Traditional Knowledge of Medicinal Plants Used by Tai Yai Healers in Chai Prakan
and Wiang Haeng Districts of Chiang Mai, Thailand
Benjawan Boonpuak1,*, Supaporn Pitiporn2, Thaya Jenjittikul3, Sompop Prathanturarug4,#
1
M.Sc. Program in Plant Science, Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Science and
Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy Mahidol University, Thailand
2
Chao Phya Abhaibhubejhr Hospital, Prachinburi, Thailand
3
Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Thailand
4
Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Thailand
* The presenting author: benjawanbo@gmail.com, # The corresponding author:
sompop.pra@mahidol.ac.th
Abstract
Traditional knowledge of herbal medicine is an associated cultural practice linked to a
specific area where people live. The Northern part of Thailand has rich plant biodiversity, and
which is populated by different cultural ethnic groups including Tai Yai who migrated from
Shan State in Myanmar to Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. This ethnobotanical survey was
conducted to collect information and gain knowledge about medicinal plants used by the Tai
Yai healers during 2010 to 2012. Ethnobotanical data were obtained by semi-structured
interviews with four traditional healers. These data were cross-checked with the healers at
least three times or until the information was consistent. Specimens of plant species that were
used by the healers were collected and taxonomically identified. The voucher specimens were
deposited at the Mahidol University Herbarium, Pharmaceutical Botany Department, Faculty
of Pharmacy, Mahidol University. One hundred and sixteen medicinal plant species were
used for treating 86 kinds of ailments. Plants from the families Lamiaceae (12 species) were
frequently used, followed by Asteraceae and Fabaceae (10 species each). These plants were
most frequently used for musculoskeletal disorders, gastrointestinal disorders and tonic herbs.
Approximately 88% of the medicinal plants described in this study have not been used in
Thai traditional medicine. An erosion of Tai Yai knowledge has occurred since the healers
are aging, the younger generations lack interest in these traditions, and because of increased
urbanization. Thus, there is an urgent need to preserve The Tai Yai knowledge, especially for
rare and endemic plants, to sustain the use of this folk medicine.
Keywords: Ethnobotany, Folk medicine, Indigenous knowledge, Medicinal plant, Shan
Introduction
Traditional herbal medicine has increasingly been recognized for its significant
contribution to healthcare worldwide. The indigenous herbal knowledge has played an
important role for the research and development of new drugs as well as herbal medicines in
the form of food supplement products (1). Even though the popularity of traditional herbal
medicine has increased rapidly, modern societies are confronted with the degradation of
medicinal plant resources and the erosion of folk knowledge. According to the International
Union for Conservation of Nature, plant species extinctions occur every day in response to
urbanization and overexploitation. The aging of traditional healers and lacking of their
successors were other considerable problems. Thus, there is an urgent need to conserve
traditional medical knowledge, including the information and its carriers, as well as medicinal
plant resources.
Tai Yai people are an ethnic minority in northern Thailand. They have their own
language and a distinctive traditional culture which have been influenced by Buddhist beliefs.
The nature of the Tai Yai people can be characterized by their strict adherence to Buddhism,
cosmology, traditional beliefs and the use of plants. Due to rapid disappearance of Tai Yai
healer’s specific knowledge and experience, the documentation is important for the
conservation and sustainable resource planning. Most importantly, local plant names which
often caused confusion and misuses, needed to be verified for their botanical names (2-3).
The aim of this study was to gather the ethnobotanical information of Tai Yai healers through
semi-structured interviews, plant taxonomic identification and documentation of current
herbal medicine uses in comparison with Thai traditional medicine.
Methodology
Ethics approval for the study
Fieldwork was initiated with the ethical approval of the Mahidol University Faculty of
Dentistry/Faculty of Pharmacy Institutional Review Board. The ethics committee approval
number was MU-DT/PY-IRB 2011/034.3006. Field visits were conducted between January
2010 and June 2012 to gather data on the traditional uses of medicinal plants.
Selection of key informants and study sites
After a preliminary survey, Tai Yai healers with reputations for trustworthiness and
medicinal plant knowledge were chosen to be key informants. Informants were chosen on the
basis of the criteria of being prominent healers in their own communities and being active
herbal medicine practitioners. Four informants were selected; two from the district of Chai
Prakan and two from Wiang Haeng District, Chiang Mai Province. These two areas became
study sites on the basis of informant selection.
Data and plant collection
Information was gathered using semi-structured interviews from key informants. The
interviews were conducted in the Tai Yai dialect by an interpreter. Questions were designed
to collect healer profiles and experience about the use of medicinal plants. Plant specimens
were collected during healer-guided field surveys. Local names, plant part usage, indications,
preparations, methods of administration, and kinds of ailments were carefully noted. The data
were verified with informants at least three times, or until the information was consistent (4).
Finally, the diseases were grouped into physiological symptom categories.
Medicinal plant identification
Medicinal plant specimens in the flowering and fruiting stages were collected, and
morphological features were observed using a stereoscopic microscope (5). Plants were
identified by using the existing taxonomic literature (e.g., Flora of Thailand, Flora of China,
Flora of British India, etc.). The identified plants were then confirmed by comparison with
authentic specimens at the Royal Forest Herbarium (BKF) and the Sirindhorn Herbarium
(Bangkok Herbarium, BK). Voucher specimens were deposited at the Mahidol University
Herbarium (PBM), Pharmaceutical Botany Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol
University.
