping cover with metal
cover, a bottom board, inner cover. Almost every bee supply business offers a standard hive either as
a single or as two hive bodies.
Bee Boxes: Boxes come in three different heights and widths. Deeps are 9 5/8 inches high,
Mediums are 6 5/8 inches high and Shallows are 5 13/16 high. Ten Frame boxes are 16 ¼ inches
wide and hold ten frames. Eight Frame boxes are 13 ¾ inches wide and hold 8 frames. Nuc boxes
are 9 ½ inches wide and hold 5 frames.
Brood chamber: The brood chamber is the area the bees live in. This is where the queen will lay
eggs and the brood will be reared. All food required for the colony to live is stored in the brood
chamber including pollen and honey stores for over wintering.
Honey supers. Honey supers are extra boxes the beekeeper uses to give the honeybees extra room to
put up extra stores of honey during the season. Boxes used as honey supers are usually shallows or
mediums. At the end of the season or “flow” the beekeepers can take some of the extra honey
depending on how much is left in the brood chamber as a honey crop.
Bottom Board: The brood box or brood chamber must have something to sit on. It sits on the bottom
board. A bottom board is a little bit longer than a brood box. The extension to the front of the
bottom board is the landing area for the bees just about to enter the hive. Most bottom boards now
come as screen bottoms to allow mites and other debris to fall through and give the colony added
ventilation. The bottom board is the first piece of equipment to rot out. To give it a longer life, the
beekeeper should set the bottom board up above the ground. Many use concrete blocks or other types
of hive stands. The important thing is to keep it as dry as you can.
Along with the bottom is a device to reduce the entrance to a hive. These are used to help weak
hives defend themselves from other bees and it is used in the fall of the year to keep rodents of the
hive. Rodents seek a dry place to build a nest and stay comfortable. Bee hives are a good place to
build a nest during the fall and winter.
Inner cover: The inner cover prevents bees from gluing down the top cover to the top of the box. If
an inner cover was not used the beekeeper would have to pry the top cover from the hive. This could
cause damage to the top cover and of course, the effort to get the top cover off would alert the bees to
your presence big time.
Top cover: There are several designs for top covers. A Telescoping cover has a rim around all
sides and front/back of the top box and inner cover. Usually this is covered with a galvanized or
aluminum metal sheet which is pressed to fit the wood parts of the cover. A Migratory cover only
has front /back pieces. This allows hives to be stacked close together during transportation hence the
“Migratory” part of the name. No matter which type of cover is used some sort of ventilation is
required. Adding a shim or propping up the top is the usual means of venting through the cover.
Some beekeepers add a heavy rock on top of the top cover to keep the wind from blowing covers off.
An elective accessory for the beekeeper is something called a queen excluder. A Queen Excluder is
used to keep the queen in a certain area of the hive. Some beekeepers use a queen excluder to keep
the queen from getting into the supers and laying eggs in frames for honey stores. Either an all metal
excluder or one bound with a wood frame can be used. You do not absolutely need a queen excluder
on your hive unless you are producing comb honey. A queen excluder can be used to keep the queen
below the honey supers and in the brood chamber. When a queen lays eggs in comb and raises
brood, the comb will turn dark and be unfit to eat.
Painting hives: Bee hives do not need to be painted. The bees really don't care. However, saying
that, if you want your investment in equipment to last, you will paint to protect the wood. Most
people like to paint hives white. The only problem with white is that white is easy to see against a
dark background such as green shrubbery. If you have more than one hive, you can paint the
entrance (the landing board) a different color from its neighbor. Bees have a tendency to drift into a
hive that is not their own and this is true of hives in a straight row.
Bees:
You will need to get bees for your bee equipment. You may sit the beehive out as a yard decoration.
I am sure it will get plenty of attention. However, without bees, you are not going to be a beekeeper.
Where do you get bees?
What should you be looking for:
1) The easiest way to begin beekeeping is to purchase the equipment that we just talked about and
buying bees to go into the equipment. Everything can be scheduled so that you can be assured that
your beginning will really result in a beginning. You still must deal with reliable vendors and dealers
2) You could buy a nuc (nuclei) hive. This is a box with four or five frames of bees, a queen, brood,
honey and pollen stores. It needs to be transferred to a full hive body. However, it doesn't have to
be transferred today. It could wait several days. The nuc should be set out on the location where the
full size hive will be placed.
3) You could purchase a full hive of bees. These are usually available and listed in the bee
magazines. You might run across a beekeeper willing to sell hives in your own community.
4) You could purchase a swarm or catch a swarm yourself. At one time it was very common to find
a swarm and then prepare a box to put them in. Many people in years past started beekeeping in
exactly that way.
Chapter 7
Location of the Hive.
Locating hives is a major concern for beekeepers living in cities. It is less critical in rural areas.
You should observe several rules when you locate your hives. Use common sense.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Do not set the hive of bees on the property line facing the neighbors property.
Make sure a source of water is near-by. Not your neighbors hot tub.
Place your hives in an area of the yard where they will not be obvious to anyone passing by.
A hive needs sunlight tempered with shade.
