HISTORICAL CONTEXT
No one is certain exactly when Beowulf was first composed or transcribed. Like other early epics, the poem probably evolved out of an oral tradition and was compiled from several smaller narratives. Some researchers speculate that it was written around A.D. 700 by an unknown author, perhaps an inhabitant of the modern-day West Midlands of England.
Although Beowulf stands as one of the earliest works of English literature, the story does not take place in England. Instead, it tells of events that occur in Sweden and on the Danish island of
Zealand. The epic glorifies the actions of the Danes and the Geats (inhabitants of southern Sweden).
Thus Beowulf does not reflect English history and traditions so much as those of the Anglo-Saxons and their Germanic ancestors.
Germanic people began to invade England in A.D. 449. This incursion was probably complete by the time Beowulf was written. Beowulf is rich in the cultural legacy of the invaders. This legacy is particularly important when examining two aspects of the epic: its depiction of the feudal system, and the peculiar mix of ideas about religion and fate that is voiced by the poet.
The feudal system of the Anglo-Saxons was extremely regimented. The hierarchy of their society ranged from lords to slaves. Of particular interest in Beowulf is the relationship of a king to his warriors. This relationship hinged on loyalty bred by warfare and the philosophy of revenge as a way of life. Depending on his station, each man had a “price.” When a man was killed by an enemy, his kinsmen were expected to exact that price in blood or in wegild, a gold payment.
This seemingly pagan and barbaric system existed uneasily with Christianity. Pope Gregory began the Christianization of Anglo-Saxon Britain about a century before Beowulf was written. The unknown author of Beowulf was undoubtedly a Christian with considerable familiarity with the Bible.
But even in this poet’s work, it is evident that the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was hardly complete.
Paganism and Christianity continued to alternately clash and merge, much as African tribal beliefs interacted with Catholicism to produce Voodoo in Haiti.
Although the text of Beowulf is riddled with Judeo-Christian references, there is almost no sense of a loving, merciful Christian God in the Poem. Moreover, a Christian ethic of forgiveness and altruism is hardly extolled in Beowulf. At times, the Judeo-Christian God becomes synonymous with
wyrd, or the pagan idea of fate. And the poem’s celebrated “Song of Creation,” so very biblical in outlook and imagery, comes quickly after the introduction of the distinctly pagan monster Grendel.
Critics once thought that Christian references in Beowulf were inserted by a later author in an attempt to “improve” the original poem. But centuries of study indicate that Christian references are too pervasive and integral to have been merely added on. Long thought to be a problem with the poem, this combination of Christian and pagan elements is now considered a vivid reflection of
Beowulf’s position in English history. The mix produces a tension that is not the least among the poem’s wonders.
PHILOSOPHY
The tension between Judeo-Christian and pagan thought in Beowulf is central to understanding the philosophical viewpoint of the anonymous poet. A reader is confronted by the question of human destiny and freedom. Is the universe ruled by a benevolent, Judeo-Christian deity who allows humans
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the freedom to make their own choices and pursue their own destiny? Or is it controlled by a rigid
wyrd, which humans blindly follow?
The words wyrd and God are sometimes interchangeable in the poem. But more often than not, the poet seems to offer the bleak view that humans rarely control their own destiny. And there is very little in Beowulf to suggest the comfort of Christian immortality.
Fame may be the equivalent of immortality in the male-dominated, warfaring society of
Beowulf. The warriors of that culture believe that each must achieve all that is possible in life and broadcast these deeds. It is only through deeds and fame that a warrior can hope to live forever.
Materialism is also a quality of the characters in Beowulf. Winning valuables is important to each warrior. In the prologue to the poem, the glory of wealth is displayed in the memorable image of great King Shild’s funeral boat. But to the warrior, the vast and splendid riches aboard that boat are more than a mere lifetime of material accumulations. They are testimonials to the king’s existence, a monument that gives meaning to fleeting mortal life.