Comparative analysis
To understand the current status of Tai Yai herbal medicine, the medicinal plant use
information from this study was compared with standard books on medicinal plants in Thai
traditional medicine i.e., Pramual Suppakun Ya Thai (6-8). These books were used to learn in
the school of traditional medicine and used as reference in Thai herbal pharmacopoeia, and
other books of the medicinal plants.
Results
This ethnobotanical study revealed that Tai Yai healers in the study areas are using
116 plants species belonging to 101 genera of 58 families for medical purposes. Of these,
almost 28% of the species came from three plant families, as follows: Lamiaceae (12
species), Asteraceae and Fabaceae (10 species each) (Table 1).
Table 1. Medicinal plants used by the Tai Yai healers in Chiang Mai Province
Species (voucher no.)
Family
Tai Yai name
Parts used
1. Achyranthes aspera L.
(B. Boonpuak 174 PBM)
Amaranthaceae
Ya kai ngu, Duk
mang kon
Root
2. Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K.
Jansen (B. Boonpuak 292 PBM)
3. Amaranthus spinosus L.
(B. Boonpuak 152 PBM)
4. Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.)
Hoffm. (B. Boonpuak 095 PBM)
Asteraceae
Phak phet
Amaranthaceae
Phak khom nam
Whole plant
Flower
Whole plant
Root
Marattiaceae
Kut kip ma
Rhizome
5. Antidesma acidum Retz.
(B. Boonpuak 243 PBM)
6. Aristolochia pierrei Lecomte
(B. Boonpuak 128 PBM)
Phyllanthaceae
Aerial part
Aristolochiaceae
Makmao
kampang
Khoe ham pai
7. Artemisia vulgaris L.
(B. Boonpuak 140 PBM)
Asteraceae
Ya tue tud khiao
Aerial part
8. Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham.
(B. Boonpuak 257 PBM)
9. Balanophora fungosa J.R. &
G.Forst. subsp. indica (Arn.) B.
Hansen var. indica
(B. Boonpuak 053 PBM)
10. Bidens pilosa L.
(B. Boonpuak 158,273 PBM)
Asparagaceae
Ma sam ton
Whole plant
Root
Balanophoraceae
Mak lang hluen
Tuber
Asteraceae
Ya kim pu
Shoot
Root
11. Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.
(B. Boonpuak 138 PBM)
Brassicaceae
Phakkat khiao
Seed
12. Buddleja asiatica Lour.
(B. Boonpuak 143 PBM)
Buddlejaceae
Ya pun pok
Aerial part
13. Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.
(B. Boonpuak 156 PBM)
Fabaceae
Thua ma hae
Whole plant
Root
Whole plant
Ethnomedical
indications
Treatment of kidney
disorders, abdominal
disorders, reducing
internal body heat
Use as tonic
Treatment of toothache
A combination of M1
Reducing internal
body heat
Treatment of diabetes,
kidney disorders, use
as antihypertension,
tonic
Treatment of aphthous
ulcer
Use as tonic for elderly
people or babies,
treatment of beriberi,
convulsion
Treatment of
abdominal pain
A combination of M2
Use as tonic, a
combination of M7
Treatment of breast
cancer
Treatment of cough
Use as antipyretic,
treatment of lower
back pain
Treatment of muscular
pain, a combination of
M1
Treatment of venereal
disease
Use as tonic
Treatment of kidney
disorders
Treatment of skin
disease
14. Canna indica L.
(B. Boonpuak 014,129 PBM)
15. Chloranthus erectus
(Buch.-Ham.) Verdc.
(B. Boonpuak 219 PBM)
Cannaceae
Mak kung tor
Rhizome
Treatment of cancer
Chloranthaceae
Moi tan
Root
Whole plant
16. Cissampelos pareira L. var.
hirsuta (Buch. ex DC.) Forman
(B. Boonpuak 073,108 PBM)
17. Cissus discolor Blume
(B. Boonpuak 306 PBM)
Menispermaceae
Yakae hak khot
Root
Use as blood tonic
Treatment of beriberi,
a combination of
M4,M5,M17
Treatment of
abdominal pain
Vitaceae
Khuea man hiao
Root
Whole plant
18. Cissus hastata Miq.
(B. Boonpuak 268 PBM)
Vitaceae
Som hek
Root
Shoot
Whole plant
19. Clematis thaiana Tamura
(B. Boonpuak 025 PBM)
20. Clerodendrum colebrookianum
Walp. (B. Boonpuak 262 PBM)
21. Clerodendrum indicum (L.)
Kuntze (B. Boonpuak 276 PBM)