Most bee literature recommends placing the front entrance in a southern direction but this is
not absolutely necessary. Bees do go to work earlier with the early morning sun shinning on
the front of the hive.
6. Share honey with your neighbors and work with them on any problems they have with your
bees.
7. Fences make good neighbors and you may want to build one if your community allows it.
The fence will force the bees to fly up and away from areas where people walk. The flight
path of the bees should not be over a side-walk where the public frequently travels. A barrier
of trees will serve the same purpose.
8. Don't locate the hives in a field or close to a field with live stock such as cows and horses.
You might be held responsible for the death of an animal if your bees attack. It has happened.
9. Don't locate a hive of bees in a flood plain. Even if someone says that this creek has never
overflowed its banks.
10. Finally, don't place hives in an area where bee droppings are going to cause a problem.
Examples include a neighbor who hangs clothes out on a clothes line. Another is an
automobile dealership with a lot full of cars. Bees do have to relieve themselves and do so
when they leave the hive much as birds do flying overhead.
Bee hives have a fascination for adults and young people. It is common to hear beekeepers yelling at
the neighbor kids for throwing rocks at the hives. It is not uncommon to find a hive that someone
used for target practice (in the country).
Hives should be placed three or more feet apart. It is possible to over populate a location with too
many bee hives. Hives that are too close to each other do not allow the beekeeper much room to
manipulate a hive. This goes for a fence, side of the house, or shrubs. One needs room to walk
completely around the hive without having to squeeze between the hive and some object. The
beekeeper also may bump a hive too close to the one being worked and cause the bees in the bumped
hive to become agitated and ready for the beekeeper when he turns his/her attention to it.
Chapter 8
SPRING MANAGEMENT
Management is the key to successful beekeeping. Spring is an ideal time for beekeepers to check
colonies for honey and pollen reserves, to clean equipment, practice swarm prevention and establish
new colonies. The goals of spring management of honeybee colonies in a commercial honey
producing operation are clearly defined. They are principally:
1. To maximize total honey production while controlling expenses and risk so as to achieve
maximum profit (vs. attempting to maximize yield per hive)
2. To maintain or increase numbers of colonies without sacrificing total honey production
3. To ensure good wintering success after a successful honey season.
4. To operate in a fashion that allows ample time for each operation and permits taking time for rest
and relaxation.
The following priorities must be considered in achieving these major goals: Bee colonies must reach
maximum strength in time for the anticipated main honey flow. The following resources must be
used effectively: management, labor, time, vehicles and fuel, honey or syrup and pollen &
supplements, bees and queens, hives and equipment. Risk of loss must be minimized. Missing a
honey flow can occur because of the following factors: small bee populations, chilling of brood,
inadequate supering, poor locations, swarming, disease or parasites, accidents and an inability to
manage a schedule. The procedure at this time of year is to work through yards, reversing hives,
scraping, feeding, medicating, and removing brood and feed from hives as your experience deems
appropriate.
Check colonies for honey and pollen reserves. Briefly check honey reserves in late winter-early
spring; temperatures can be 40° - 50° F. and sunny. Honey should be on both sides of the cluster with
at least a 10-20 pound reserve or 2-3 well filled combs. If feeding is necessary, it can be done by: a.
exchange of honey combs from another colony (only if disease free) b. sugar syrup poured in division
board feeders, hive top feeders or feeder pails c. feeding dry sugar on the inner cover. Some areas
may need pollen substitute and supplement feeding more than in other areas. Pollen substitute can be
purchased from bee supply dealers. A thorough colony examination should be conducted when
temperatures reach 60-65°.F. Then the brood and queen can be checked more extensively. However,
colonies can be examined in temperatures below 60° if done quickly so that the brood is not chilled.
(Recognize disease symptoms.)
Replacing and cleaning up equipment. If colonies are packed, they should be unpacked.
Equipment (bottom boards, top covers and hive bodies) should be repaired and painted if needed.
Remove old combs, especially from lowest hive body, before being refilled with brood and honey.
Replace with foundation or drawn comb, free of drone cells.
Swarm prevention should be a concern to the beekeeper once the colonies have survived the
winter and bee populations start increasing.
Colony inspection for any disease symptoms or mites. Examine brood for American foulbrood.
Examine adult bees, brood and possibly conduct an ether roll test for Varroa mites. Take an adult bee
sample for Tracheal mite examination.
Spring Activities
Spring management and activities are interrelated, and include: unwrapping, site evaluation, splitting,
disease detection and control, routine or special medication, mite treatments and surveys, scraping
(and replacing if required) of floors and hive equipment, moving yards, feeding, medicating,
removing excess feed, eliminating poor colonies, requeening and adding or reducing space as
required. A number of these activities often take place on a single visit to the yard. Sometimes a
specialized team with unique equipment might handle one task, while a separate team handles
another task in the same yard, or somewhere else in the outfit.
Chapter 9
Fall & Winter Management
Fall and winter is very important because it is the starting point in providing strong colonies for the
next year. The beekeeper should consider the following management practices:
Requeening colonies in early fall if weak or recently queenless.