There is, however, more depth to the Germanic culture than just boasting and taking. Dignity is achieved in the face of impending fate by maintaining the code of society. The characters revenge the deaths of kinsmen, defend members of their community, and stand fast by those to whom they have sworn their loyalty. Abiding by these obligations adds to an individual’s fame and provides a kind of immortality in lieu of an afterlife.
But the question remains: How can humans attain fame, wealth, and dignity if they are controlled by a predetermining wyrd? The answer may lie in Beowulf’s attitude. The great warrior appears to believe that humans must constantly test their fate and always act without fear. Perhaps fate smiles upon a human who stands firm when destruction seems certain, as when Beowulf battles
Grendel and the monster’s mother. Beowulf’s philosophy even suggests that humans can create changes in destiny through the sheer force of heroism.
This philosophy sustains Beowulf for a time. And even when it fails him in his struggle with the dragon, the old king dies in honor and fame. He and his defender, your Wiglaf, emerge much more nobly than the indecisive warriors who refuse to help them. All humans must die, and Beowulf’s fame—a warrior’s dearest possession—endures to his death and beyond.
Perhaps Beowulf’s philosophy (and that of his chronicler) can be summarized very simply: In a world without hope, a brave soul has nothing to lose.
STYLISTIC DEVICES
Beowulf precedes modern English, which did not begin to evolve until after the Norman invasion of Britain in 1066. The Old English of Beowulf is a completely different language than the
English we speak today. Without knowledge of Old English, Beowulf simply cannot be read except in translation.
Techniques of versification in Old English poetry are distinctly different from poetry in modern
English. Old English prosody—or versification—was based heavily upon alliteration, the repeated use of an initial sound, usually of a consonant, in two or more words of a phrase or line of poetry. Each line was made up of four stressed or accented syllables and four or more unaccented syllables. A
caesura or pause was included at midline. During the course of a given line, an alliterated sound would occur three times.
Certain characteristics of the Old English Beowulf are usually not apparent to the modern reader. One unfortunate loss is the musical accompaniment. Since the poetry of Beowulf was originally
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chanted or sung, a harp was probably used for added emphasis. A single note may have been occasionally struck during the midline caesura or at other significant breaks in the flow of the poem.
Another loss in the typical modern translation is the frequent use of formula. Old English poetry, like Homeric epic poetry, heavily depended on repeated phrases and familiar means of visualizing a person, place, thing, or event. In Homer, descriptions of “the rosy fingertips of dawn” frequently recur.
In Beowulf, the hero is repeatedly referred to as “Edgetho’s brave son,” and descriptions of the landing of ships are similar in pattern.
Literally thousands of uses of formulas appear throughout Beowulf in its original language. The formulas were not only convenient for a poet reciting the poem orally; they also add a sense of ritual and drama to the poem.
Such stylistic devices are not likely to be preserved. The frequent alliteration would simply be too much for modern English verse. Nor are we likely to hear a modern version of Beowulf punctuated by harp strokes. Also, a modern translator is likely to vary many of the formulas for the sake of contemporary readers.
Even without incorporating these stylistic devices, the translator of Beowulf is faced with major challenges. Any translator dealing with two languages faces difficult choices. Old English renders many of these choices even more difficult. Some translators have deliberately worked in an archaic style to create a sense of antiquity and used rhyme in place of alliteration. Others have chosen a colloquial, prosaic, and simple style to preserve the meaning of the poem. Still others have sought to develop a four-stressed, free-verse line that uses occasional alliteration to capture at least a flavor of the original.
Although it is impossible to retain the exact effect of Beowulf in modern English, many translations are fine poems (or prose renditions) in their own right. Students may want to sample several versions to fully understand the choices translators make when recreating a classic for a modern audience.
SYNOPSIS
Hrothgar, king of Danes on the island of Zealand, has built a great mead-hall named Herot. But
Grendel, a monster believed to be descended from Cain, wreaks havoc and death in Herot, forcing the
Danes to abandon the hall.
Twelve years after the monster first strikes, Beowulf arrives with fourteen Geatish warriors, offering to defend the Danes. Hrothgar promises great treasure to Beowulf and his men if they succeed in killing Grendel.