Ranunculaceae
Root
Lamiaceae
Hmok sai khan
on
Phak ping khiao
Lamiaceae
Phak lue man
Whole plant
Leaf
Leaf
Root
22. Clerodendrum paniculatum L.
(B. Boonpuak 293 PBM)
Lamiaceae
Phak ping laeng
Leaf
Whole plant
Treatment of cancer
Treatment of body
edema, goiter
Treatment of bruises
Use as laxative
A combination of
M4,M5
A combination of M2
Treatment of itching
A combination of M6
Treatment of
hemorrhoids, a
combination of M6
Treatment of
hemorrhoids
Treatment of
hemorrhoids, a
combination of M6
Treatment of itching
Preparations/Routes
of administration
Cook or Grind/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Raw/ Chew
See Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
Cook or Grind/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Squeezed juice in
warm water, mix with
lime juice/ Oral
See Table 2
Maceration/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Pound to make
massage oil/ Topical
use to apply on body
part, See Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
Rub a piece of root
against stone, mix with
vehicle*/ Topical use
to apply on body part
Cook/ Oral
Maceration/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal
bath, See Table 2
Rub a piece of root
against stone, mix with
vehicle*/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
Cook/ Oral
See Table 2
See Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal bath
See Table 2
Heat/ Topically apply,
See Table 2
Grind/ Oral
Heat/ Topically apply,
See Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Table 1. Medicinal plants used by the Tai Yai healers in Chiang Mai Province (cont.)
Species (voucher no.)
Family
Tai Yai name
Parts used
23. Clerodendrum quadriloculare
(Blanco) Merr.
(B. Boonpuak 139 PBM)
24. Clerodendrum serratum (L.)
Moon var. serratum
(B. Boonpuak 284 PBM)
25. Coix lacryma-jobi L.
(B. Boonpuak 184 PBM)
26. Colquhounia coccinea Wall.
(B. Boonpuak 016,164 PBM)
Lamiaceae
Phak ping lum
Leaf
Lamiaceae
Phak a suai
Leaf
Whole plant
Poaceae
Mak loei lek
Seed
Lamiaceae
Ya mok chup
Root or
Aerial part
27. Congea tomentosa Roxb.
(B. Boonpuak 022 PBM)
Lamiaceae
Sang ha laeng
Aerial part
28. Costus speciosus (J. König)
Sm. (B. Boonpuak 241 PBM)
Costaceae
Kan uoeng
Aerial part
Root
Stem
29. Crassocephalum rubens
(B. Juss. ex Jacq.) S. Moore
(B. Boonpuak 174 PBM)
30. Crotalaria albida Heyne ex
Roth (B. Boonpuak 133 PBM)
31. Crotalaria pallida Aiton
(B. Boonpuak 121,211,249 PBM)
Ethnomedical
indications
Treatment of leg
swelling, a
combination of M6
A combination of M6
Use as tonic, a
combination of M17
Treatment of urinary
stones
Use as blood tonic
related to menstrual
disorders, tonic, a
combination of M4
Use as antipyretic,
muscular pain,
treatment of urticaria,
a combination of M17
Treatment of
headache, dysuria
Treatment of muscular
pain, use as tonic
Treatment of deafness
Preparations/ Routes
of administration
Heat/ Apply on leg by
wrapping, See Table 2
See Table 2
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction or
Maceration/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal
bath, See Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Heat/ Ear drops, then
heat until dried
Decoction/ Oral
Asteraceae
Ya mok ngok
Whole plant
Use as
antihypertension
Fabaceae
Mak hing nu on
Whole plant
Treatment of dysuria
Decoction/ Oral
Fabaceae
Ya phu lak
Leaf
Wound healing
Whole plant
Treatment of muscular
pain
Treatment of chronic
wound
Treatment of
leukorrhea
Treatment of muscular
pain, a combination
M8,M17
A combination of M6
Squeezed juice/
Topically apply
Decoction/ Herbal bath
32. Croton cascarilloides Raeusch.
(B. Boonpuak 238 PBM)
33. Croton roxburghii N.P. Balakr.
(B. Boonpuak 192 PBM)
Euphorbiaceae
Mai cha lot
Whole plant
Euphorbiaceae
Ha-yoeng laeng
Aerial part
34. Croton tiglium L.
(B. Boonpuak 271 PBM)
35. Cuscuta japonica Choisy
(B. Boonpuak 157 PBM)
Euphorbiaceae
Phak sakhuen
Leaf
Convolvulaceae
Khruea khum
Whole plant
Decoction/ Vaporous
on wound
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Herbal
bath, See Table 2
See Table 2
Treatment of body
edema
Treatment of jaundice,
a combination of M12M14
A combination of M4
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Cook/ Oral, See Table
2
36. Datura metel L.
(B. Boonpuak 160 PBM)
37. Desmodium oblongum Wall.
ex Benth.(B. Boonpuak 010,145
PBM)
38. Dioecrescis erythroclada
(Kurz) Tirveng.
(B. Boonpuak 302 PBM)
Solanaceae
Mak khuea ba
Leaf
Fabaceae
Yakae hak loeng
Root
Increase appetite, a
combination of M10
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Rubiaceae
Mai nak naen,
Mai chak chue,
Dik diam
Stem bark
Decoction/ Herbal bath
39. Dioscorea bulbifera L.
(B. Boonpuak 275 PBM)
Dioscoreaceae
Mak kho
Bulbil
Treatment of
infectious diseases in
early childhood,
excessive crying of
babies
Treatment of skin
disease
40. Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr.