Check honey reserves. Each colony should have about 60 pounds (a deep super). Fall
feeding of sugar syrup is provided in a 2 to 1 ratio (sugar to water). Syrup can be supplied
to the bees inside of the hive by either a friction-top pail - placed on top bars within an
empty hive body.
Inspect colonies for any diseases before wintering. Mites can be controlled once honey is
removed.
Reduce hive entrance to prevent field mice from entering.
Provide upward ventilation such as using a ventilated hive attic. This allows moisture to
escape.
Remove queen excluders if used.
Provide wind protection for the winter. Shrubs, fences or trees can provide windbreaks.
Colonies should be placed where cold air flows away (high ground) and the hives should receive
sunshine (southern exposure).
This is not all that can be done--but that is up to your particular feelings on the subject. The MOST
important item here is to ensure ventilation and food.
Chapter 10
Honey Harvest...FINALLY!
Honey is sold as "extracted" honey - bottled, liquid honey that has been extracted from the combs;
"comb" honey -honey still in its natural comb; and "chunk" honey - a bottled combination of
extracted and comb. Honey extracting equipment for the hobbyist is specialized and represents a onetime investment of about $500-1200 for new equipment. Used equipment is often available at
significant savings. These are the basic tools and procedures for extracting honey:
1. Uncapping knife - A heated knife for slicing off the cappings from combs of honey.
2. Uncapping tank - A container for receiving the cappings. Wet cappings fall onto a screen,
and honey drips through to the bottom of the tank and out a spigot.
3. Extractor - A drum containing a rotating wire basket. Uncapped combs are placed in the
basket and the basket is turned by hand or by motor. Honey is flung out of the combs onto the
sides of the tank and drains through a spigot.
4. Strainer - A mesh of coarse screen or cloth directly under the extractor spigot. This filters out
large debris such as wax and dead bees.
5. Storage tank - A large tank with a spigot, or "honey gate," at the bottom. As honey settles in
the tank, air bubbles and small debris rise to the top and can be skimmed off, allowing honey
that is bottled from the honey gate to be clear and attractive.
Sometimes extracted honey granulates. This is a natural process, and the honey is still perfectly
edible. If bottled honey granulates, loosen the lid and place the jar in a pan of water on a stove. Heat
and stir the honey until it re-liquefies. Comb honey requires little specialized equipment, so it is a
good way for a new beekeeper to get started. Supply companies offer special comb honey supers for
producing comb honey in round or square one-pound sections. "Cut-comb" honey is the easiest and
least expensive honey to produce. With cut-comb, the entire comb is cut away from the frame then
further cut into smaller sections and packaged in special plastic boxes. Regardless of these variations,
all comb honey requires special extra-thin foundation. Freeze comb honey overnight before it is sold
to kill any wax moth eggs and larvae. Chunk honey is made by placing a piece of cut comb honey in
a jar and filling up the rest of the jar with extracted honey. Remember to freeze the comb honey first.
Wax cappings are a valuable by-product of extracting. After cappings have dripped dry, wash them in
water to remove all honey. Melt the cappings, strain the wax through cheesecloth and pour it into
bread pans or a similar mold. Supply companies can render your beeswax bricks into new foundation
at considerable savings.
Chapter 11
Pollination
Many valuable crops benefit from insect pollination (the transfer of pollen from one flower to another
flower). This process increases fruit yield and, often, the size of the fruit. Honey bees are important
pollinators because they can be managed and easily moved to crop sites. In the United States, the
added value to agriculture from honey bee pollination is over $9 billion annually, and many
beekeepers earn extra income from renting colonies for pollination. Flowers which have evolved to
attract honeybees have optimized their flowers to increase the chance of a bee visit. The bees
unwittingly carry pollen from flower to flower, thus pollinating the plants and permitting them to
reproduce. Plants most successful in attracting bees and getting them to make repeat visits will outreproduce those which are less successful. Thus flowers must both attract and reward an insect
visitor. The design of bee-pollinated flowers includes mechanism(s) to attract a bee to visit the
flower. The flower is shaped differently from the display of the leaves. The flower is usually a
different color than leaves so that the flower is visible on the background of leaves. In general the
coloration is designed so that the bee learns to distinguish it and associate a visit to that pattern with
the reward. Flowers have evolved bull's-eye and nectar guide patterns in their floral displays to attract
a passing bee into landing. Some flowers also attract insect visitors with fragrances. Bees have an
excellent sense of smell with chemoreceptors in their antennae and are attracted to particular
fragrances. The combination of visual and olfactory attractants gets the bee to land most frequently.
In the absence of attractants, a bee is unlikely to observe the flower and make a landing even if there
is a reward waiting for her! Understanding the relationship between bee and plant also help humans.
All fruit and seed crops must be pollinated for our food and oil. Indeed, for tree fruits, bee hives are
transported from orchard to orchard with trees in flower to improve the pollination of the fruit trees,
but also to increase honey production. We also need bees to pollinate clover (animal forage), cotton
(oil and fiber) and sunflowers (oil). Most of our "vegetables" are really fruits (tomatoes, peppers,
beans, peas, corn, squash, cucumbers, etc.) and most of these need pollination by bees.