The Geats spend the night in Herot. Grendel arrives and devours one of Beowulf’s followers.
Beowulf succeeds in ripping an arm off Grendel’s body and the dying monster flees.
A great celebration follows. Grendel’s armies displayed as a trophy of Beowulf’s triumph and
Hrothgar lavishes rich gifts on Beowulf and his men. But this joyous mood is shattered when
Grendel’s mother comes to Herot. She kills Esher, Hrothgar’s dearest friend, and carries away
Grendel’s arm.
Beowulf goes to the fabled pool where Grendel’s mother lives. He dives in and finds himself in the monster’s hall where he faces Grendel’s mother and many other hideous creatures. Using a sword from one of the walls he beheads Grendel’s mother and the dead Grendel. Then Beowulf returns to
Hrothgar, saying his farewells as his victory is celebrated. Back home, Beowulf is warmly greeted by
King Higlac and Queen Higd.
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A time break occurs in the narrative. When the story resumes, Beowulf has been ruler of the
Geats for fifty years.
Beowulf’s next recorded adventure is his last. As an old man, Beowulf goes to fight a dragon that is ravaging the countryside because a cup has been stolen from its treasure. During a desperate fight, all of Beowulf’s warriors, except for young Wiglaf, fail to defend him. Though he senses that his end is near, Beowulf goes to do battle with the dragon. With Wiglaf’s help, he manages to slay the monster. But Beowulf pays for the victory with his life. Wiglaf denounces his companions for their cowardice, and the chastened Geats do honor to their dead king by burning his body on a great pyre.
ANALYSIS
It is important to understand Beowulf’s structure to appreciate the poem. Perhaps the greatest difficulties presented to a scholar of Beowulf are the extended digressions, flashbacks, and the single great break in the time sequence of the narrative that occurs in Section 31 (beginning c. line 2144).
Digressions and flashbacks are not unusual in epic poetry. But these devices seem to predominate in Beowulf, almost at the expense of the narrative. For example, Beowulf’s retelling of his adventures to Higlac may seem a bit redundant to today’s reader, who is undoubtedly less prepared for the many digressions in the poem than was an Anglo-Saxon audience. Doubtless the Anglo-Saxon recognized references to mythology and folklore that are now obscure. They probably grasped subtleties and ironies that are lost on today’s readers.
But some of these digressions remain intelligible and pertinent, offering valuable commentary on characters, situations, and events. For instance, Beowulf’s lengthy speech about his swimming contest against Brecca tells us a great deal about Beowulf’s character and his manner of promoting his own accomplishments.
Hrothgar’s sermon to Beowulf on pride is also enlightening. Beowulf has just defeated two monsters, and his fortunes are on the rise. Paternally, Hrothgar wishes to see Beowulf continue to prosper, and the king advises the warrior well. The speech reflects on the character of both men and the philosophy of their society.
Beowulf’s story of the death of Herbald is another important digression. Beowulf’s recounting of the event expresses his own inner feelings—the profound melancholy of a man approaching death.
Similar to the digressions, the enormous narrative break also illustrates character development, dramatizing the change in Beowulf. Before the break, Beowulf’s youthful confidence abounds. But after the break, the aging Beowulf’s weariness and doubts emerge.
The inclusion of references that disrupt the narrative stream serves yet another purpose. Some of the digressions seem to be the author’s attempt to knit the narrative into the mythical and historical past, present, and even future of the Germanic people. In the messenger’s speech announcing
Beowulf’s death, the eventual defeat of the Geats by the Swedes is foreshowed—an event Beowulf’s audience knew had come to pass. At moments like these Beowulf moves into the realm of prophecy.
The epic seems to ask its Anglo-Saxon listeners, “How is our cultural character going to affect our destiny?”
To its original audience, Beowulf was a comprehensive portrait of Anglo-Saxon civilization. The disruptions in the narrative help make such a cultural overview possible and fulfill the epic potential.
What emerges is a culture’s glorious lament for lost heroes, a reckoning of its current condition, and a consideration of its possible destiny.
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