(B. Boonpuak 189 PBM)
41. Drymaria diandra Blume
(B. Boonpuak 278 PBM)
Apocynaceae
Wan bin
Leaf
Caryophyllaceae
Ya klet hoi
Whole plant
42. Elephantopus scaber L.
(B. Boonpuak 218 PBM)
Asteraceae
Ya suek wi
Root
Whole plant
43. Eleutherine bulbosa (Mill.)
Urb. (B. Boonpuak 307 PBM)
Iridaceae
Wan hom daeng
Bulb
Treatment of
dyspepsia, peptic ulcer
Treatment of
abdominal pain,
convulsion, antimalarial
Use as antipyretic,
reducing internal body
heat, a combination of
M4,M5
Treatment of cough,
lower back pains, a
combination of
M2,M3
Increased appetite, use
as tonic
A combination of
M12-M14
See Table 2
Squeezed juice/
Topical use to apply
on skin
Cook with sticky rice
by steam/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Pounded/ Poultice on
wrist, See Table 2
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
See Table 2
Table 1. Medicinal plants used by the Tai Yai healers in Chiang Mai Province (cont.)
Species (voucher no.)
Family
Tai Yai name
Parts used
44. Elsholtzia sp.
(B. Boonpuak 173 PBM)
45. Embelia sessiliflora Kurz
(B. Boonpuak 034 PBM)
46. Euphorbia heterophylla L.
(B. Boonpuak 186,228 PBM)
Lamiaceae
Phak lum pum
Shoot
Myrsinaceae
Som kuai
Euphorbiaceae
Khae cha pan
Root or
Aerial part
Shoot
47. Euphorbia hirta L.
(B. Boonpuak 235 PBM)
Euphorbiaceae
Ya yang ueng
Latex
48. Fagopyrum esculentum
Moench (B. Boonpuak 055 PBM)
Polygonaceae
Phak bung som
Whole plant
Whole plant
49. Flemingia macrophylla
(Willd.) Prain
(B. Boonpuak 006,147 PBM)
50. Flueggea virosa
(Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt
(B. Boonpuak 288 PBM)
Fabaceae
Ka tak pik,
Chong yok
Root
Phyllanthaceae
Kang pla laeng
Whole plant
51. Gomphrena globosa L.
(B. Boonpuak 183,185 PBM)
52. Hedyotis diffusa Willd.
(B. Boonpuak 110,203 PBM)
Amaranthaceae
Hmok sam duen
Root
Rubiaceae
Ya lin ngu
Whole plant
53. Helicteres elongata Wall. ex
Bojer (B. Boonpuak 019,112
PBM)
Sterculiaceae
Pue khom, Che
ka
Whole plant
54. Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
(B. Boonpuak 130 PBM)
Malvaceae
Som pu
Root
Calyx
55. Hypoxis aurea Lour.
(B. Boonpuak 241,242 PBM)
Hypoxidaceae
Lek chue din
Root
56. Impatiens balsamina L.
(B. Boonpuak 135 PBM)
Balsaminaceae
Mok kao keao
Whole plant
Seed
Ethnomedical
indications
Antidote for food
poisoning
A combination of
M2,M4,M15
Use as laxative
Treatment of angular
stomatitis
Use as lactation aid
Treatment of
tendomyopathy, a
combination of M4
Use as blood tonic,
treatment of body
edema
Treatment of bodily
discomfort in women
after giving birth, use
as tonic
Treatment of
leukorrhea
Treatment of lower
back pains, use as
tonic
Use as blood tonic,
treatment of cough,
emaciation
Treatment of itching,
infectious diseases in
early childhood
Treatment of urinary
stones
Use as
antihypertension
Treatment of acne and
blemish
Treatment of bone
fracture
Treatment of
diphtheria
Use as tonic
Preparations/ Routes
of administration
Cook/ Oral
See Table 2
Raw/ Oral as vegetable
with chili sauce or
alone
Raw (milky sap)/
Topically apply
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction or Grind/
Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
Cook/ Oral as
vegetable
Rub a piece of root
against stone, mix with
vehicle*/ Topical use
to apply on face
Pound/ Poultice
Grind/ Blow into the
throat by using a straw
Decoction/ Oral
57. Indigofera caloneura Kurz
(B. Boonpuak 105,119,194 PBM)
58. Indigofera dosua Buch.-Ham.
ex D.Don (B. Boonpuak 167,254
PBM)
59. Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex
D.Don) DC. (B. Boonpuak 150
PBM)
Fabaceae
Cham pu ton
Root
Fabaceae
Mak khram
thuean
Whole plant
Treatment of muscular
pain
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Asteraceae
Nat kham
Whole plant
Decoction/ Herbal bath
60. Ipomoea sumatrana (Miq.)
Ooststr. (B. Boonpuak 277 PBM)
61. Jatropha curcas L.
(B. Boonpuak 162 PBM)
Convolvulaceae
Mai hak khoe
Whole plant
Use as blood tonic for
women after giving
birth, treatment of
itching
Treatment of obesity
Euphorbiaceae
Mak ung tung
Latex
Wound healing
62. Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.