Chapter12
Stings
Anyone who keeps bees will inevitably get stung. Consider this before you invest in a beekeeping
hobby. You can greatly reduce stinging if you use gentle queens, wear a veil, use a smoker and
handle bees gently. Experienced beekeepers can handle thousands or even millions of bees daily and
receive very few stings. Generally once she inserts her sting, the bee pulls herself away, leaving the
venom pouch and sting in the invader; the worker soon dies because of the abdominal rupture. Thus
stinging for honeybees is an act of self-sacrifice. Unlike many other hymenopterans, honeybees are
not likely to sting unless provoked. A bee sting will cause intense local pain, reddening and swelling.
This is a normal reaction and does not, in itself, indicate a serious allergic response. With time, many
beekeepers no longer redden or swell when they are stung (however, it still hurts!). An extremely
small fraction of the human population is genuinely allergic to bee stings. These individuals
experience breathing difficulty, unconsciousness or even death if they are stung and should carry with
them an emergency kit of injectable epinephrine, available by prescription from a physician. When a
bee stings, the stinger and poison sack remain in the skin of the victim. Always scrape the stinger
and poison sack out of the skin with your fingernail or a hive tool never pull it out because this
squeezes the remaining venom into the skin.
Chapter 13
Honey Bee Diseases and Pests
Honey bee brood and adults are attacked by bacteria, viruses, protozoans, fungi and exotic parasitic
mites. Additionally, bee equipment is attacked by other insects. Disease and pest control requires
constant vigilance by the beekeeper. See your State Extension agent for help inspecting your hives.
American foulbrood (AFB) is a bacterial disease of larvae and pupae. The bacteria form highly
persistent spores that can be spread by adult bees and contaminated equipment. Infected larvae
change color from a healthy pearly white to dark brown and die after they are capped. Cappings of
dead brood sink inward and often are perforated. Check for AFB by thrusting a small stick or
toothpick into the dead brood, mixing it then withdrawing the mass. Brood killed by AFB will be
stringy and rope out about inch. Colonies with AFB should be treated with Terramycin and your
county inspector notified. To prevent AFB, feed colonies the antibiotic Terramycin® according to
label instructions in early spring and fall. Allow at least four weeks from the last Terramycin®
treatment until the first nectar flow.
European foulbrood (EFB) is a bacterial disease of larvae. Unlike with AFB, larvae infected with
EFB die before they are capped. Infected larvae are twisted in the bottoms of their cells, change to a
creamy color and have a smooth "melted" appearance. Because EFB bacteria do not form persistent
spores, this disease is not as dangerous as AFB. Colonies with EFB will sometimes recover on their
own after a good nectar flow begins. To prevent EFB, treat colonies with Terramycin® as described
above.
Chalkbrood is a fungal disease of larvae. Infected larvae turn a chalky white color, become hard
then turn black. Chalkbrood is most frequent during damp conditions in early spring. Colonies
usually recover on their own.
Nosema is a widespread protozoan disease of adult bees and is especially common in north Georgia.
In spring, infected colonies build up very slowly or not at all. Bees appear weak and may crawl
around the front of the hive. Discourage nosema by selecting hive sites with good air flow. Damp,
cold conditions seem to encourage this disease. Treat nosema by feeding the drug Fumidil® B in
sugar syrup in spring and fall. Do not feed the medication immediately before or during a nectar flow.
Wax moths are a notorious pest of beekeeping equipment. Adult moths lay eggs near wax combs,
then their larvae hatch and begin burrowing through the combs to eat debris in the cells. Moth larvae
ruin combs and plaster them with webbing and feces. Honey bees are usually very good at protecting
their colonies from moth larvae. If moth damage is found in a colony, there was some other problem
(usually queen loss) that weakened the colony first. Moth damage is most common in stored supers of
comb. Protect stored supers by stacking them no higher than five hive bodies. Tape shut all cracks,
put paradichlorobenzene crystals at the top of the stack and cover the stack with a lid. Replenish the
crystals as they evaporate.
Tracheal mites were first detected in Georgia in 1986 and have since caused high colony death rates
throughout the state. The microscopic mites enter the tracheae (breathing tubes) of young bees. Inside
the tracheae, mites block air exchange and pierce the walls of the tubes to suck blood. Symptoms
resemble those of nosema. Bees become weak, crawl at the hive entrance and sometimes uncouple
their wings so that all four wings are visible. Colony death rates are highest during winter and early
spring. If you suspect tracheal mites, see your county Extension agent for help
Varroa mites were first found in Georgia in 1989. These mites are about the size of a pin head and
are copper in color. Female mites cling to adult bees and suck their blood. Females then enter a bee
brood cell and produce several offspring which, in turn, suck the blood of the developing bee.
Infested colonies almost always die within three to four years unless they are treated.
Glossary
Abdomen—the segmented posterior or third region of the body of a bee enclosing the honey stomach, intestine,
reproductive and other organs, and stinger.
Absconding swarm—an entire colony of bees that abandons the hive because of disease, wax moth, or other maladies.