(B. Boonpuak 142 PBM)
Acanthaceae
Tap sin dum
Whole plant
Treatment of jaundice,
hepatitis
63. Laggera alata (D.Don) Sch.
Bip. ex Oliv. (B. Boonpuak 168
PBM)
Asteraceae
Ya nat yang phu
Shoot
Treatment of cough
Whole plant
64. Laggera pterodonta (DC.) Sch.
Bip. ex Oliv. (B. Boonpuak 247
PBM)
Asteraceae
Treatment of
convulsion
Treatment of cough
Raw/ Few drops of
latex apply on wound
(topical use)
Grind to make powder,
mix with pork liver
then cook as food/
Oral
Cook with steamed
egg/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal
bath
Cook with steamed
egg/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Squeezed juice from
leaf/ Eye drops
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Ya nat yang
Shoot
Root
Leaf
Whole plant
65. Leea rubra Blume ex Spreng.
(B. Boonpuak 290 PBM)
Leeaceae
Choeng khoeng
laeng
Root
Use as antipyretic, a
combination of M2
Treatment of
conjunctivitis
Treatment of
conjunctivitis
Treatment of muscular
pain, sprain
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Table 1. Medicinal plants used by the Tai Yai healers in Chiang Mai Province (cont.)
Species (voucher no.)
Family
Tai Yai name
Parts used
Root
66. Leonurus sibiricus L.
(B. Boonpuak 287 PBM)
67. Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.
(B. Boonpuak 027,166 PBM)
Lamiaceae
Ya ngan
Whole plant
Lauraceae
Mak chang
Stem
68. Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex
Schult. (B. Boonpuak 144 PBM)
69. Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.
(B. Boonpuak 248 PBM)
Campanulaceae
Piao pong fa
Root
Root bark
Schizaeaceae
Kut kong
Root
Ethnomedical
indications
Treatment of
hemorrhoids, use as
tonic, a combination of
M2
Wound healing
Treatment of
convulsion
Treatment of muscular
pain
A combination of M2
Treatment of
flatulence
Treatment of urinary
stones
Treatment of centipede
bites, insect bites
Preparations/ Routes
of administration
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Pound/ Poultice
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
See Table 2
Cook/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Rub a piece of root
against stone, mix with
vehicle*/ Topical use
Decoction/ Oral
70. Maesa ramentacea (Roxb.) A.
DC. (B.Boonpuak 146 PBM)
71. Markhamia stipulata (Wall.)
Seem. ex K. Schum
(B. Boonpuak 179 PBM)
72. Megaskepasma erythrochlamys
Lindau (B. Boonpuak 182 PBM)
73. Microtoena insuavis (Hance)
Prain ex Briq.
(B. Boonpuak 131 PBM)
74. Millettia sp.
(B. Boonpuak 206 PBM)
Myrsinaceae
Khoe cha pa
Root
Bignoniaceae
Kae hang kang
Stem bark
Antidote for food
poisoning
Treatment of diabetes
Acanthaceae
Cha roem khiao
Aerial part
Treatment of paralysis
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Lamiaceae
Ya nang khuen
Shoot
Cook with steamed
egg/ Oral
Fabaceae
Mak kham doi
Root
75. Momordica cochinchinensis
(Lour.) Spreng. (B. Boonpuak 155
PBM)
76. Mussaenda sp.
(B. Boonpuak 107,196 PBM)
Cucurbitaceae
Fak ho la
Leaf
Use as blood tonic,
treatment of menstrual
disorders
Increase appetite,
insomnia, use as tonic
for elderly people
Treatment of headache
Rubiaceae
Kap woe
Root
Decoction/ Herbal
bath, See Table 2
77. Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham.
ex Ker Gawl. (B. Boonpuak 252
PBM)
78. Oxalis corniculata L.
(B. Boonpuak 076 PBM)
79. Paris polyphylla Sm.
(B. Boonpuak 250 PBM)
Melastomataceae
Mai kaeng khue
chao pa ra
Root
Treatment of
infectious diseases in
early childhood,
postpartum symptoms,
a combination of M11
Treatment of diarrhea
Oxalidaceae
Som sangka
Whole plant
Treatment of bruises
Cook/ Oral
Trilliaceae
Wan kan chong,
To ung cho
Rhizome
Use as antipyretic with
rash, wound healing
80. Pavetta sp.
(B. Boonpuak 065,111,212 PBM)
Rubiaceae
Sale khao taek
Aerial part
81. Persicaria chinensis (L.) H.
Gross (B. Boonpuak 035 PBM)
Polygonaceae
Phon pen
Whole plant
82. Phlogacanthus curviflorus
Nees (B. Boonpuak 028 PBM)
83. Phyllanthus emblica L.
(B. Boonpuak 259 PBM)
Acanthaceae
Cha roem huai
Phyllanthaceae
Ma kham pom
Aerial part
Leaf
Fruit
Treatment of
leukorrhea, use as
blood tonic
Wound healing, a
combination of
M1,M4
A combination of M18
A combination of M4
Treatment of muscular
pain
Treatment of sore
throat
Treatment of diarrhea
Treatment of anemia
Wound healing
Rub a piece of rhizome
against stone, mix with
vehicle*/ Topical use
to apply on body part
Decoction/ Herbal bath
84. Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de
Vriese (B. Boonpuak 062 PBM)
85. Piper nigrum L.
(B. Boonpuak 309 PBM)