Adulterated honey—any product labeled “Honey” or “Pure Honey” that contains ingredients other than honey but does
not show these on the label. (Suspected mislabeling should be reported to the Food and Drug Administration.)
Afterswarm—a small swarm, usually headed by one or more virgin queens, which may leave the hive after the first or
prime swarm has departed.
Africanized bee—a population of bees in the Americas, also called “killer” bees, which has resulted from importation of
bees into Brazil from Africa in the mid-1950s known for their defensiveness.
American foulbrood (AFB)—a brood disease of honey bees caused by the spore-forming bacterium Paenibacillus
(formerly Bacillus) larvae.
Anaphylactic shock—constriction of the muscles surrounding the bronchial tubes of a human, which can be caused by
hypersensitivity to venom and result in sudden death unless immediate medical attention is received.
Apiary—an area where colonies of bees, and perhaps other beekeeping equipment, are located; also called bee yard.
Apiculture—the science and art of keeping honey bees.
Apis mellifera—scientific name of the honey bee found in the United States.
Bacillus larvae—former name of the bacterium that causes American foulbrood.
Bait hive—an empty hive or box, sometimes with a pheromone lure, used to attract swarms.
Bee blower—a gasoline or electrically powered engine with attached blower used to dislodge bees from combs in a
honey super by creating a high-velocity, high-volume wind.
Bee bread—a mixture of pollen and nectar or honey collected by foragers and deposited in the cells of a comb to be used
as food by the bees.
Bee brush—a brush used to remove bees from combs.
Bee escape—a device used to remove bees from honey supers and buildings by permitting bees to pass one way but
preventing their return.
Beehive—a box or receptacle with movable frames, used for housing a colony of bees.
Bee metamorphosis—the three brood stages (egg, larva, and pupa) through which a bee passes before reaching maturity.
Bee space—1⁄4- to 3⁄8-inch space between combs and hive parts sufficient to permit unhindered passage of adult bees but
too small for them to build comb or deposit propolis.
Beeswax—a complex mixture of organic compounds secreted by special glands located on the ventral side of the worker
bee’s abdomen; used for molding six-sided cells into comb. Its melting point is from 144°F (62°C) to 147°F (64°C).
Bee tree—a tree with one of more hollows occupied by a feral (unmanaged) colony of bees.
Bee veil—a cloth or wire netting for protecting the beekeeper’s face, head, and neck from stings.
Bee venom—the poison secreted by special glands attached to the stinger of the bee.
Boardman feeder—a device for feeding bees in warm weather; consists of an inverted jar with an attachment allowing
access to the hive entrance.
Bottom board—the floor of a beehive; usually includes colony entry/exit.
Brace/ burr comb—bits of comb built between parallel combs, between comb and adjacent wood, or between two
wooden parts such as top bars to fasten them together permitting workers to move easily within the nest.
Braula coeca—the scientific name of a wingless fly commonly known as the bee louse.
Brood—the collective term for all immature stages of bees: eggs, larvae, and pupae.
Brood chamber—the part of the hive in which the brood is reared; consists of one or more hive bodies and the combs
within.
Capped brood—pupae whose cells have been sealed with a porous beeswax cover by mature bees to isolate them during
their nonfeeding pupal period; also called sealed brood.
Cappings—the thin wax covering of cells full of honey; the cell coverings after they are sliced from the surface of a
honey-filled comb.
Castes—the two types of female bees of a honey bee colony: workers and queen. (Sometimes drones are incorrectly
included as a third caste—they are males.)
Cell—the hexagonal (six-sided) compartment of a honey comb.
Cell bar—a wooden strip on which queen cups are placed for rearing queen bees.
Cell cup—base of an artificial queen cell; made of beeswax or plastic and used for rearing queen bees.
Chilled brood—developing bee brood that have died from exposure to cold; commonly caused by mismanagement.
Chunk honey—honey cut from frames and placed in jars along with liquid honey.
Clarifying—removing visible foreign material from honey or wax to increase its purity.
Cluster—a large group of bees hanging together, one upon another for warmth and/or cohesion.
Colony—the aggregate of worker bees, drones, queen, and developing brood living together as a social family unit in a
hive or other dwelling.
Comb—a mass of six-sided cells made of wax by honey bees in which brood is reared and honey and pollen are stored;
composed of two layers united at their bases (also termed beeswax comb or honeycomb).
Comb honey—honey produced and sold in the comb, in either thin wooden sections (4 x 4 inches or 4 x 5 inches) or
circular plastic frames.
Creamed (Crystallized) honey—honey that has been allowed to crystallize, usually under controlled conditions, to
produce a tiny crystal that gives the honey a creamy texture.
Crimp-wired foundation—comb foundation into which thin crimped wire is embedded vertically during foundation
manufacture.
Cross-pollination—the transfer of pollen from an anther of one plant to the stigma of a different plant of the same
species.
Crystallization— Granulation—the formation of sugar (glucose) crystals in honey.
Cut-comb honey—comb honey cut into various sizes, the edges drained, and the pieces wrapped or packed individually.
Dancing—a series of repeated movements of bees on comb; round and wag-tail (or waggling) dance are used to
communicate the location of food sources and potential home sites.
Demaree—the method of swarm control that separates the queen from most of the brood within the same hive.
Dequeen—to remove a queen from a colony.
Dextrose—one of the two principal sugars found in honey; forms crystals during granulation; also known as glucose.
Dividing—partitioning a colony to form two or more units termed divides or splits.
Division board feeder—a wooden or plastic compartment suspended in a hive like a frame to hold sugar syrup to feed
bees.
Double screen—a wooden frame, 1⁄2 to 3⁄4 inch thick, with two layers of wire screen used to separate two colonies within
the same hive, one above the other. An entrance is cut on the upper side and placed to the rear of the hive for entry/exit to
the upper colony.
Drawn combs—combs with cells built out by honey bees from a sheet of foundation.
Drifting of bees—the failure of bees to return to their own hive in an apiary containing many colonies. Young bees tend
to drift more than older bees, and bees from small colonies tend to drift into larger colonies.
Drone—the male honey bee.
Drone comb—comb measuring about four cells per linear inch where the queen typically lays unfertilized eggs that
become drones.
Drumming—rhythmic pounding on the sides of a hive to make the bees ascend into another box/hive body placed over
it.
Dwindling—the rapid dying off of old bees in the spring; sometimes called spring dwindling or disappearing disease
(because a pathogen may be involved).
Dysentery—an abnormal condition of adult bees characterized by severe diarrhea; usually caused by starvation, lowquality food, moist surroundings, or nosema infection.
Electric embedder—a device allowing rapid embedding of wires in foundation with electrically produced heat.
European foulbrood (EFB)—an infectious brood disease of honey bees caused by the bacterium Melissococcus
(formally Streptococcus) pluton.
Extender (grease) patty—a mixture of vegetable shortening and granulated sugar placed above or below the brood area
for mite control; sometimes includes the antibiotic Terramycin.
Extracted honey—liquid honey removed from the comb usually by centrifugal force.
Feral bees—unmanaged colony of bees living in a tree hollow or other enclosed structure.
Fermentation—a chemical breakdown of honey caused by sugar-tolerant yeast; associated with honey having a high
moisture content.
Fertile queen—a queen, inseminated instrumentally or mated with a drone, which can lay fertilized eggs.
Field bees—worker bees at least three weeks old that work (forage) outside the hive to collect nectar, pollen, water, and
plant saps for making propolis.
Flash heater—a device for heating honey very rapidly to prevent it from being damaged by sustained periods of high
temperature.
Food chamber—a hive body filled with honey for winter stores.
Foulbrood disease—see “American foulbrood” or “European foulbrood.”
Foundation—a commercially made structure consisting of a thin sheet of beeswax (sometimes laminated on a plastic
sheet) with the cell bases of worker cells embossed on both sides in the same manner as they are produced naturally by
honey bees.
Frame—four pieces of wood/plastic (top bar, a bottom bar, and two end bars) designed to hold foundation/drawn comb.
Fructose—the predominant simple sugar found in honey; also known as levulose.
Fumidil-B—the trade name for Fumagillin; a chemotherapy used in the prevention and suppression of nosema disease.
Fume board—a rectangular frame, the dimensions of a super, covered with an absorbent material such as burlap, on
which is placed a chemical repellent to drive the bees out of supers for honey removal.
Glucose—one of the two principal sugars found in honey; forms crystals during granulation; also known as dextrose.
Grafting—removing a worker larva from its cell and placing it in an artificial queen cup in order to have the bees rear it
as a new queen.
Grafting tool—a needle or probe used for transferring larvae in grafting of queen cells.
Hive—a human-made home for bees.
Hive bee—an adult worker performing tasks within the hive during the first 3 weeks of her adult life.
Hive body—a wooden box that holds ten (sometimes eight) frames.
Hive stand—a structure that supports the hive.
Hive tool—a metal device used to open hives, pry frames apart, and scrape wax and propolis from the hive parts.
Honey—a sweet viscid material produced by bees from the nectar of flowers, composed largely of a mixture of glucose
and fructose sugars dissolved in 15–19 percent water; contains small amounts of sucrose, mineral matter, vitamins,
proteins, and enzymes.
Honeydew—a sweet liquid excreted by aphids, leafhoppers, and some scale insects that is collected by bees, especially in
the absence of a good source of nectar. Finished honey is sometimes called forest honey.
Honey bee—common name for Apis mellifera.
Honey extractor—a machine that removes honey from the comb cells by centrifugal force.
Honey flow—a time when nectar is plentiful and bees are capable of making and storing surplus honey.
Honey house—building used for extracting honey and storing equipment.
Honey pump—a pump used to transfer honey from a sump or extractor to a holding tank or strainer.
Honey stomach (crop)—a portion of the digestive system in the abdomen of the adult honey bee used for carrying
nectar, honey, or water.
Honey sump—a clarifying tank between the extractor and honey pump for removing the coarser particles of comb
introduced during extraction.
Increase—to add to the number of colonies, usually by dividing existing colonies.
Introducing cage—small wooden, wire, or plastic cage used to ship/hold queen to introduce/release her to new colony.