Pinaceae
Mai paek
Shoot
Stem bark
Resin
Piperaceae
Mak phrik pom
Fruit
A combination of
M2,M3,M8M11,M15,M16,M18
86. Plantago major L.
(B. Boonpuak 126 PBM)
Plantaginaceae
Ya en yuet
Root
Whole plant
87. Plumbago indica L.
(B. Boonpuak 285 PBM)
Plumbaginaceae
Pit pio laeng
Root
Treatment of toothache
Use as diuretic, a
combination of M4
Use as blood tonic,
treatment of
convulsion, a
combination of
M2,M4,M5
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Heat/ Apply on head
by wrapping
Decoction/ Oral
Pound/ Poultice, See
Table 2
See Table 2
See Table 2
Pound/ Topical use
Pound with ginger/
Oral
Raw/ Chew
Cook/ Oral
Grind/ Poultice
Dried black fruit
(Black Pepper) 5-7
fruits mixed with
formulations/ See
Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Table 1. Medicinal plants used by the Tai Yai healers in Chiang Mai Province (cont.)
Species (voucher no.)
Family
Tai Yai name
Parts used
88. Plumbago zeylanica L.
(B. Boonpuak 052 PBM)
Plumbaginaceae
Pit pio phoek
Whole plant
Leaf
89. Pogostemon glaber Benth.
(B. Boonpuak 001,170 PBM)
90. Polygala chinensis L.
(B. Boonpuak 244 PBM)
91. Pouzolzia pentandra Benn.
(B. Boonpuak 120,214 PBM)
92. Rubus alceifolius Poir.
(B. Boonpuak 009,176 PBM)
Lamiaceae
Ya mue lueam
Root
Polygalaceae
Ma mae kam
Root
Urticaceae
Pan chon
Whole plant
Rosaceae
Mak hue long
Root
93. Rubus ellipticus Sm. Forma
obcordatus Franch.
(B. Boonpuak 040,149 PBM)
94. Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex
Blume (B. Boonpuak 223 PBM)
Rosaceae
Mak hue
Root
Caprifoliaceae
Mai khue pan
Whole plant
95. Sauropus quadrangularis
(Willd.) Müll.Arg.
(B. Boonpuak 208 PBM)
96. Schefflera elliptica (Blume)
Harms (B. Boonpuak 239 PBM)
97. Schefflera leucantha R.Vig.
(B. Boonpuak 191 PBM)
98. Schima wallichii Choisy
(B. Boonpuak 200 PBM)
Phyllanthaceae
Mai maeng taem
Root
Araliaceae
Fa mue phue
Aerial part
Araliaceae
Fa mue phue noi
Aerial part
Theaceae
Mai chong kai
Shoot
Stem bark
99. Selaginella pennata Spring
(B. Boonpuak 044,209 PBM)
100. Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
(B. Boonpuak 291 PBM)
Selaginellaceae
Ya mung khiat
Whole plant
Fabaceae
Lup muen
Leaf & Seed
Whole plant
101. Sida acuta Burm. f.
(B. Boonpuak 029 PBM)
Malvaceae
Khat mon on
Root
108. Thelypteris sp.
(B. Boonpuak 047 PBM)
109. Thespesia lampas (Cav.)
Dalzell & A. Gibson
(B. Boonpuak 289 PBM)
110. Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.
(B. Boonpuak 003 PBM)
Use as tonic, a
combination of M7
Treatment of jaundice
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Treatment of inguinal
hernia, a combination
of M2
Treatment of bleeding
per rectum, a
combination of M2
Treatment of
convulsion, muscular
pain, bone fracture, a
combination of M16
Treatment of toothache
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal
bath, See Table 2
Raw/ Apply to tooth,
leave a while then spit
out
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Asteraceae
Ya mon kong
Whole plant
Solanaceae
Tong huk
Root
Use as anti-malarial
Decoction/ Oral
Solanaceae
Mak khaeng
khom
Whole plant
Use as antipyretic,
reducing internal body
heat, gastroenteritis
Reducing internal
body heat, treatment of
gastroenteritis
Treatment of peptic
ulcer
Use as blood tonic,
beriberi
Treatment of jaundice
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Treatment of lung
cancer, convulsion,
venereal disease,
anthelmintic
Treatment of muscular
pain
Treatment of
hemorrhoids
Use as tonic
Decoction/ Oral
Use as anti-malarial,
treatment of muscular
pain
Treatment of obesity
Decoction/ Oral
Fruit
105. Stephania venosa (Bl.)
Spreng. (B. Boonpuak 222 PBM)
106. Strychnos nux-blanda A.W.
Hill (B. Boonpuak 199 PBM)
107. Tadehagi triquetrum (L.)
H.Ohashi (B. Boonpuak 134 PBM)
Preparations/ Routes
of administration
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Excessive crying of
babies
Treatment of back pain
& waist pain
Treatment of diarrhea
Increase appetite, a
combination of M9
Treatment of cough,
expectorant
Treatment of insomnia
Excessive crying of
babies
Treatment of dizziness,
a combination of
M2,M3
Treatment of
infectious diseases in
early childhood
Treatment of diabetes
Whole plant
102. Sigesbeckia orientalis L.
(B. Boonpuak 137 PBM)
103. Solanum erianthum D.Don
(B. Boonpuak 232 PBM)