Inner cover—a lightweight cover used under a standard telescoping cover on a beehive.
Instrumental (artificial) insemination—the introduction of drone spermatozoa into the genital organs of a virgin queen
by means of special instruments.
Invertase—an enzyme produced by honey bees which they add to nectar to break down the sucrose (disaccharide) to
glucose and fructose (monosaccharides), the sugars of honey.
Italian bees—most widely used population (race) of honey bees in the United States; originated in Italy.
Langstroth Hive—our modern-day, man-made home for bees; termed Langstroth for original designer.
Larva (plural, larvae)—the second (feeding) stage of bee metamorphosis; a white, legless, grublike insect.
Laying worker—a worker that lays infertile eggs, producing only drones, usually in colonies that are hopelessly
queenless.
Mating flight—the flight taken by a virgin queen while she mates in the air with several drones.
Mead—honey wine.
Migratory beekeeping—the moving of colonies of bees from one locality to another during a single season to take
advantage of two or more honey flows and/or pollination rentals.
Nectar—a sweet liquid secreted by the nectaries of plants; the raw product of honey.
Nectar guide—color (usually ultraviolet) marks on flowers believed to direct insects to nectar secretion site.
Nectaries—the organs of plants that secrete nectar, located within the flower (floral nectaries) or on other portions of the
plant (extrafloral nectaries).
Nosema—a disease of the adult honey bee caused by the protozoan Nosema apis.
Nuc or Nucleus (plural, nuclei)—a small hive of bees, usually covering from two to five frames of comb and used
primarily for starting new colonies, rearing or storing queens.
Nurse bees—young bees, 3 to 10 days old, which feed and take care of developing brood.
Observation hive—a small bee colony in a hive made largely of glass or clear plastic sides to permit observation of bees
at work.
Out-apiary (or yard)—an apiary situated away from the home of the beekeeper.
Package bees—a quantity of adult bees (2 to 5 pounds), with or without a queen, contained in a screened shipping cage.
Paenibacillus larvae—(formerly Bacillus larvae) the bacterium that causes American foulbrood.
Paralysis—a virus disease of adult bees that affects their ability to use their legs or wings normally.
Parthenogenesis—the development of young from unfertilized eggs. In honey bees the unfertilized eggs produce drones.
PDB (Paradichlorobenzene)—crystals used as a fumigant to protect stored drawn combs against wax moth.
Pheromone—a chemical secreted by one bee that stimulates behavior in another bee. One well-known bee pheromone is
queen substance secreted by the queens.
Piping—a series of sounds made by a queen frequently before she emerges from her cell.
Play (orientation) flight—short flight taken in front of or near the hive to acquaint young bees with their immediate
surroundings; sometimes mistaken for robbing or preparation for swarming.
Pollen—the male reproductive cell bodies produced by anthers of flowers, collected and used by honey bees as their
source of protein.
Pollen basket—a flattened depression located on the outer surface of the bee’s hind legs surrounded by curved spines or
hairs adapted for carrying pollen gathered from flowers or propolis to the hive.
Pollen cakes—moist mixtures of either pollen supplements or substitutes fed to the bees in early spring to stimulate
brood rearing.
Pollen substitute—a high-protein material such as soybean flour, powdered skim milk, brewer’s yeast, or a mixture of
these used in place of pollen to stimulate brood rearing.
Pollen supplement—a mixture of pollen and pollen substitutes used to stimulate brood rearing in periods of pollen
shortage.
Pollen trap—a device that is fitted to the colony entrance for removing pollen loads from the pollen baskets of returning
bees.
Pollination—the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma of flowers.
Pollinator—the agent that transfers pollen from an anther to a stigma: bees, flies, beetles, and so forth.
Pollinizer—the plant source of pollen used for pollination.
Prime swarm—the first swarm to leave the parent colony, usually with the old queen.
Proboscis—the mouthparts of the bee that form the sucking tube or tongue.
Propolis—sap or resinous materials collected from trees or plants by bees and used to strengthen the comb, close up
cracks, and so on; also called bee glue.
Pupa—the third stage in the development (metamorphosis) of the honey bee, during which the organs of the larva are
replaced by those that will be used by an adult; also termed capped stage as each cell is covered with beeswax.
Queen—a fully developed female bee, larger and longer than a worker bee; also called mated queen (a virgin queen is a
newly emerged queen who has not yet mated).
Queen cage—a small cage in which a queen and three or four worker bees may be confined for shipping and/or
introduction into a colony.
Queenright—term used to describe a colony with healthy egg-laying queen; opposite is queenless.
Queen cage candy—candy made by kneading powdered sugar with invert sugar syrup until it forms a stiff dough; used
as food in queen cages.
Queen cell—a special elongated cell, resembling a peanut shell, in which the queen is reared. It is usually an inch or more
long, has an inside diameter of about 1⁄3 inch, and hangs down from the comb in a vertical position.
Queen clipping—removing a portion of one or both front wings of a queen to prevent her from flying.
Queen cup—a cup-shaped cell that hangs vertically in a hive and may become a queen cell if an egg or larva is placed in
it and bees add wax to it; also commercially available in beeswax or plastic to graft larvae for queen production.