104. Solanum indicum L.
(B. Boonpuak 177 PBM)
Ethnomedical
indications
Treatment of leg and
knee pain, use as
antipyretic, a
combination of M4
Treatment of
abdominal pain
Use as antipyretic
Menispermaceae
Rhizome
Loganiaceae
Fak pha, Maew
din
Mak tueng
Fabaceae
Tan kho ma
Whole plant
Thelypteridaceae
Root
Malvaceae
Kut khon, Kut
doi
Kui thuean
Stem (young
stem)
Root
Rutaceae
Due ngu hao
Whole plant
Stem
Decoction/ Oral
Raw/ Chew
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction or Grind/
Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
Cook/ Oral
Raw young fruit/
Chew
Decoction or Grind/
Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Heat/ Topically apply
Decoction/ Oral
Decoction/ Oral
Table 1. Medicinal plants used by the Tai Yai healers in Chiang Mai Province (cont.)
Species (voucher no.)
Family
Tai Yai name
Parts used
111. Uncaria sp.
(B. Boonpuak 308 PBM)
Rubiaceae
Khao khwai mae
ngong
Stem
112. Urena lobata L.
(B. Boonpuak 159 PBM)
Malvaceae
Khat mon long
Root
Whole plant
113. Verbena officinalis L.
(B. Boonpuak 175 PBM)
Verbenaceae
Ya hang aen
Root
Whole plant
114. Vernonia volkameriifolia
Wall. ex DC.
(B. Boonpuak 148 PBM)
Asteraceae
115. Vitex trifolia L.
(B. Boonpuak 236 PBM)
Lamiaceae
Mai kho muae
nang
Leaf
Stem bark
Chueng pan
Aerial part
Fruit
Ethnomedical
indications
Treatment of diabetes,
gout, use as
antihypertension,
tonic, a combination of
M5,M7,M17
Treatment of body
edema
Treatment of dizziness,
a combination of M3
Treatment of body
edema, muscular pain
Use as antipyretic,
treatment of muscular
pain
Treatment of
convulsion
Treatment of
menstrual disorders
Antidote for food
poisoning
A combination of M16
Treatment of gout,
joint pain
Preparations/ Routes
of administration
Maceration/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral, See
Table 2
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
Grind/ Oral
Decoction/ Herbal bath
Decoction/ Oral
See Table 2
Pound, mix with any
oils and heat; then, get
only oil/ Topical use
See Table 2
116. Zingiber montanum (J.König)
Zingiberaceae
Min salang
Rhizome
A combination of M16
Link ex Dietr. (B. Boonpuak 299
PBM)
Vehicle*= water, rice soaked water, rice whiskey, steaming water or human urine (for external use only). The type of vehicle was selected by the
healer.
Table 2. Herbal formulations used by Tai Yai healers
FormulationEthnomedical indications
Preparations
Route of
administration
Persicaria chinensis (L.) H. Gross, Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K. Jansen,
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.
Artemisia vulgaris L., Sida acuta Burm. f., Rubus ellipticus Sm. forma
obcordatus Franch., Rubus alceifolius Poir., Embelia sessiliflora Kurz,
Elephantopus scaber L., Piper nigrum L., Leea rubra Blume ex Spreng.,
Clematis thaiana Tamura, Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers., Toddalia asiatica
(L.) Lam., Lagger pterodonta (DC.) Sch. Bip. Ex Oliv., Plumbago
indica L.
Urena lobata L., Elephantopus scaber L., Sida acuta Burm. f., Piper
nigrum L.,
Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc., Cissus hastata Miq.,
Persicaria chinensis (L.) H. Gross, Plantago major L., Embelia
sessiliflora Kurz, Phlogacanthus curviflorus Nees, Colquhounia elegans
Wall., Plumbago indica L., Plumbago zeylanica L., Fagopyrum
esculentum Moench, Datura metel L., Drymaria diandra Blume
Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc., Uncaria sp., Plumbago
indica L., Drymaria diandra Blume, Cissus hastata Miq.
Pound
Poultice
Decoction
Oral
Decoction
Oral
Pound
Poultice
Decoction
M6*-treatment of muscular
pain
Croton tiglium L., Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp., Clerodendrum
indicum (L.) Kuntze, Clerodendrum paniculatum L., Clerodendrum
quadriloculare (Blanco) Merr., Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon var.
serratum
M7***-blood tonic
M8*-blood tonic
Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham., Polygala chinensis L., Uncaria sp.
Croton roxburghii N.P. Balakr., Piper nigrum L.
Grind to make
powder, mix
with steam water
and rice whiskey
as vehicle
Maceration
Decoction
Oral (It's not good
for women due to
infertility activity)
Topical use to apply
on body by massage
M9*-tonic
Schima wallichii Choisy, Piper nigrum L.
Decoction
Oral
M10*-blood tonic, tonic
Desmodium oblongum Wall. ex Benth, Piper nigrum L.
Decoction
Oral
M11*-treatment of
diarrhea
M12*-treatment of heart
disorders
M13*-treatment of
hepatitis
M14*-treatment of kidney
disorders
M15*-treatment of
abdominal pain
M16*-treatment of
muscular pain related to
postpartum symptoms
Mussaenda sp., Piper nigrum L.