Queen excluder—metal or plastic device with spaces that permit the passage of workers but restrict the movement of
drones and queens to a specific part of the hive.
Queen substance—pheromone material secreted from glands in the queen bee and transmitted throughout the colony by
workers to alert other workers of the queen’s presence; also stabilizes swarms, attracts drones to virgin queen for mating,
and inhibits development of new queen cells.
Rabbet—a narrow ledge, often covered with piece of folded metal that is cut into the inside upper end of the hive body
from which the frames are suspended.
Rendering wax—the process of melting combs and cappings and removing refuse from the wax.
Requeen—to replace existing queen with new queen (see “introducing cage”) or capped queen cell.
Robbing—stealing of nectar, or honey, by bees from other colonies.
Royal jelly—a highly nutritious glandular secretion of young bees, used to feed the queen and young brood.
Sacbrood—a brood disease of honey bees caused by a virus.
Scout bees—worker bees searching for a new source of pollen, nectar, propolis, water, or a new home for a swarm of
bees.
Self-pollination—the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the same plant.
Self-spacing frames—frames constructed with shouldered end bars so that they are a bee space apart when pushed
together in a hive body.
Skep—an older, traditional beehive design made of twisted straw without movable frames.
Slatted rack—a wooden rack that fits between the bottom board and hive body. This optional piece of hive equipment
enables bees to make better use of the lower brood chamber with increased brood rearing, less comb gnawing, and less
congestion at the front entrance.
Slumgum—the refuse from melted comb and cappings after the wax has been rendered or removed.
Small hive beetle—a scavenger beetle that is a beehive/honey house pest accidentally introduced into the United States.
Smoker—a device in which burlap, wood shavings, or other slow-burning materials are used to produce smoke that is
used to subdue bees.
Solar wax extractor—a glass-covered insulated box used to melt wax from combs and cappings using the heat of the
sun.
Spermatheca—a special organ of the queen in which the sperm of the drone is stored.
Spur embedder—a device used for mechanically embedding wires into foundation.
Sting—the modified ovipositor of a honey bee used to deliver painful venom; used by workers in defense of the hive, by
queens to kill rival queens.
Sucrose—principal sugar found in nectar.
Super—any hive body used for the storage of surplus honey; normally placed over or above the brood chamber.
Supersedure—a natural replacement of an established queen by a daughter in the same hive.
Surplus honey—honey that exceeds that needed by bees for their own use and can be removed (harvested) for human
consumption.
Swarm—the aggregate of worker bees, drones, and usually the old queen that leaves the parent colony to establish a new
colony. See also “afterswarms.”
Swarming—the natural method of propagation of the honey bee colony. Also refers to the actual process of bees exiting
the hive.
Swarm cell—developing queen cell usually found on the bottom of the combs reared by bees before swarming.
Terramycin—an antibiotic used to treat European foulbrood. Also used for American foulbrood prevention, but it is not
effective in killing the spore stage of this disease.
Thin super foundation—a comb foundation used for comb honey or chunk honey production which is thinner than that
used for brood rearing.
Tracheal (acarine) mite—Acarapis woodi, a tiny tracheal infesting honey bee parasite.
Tylan—see “tylosin.”
Tylosin—an antibiotic used to treat American foulbrood.
Transferring—the process of moving bees and combs from non-standard or fixed-comb boxes, bee trees and/or
buildings into movable frame hives.
Travel stain—the dark discoloration on the surface of comb honey left on the hive for some time, caused by bees
tracking propolis over the surface.
Uncapping knife—a knife used to shave or remove the cappings from combs of sealed honey prior to extraction; usually
heated by steam or electricity.
Uniting—combining two or more colonies to form a larger colony.
Varroa mite—Varroa destructor (formerly Varroa jacobsoni), a parasitic mite of adult and pupal stages of honey bees.
Venom allergy (hypersensitivity)—a condition in which a person, when stung, may experience a variety of symptoms
ranging from extensive swelling, a mild rash or itchiness, to anaphylactic shock. A person who is stung and experiences
abnormal symptoms should consult a physician before working bees again.
Virgin queen—an unmated queen.
Wax glands—the eight glands that secrete beeswax; located in pairs on the last four visible ventral abdominal segments
of worker bees.
Wax moth—larvae of the moth Galleria mellonella, which seriously damages brood and empty combs. May also refer to
other, smaller moths that are also hive pests.
Wild bee—a non-Apis bee or sometimes a feral colony of honey bees.
Winter cluster—a spherical shaped clumping of adult bees within the hive during winter.
Worker bee—a female bee whose reproductive organs are undeveloped. Worker bees do all the work in the colony
except for laying fertile eggs.
Worker comb—comb measuring about five cells to the inch in which workers are reared and honey and pollen are
stored.
Reference
Dadant & Sons, Inc., 1992, First lessons in beekeeping, Hamilton, Illinois.
The A.I. Root Co., 1990, ABC & XYZ of bee culture, 40th Edition, Medina, Ohio.
Delaplane, K.S., 1993, Honey bees & beekeeping: A year in the life of an apiary, The University of
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