Decoction
Oral
Cuscuta japonica Choisy, Eleutherine bulbosa (Mill.) Urb., pork heart
Cook
Oral
Cuscuta japonica Choisy, Eleutherine bulbosa (Mill.) Urb., pork liver
Cook
Oral
Cuscuta japonica Choisy, Eleutherine bulbosa (Mill.) Urb., pork liver
Cook
Oral
Embelia sessiliflora Kurz, Piper nigrum L.
Decoction
Oral
Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume, Vitex trifolia L., Zingiber
montanum (J.König) Link ex Dietr., Piper nigrum L.
Decoction
Herbal bath
M1*-treatment of a cut
wound
M2*-anti-malarial
M3*-antipyretic
M4*-treatment of bone
fracture
M5*-treatment of muscular
pain
Combination
Oral
Oral
Table 2. Herbal formulations used by Tai Yai healers (cont.)
FormulationEthnomedical indications
M17**-treatment of
postpartum symptoms
Combination
Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon var. serratum, Congea tomentosa
Roxb, Croton roxburghii N.P. Balakr., Chloranthus erectus (Buch.Ham.) Verdc., Uncaria sp.
Phlogacanthus curviflorus Nees, Piper nigrum L.
M18*-treatment of
beriberi, dizziness
*The formulations were used by the healers in Chai Prakan district.
**The formulation was used by the healers in Wiang Haeng district.
***The formulation was used by the healers of two areas.
Preparations
Route of
administration
Grind to make
powder
Oral with warm
water
Decoction
Oral
These medicinal plants were used for the treatment of 86 different ailments (Table 12). The most frequently employed plants were used for musculoskeletal system disorder
treatments (49 species, 29 formulations), followed by gastrointestinal disorders (47 species,
46 formulations) and tonic herbs (23 species, 25 formulations)
Whole plants and roots were mostly used for herbal preparations. The healers used
both dried and fresh plant materials, depending on the preparation type. The majority of
herbal medicines (63%) were decoction for both internal and external uses. The most frequent
mode of administration was oral (57%), followed by herbal baths (23%).
Overall, 88% of the treatments that were documented by this study were not found in
Thai traditional medicine (TTM). Of these 88% (102 species), 30 species were used
differently from TTM, and 72 species were not mentioned in the TTM at all. Only 14 species
(12%) were used in ways that were similar to that of TTM (6-8).
Discussion
The traditional knowledge of Tai Yai healers who were living in two districts of the
Chiang Mai study area varied on the basis of their individual experience in medicinal plant
utilization. As the healers migrated from different part of Shan State, Myanmar, and each
healer practiced and formulated their own multi-plant preparation depending on the medicinal
plants in the area where they lived, the different plant species, plant parts used, preparations,
and administration modes were revealed in this study. For the ailments treated by the highest
number of plant species were musculoskeletal system disorders, gastrointestinal disorders and
tonic herbs. Due to agricultural communities, they might look for plants to relief body pain
after hard working or use as tonic. Gastrointestinal disorders were also important usage
categories, which were mentioned by the healers. For culture of tea drinking, herbal
medicines were commonly made into decoctions and taken as herbal drink. In addition,
decoction was also prepared for herbal bath, which was used not only for treatment of
external diseases, but also for treatment of internal diseases. The patients were required to
take three gulps of a decoction before taking a bath when it cooled down. The most used parts
of plant for herbal preparation were whole plants and roots which were related to plant habits,
i.e. shrubs and herbs. As regards to the plant conservation, this practice seems to destroy the
plant resources. Shrubs and herbs, however, were short life cycle plants and can be easily
growing. Moreover, Tai Yai healers also cultivated commonly used medicinal plants in their
home gardens, which facilitated conserving both traditional medical knowledge and
medicinal plant species in the natural habitats of ethnic communities as indicated by Srithi et
al. (9). Medicinal plants knowledge specific to the Tai Yai culture is alive and still exists. As
indicated by 88% (102 plant species) of plant species uses were different when compared
with Thai traditional books (6-8). These differences may be attributed to plant diversity,
which have influenced the healer practices of a particular area of plants uses of herbal
medicine.
Conclusion
This study documented 116 taxonomically identified medicinal plant species
belonging to 101 genera in 58 families used by Tai Yai healers. These species were used to
treat 86 ailments. Medicinal plants were mostly used for treatment of muscular pain, used as
tonic and for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, which related to Tai Yai’s lifestyle.
Whole plants and roots were the part that mostly used to prepare herbal medicine in the form
of decoction and taken as herbal drink or herbal baths. Tai Yai traditional medicine is still
actively applied in communities by elderly healers who hold knowledge gained through oral
transmission and experience. An erosion of the knowledge has recently occurred as a
consequence of healer aging, the younger generation's lack of interest in becoming
successors, and increased urbanization. Thus, there is an urgent need to preserve Tai Yai
knowledge to sustain the use of this folk medicine.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their deepest gratitude to the Tai Yai healers Mr. Aisiang Lungso,
Mr. Ngoen Chanta, Mr. Chareso Changkon and Mr. Salasu Lungmai, the key informants of
this study. This project was financially supported by the Chao Phya Abhaibhubejhr Hospital
Foundation.
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