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A History of Americanization for the Mexican Population
Christina Tate
TE 810: History of U.S. Education
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During the early twentieth century at the onset of WWI, the United States was
experiencing an increasing number of immigrants migrating to the southern, mid-western
and urban cities. Racial tension occurred among citizens of the U.S. however, certain
immigrant groups were more widely accepted than others. As William McDougall
pointed out, “races differ in intellectual stature, just as they differ in physical stature”
(Guglielmo, 2003, p.61). Nordics and Italians were thought to have intellectual
superiority over southern European and Latin races which were considered labor workers.
During the time of the Immigration Act of 1924, Arthur Sweeney wrote, “it is time to
awaken to the necessity of protecting this country from the influx of the worthless.
Unless we do so we shall degenerate to the level of the Slav and Latin races, with their
illiteracy, ignorance and consequent degradation…We have no place in this country for
the man with the hoe,’ stained with the earth he digs, and guided by a mind scarcely
superior to the ox, whose brother he is” (Guglielmo, 2003, p.61).
In order to further understand the ill treatment and unequal opportunities of these
“lower ranked races,” this paper will focus specifically on the Americanization of the
Mexican (Latin) population during the early to mid twentieth century. Due to their close
bordering lines with the United States, Mexican immigrants endured extreme pressure to
become culturally assimilated and were the only race targeted for removal after the Great
Depression (Ruiz, 2001, p.25). Mexican Americans experienced segregation in all public
avenues, including public schools. Although segregation was apparent nationally, this
paper will examine geographical regions of the Southwestern United States, mainly
California. Moreover, it will discuss contemporary issues dealing with MexicanAmericans.
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Mexican migration began as early as the nineteenth century however; a rapid
influx of immigrants came to the U.S. during WWI. “Between 1910 and 1930, over one
million Mexicans migrated northward. Pushed by the economic and political chaos
generated by the Mexican Revolution and lured by jobs in the U.S. agribusiness and
industry, they settled into existing barrios and created new ones in the Southwest and
Midwest” (Ruiz, 2001, p.23). Many Mexicans at the time settled into neighborhoods in
west Los Angeles by choice. “The city possessed an affable climate and a growing
community of Mexicans, which made it an excellent alternative to home” (Sanchez,
1993, p.68). Mexicans did not only migrate for individual economic opportunities, “it
began as a highly organized movement to provide the American Southwest with
substantial labor from Mexico’s populous central plateau area” (Sanchez, 1993, p.39).
By 1913, Mexican neighborhoods were becoming overcrowded; however there was little
opportunity to live in other areas of the city. “Chicanos were not allowed to live in
certain areas of East LA because of racially restrictive covenants that forbade sale of real
estate to Mexicans” (Camarillo, 1979, p.205). Americans feared Mexicans would pollute
their neighborhoods, so they were forced to live separately. This residential separation
would later effect segregation in schools.
In 1910-1920, many Anglos (prominently whites) were indifferent towards
Mexican immigrants, however their thoughts changed. “The Anglo response to the
growing Mexican population in the cities of southern California occurred in several
stages: from unconcern on the part of the general public, to approval by employers
benefiting from Mexican labor, to the establishment of assimilation programs, to
condemnation of Chicanos, and, finally to deportation” (Camarillo, 1979, p.225).
By
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the late 1920s, crossing the border became difficult. In El Paso, some immigration
inspectors were members of the Ku Klux Klan and would constantly denigrate those who
crossed the bridge, even if their papers were legal (Sanchez, 1993, p.59). “Eventually
crossing the border became a painful and abrupt event permeated by an atmosphere of
racism and control—an event that clearly demarcated one society from another”
(Sanchez, 1993, p.59). Border restrictions unintentionally prevented Mexicans from
returning to their homeland. Only after American citizens realized Mexicans would not
be returning when their services were no longer needed did they believe there was a
“Mexican problem” (Camarillo, 1979, p.225). During this time, efforts to Americanize
Mexicans became imperative.
Although some Anglos believed there to be a “Mexican problem,” others such as
the Californian progressives believed, “Mexican culture was malleable, but required
intense education in “American values” to fit into a modern, industrialized society”
(Sanchez, 1993, p.106). To some citizens and teachers, Americanizing Mexicans was
seen as a nearly unfeasible task due to language barriers within their communities and
occupations. Efforts to Americanize Mexicans targeted the immigrant women in the
home and the public school system. “After WWI, the home teacher program was
expanded, and located within the public school system. From 1915 to 1929, the home
teacher—usually a single, middle-class, Anglo female—was the linchpin of
Americanization efforts aimed at the Mexican family” (Sanchez, 1993, p.99). The main
goal of the teachers was to teach the English language, proper organization of the family
economy, a healthy diet, and good work habits to immigrant women (Sanchez, 1993,
p.99). If immigrant women could learn their proper role in American society, they could
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pass it on to family members. However, it was difficult to teach immigrant women
English, making other Americanization efforts equally difficult.
By the 1930s, attempts to Americanize Mexicans never fully developed, and they
were considered outsiders. “Mexicans were intended only to assimilate to the bottom
segment of American work force as low-paid, yet loyal, workers” (Sanchez, 1993, p.107).
“Educator’s shared society’s view of the Mexican as one who was never expected to fully
participate in American life” (Carter, 1970, p.9). They believed Mexicans were only
good for manual labor and farmers worried that educating them would make them unable
to labor (Carter, 1970, p.9). These beliefs provide an explanation to such low enrollment
of Mexican American in schools. “Some educational literature during the time described
Mexican Americans as disease-ridden, inclined toward violence and crime, innately
inferior, yet simple, and artistic” (Carter, 1970, p.10). Discrimination towards Mexicans
only increased after the Great Depression as they could not promote the economy with
such low status.
From 1930 to 1940, society’s image of the Mexican as an outsider seemingly
increased, and public schools were expected to fix the “Mexican problem.” Children
were enrolled in the public school system as a means of assimilating to the American
culture. “In the schools, socialization in American values and language skills were more
emphatically combined with the goal of social stability. The increased application of I.Q.
testing, always administered in English, invariably segregated Mexican children in
special classes for the mentally inferior or mentally retarded” (Sanchez, 1993, p.105).
With testing preventing Mexican children access to regular education courses, their status
remained low.
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In further attempts of acculturation, vocational and Americanization programs
were implemented. “School programs for Mexican American children emphasized
vocational and manual-arts training, the learning of English, health, and the adoption of
American “core values” as thrift and punctuality. Segregation was regularly
recommended and established” (Carter, 1970, p.11).
Separation in schools was seen as beneficial for Mexican American children.
“Reasons for segregation espoused in official school pronouncements included the
Mexican American child’s language handicap and his need to learn English, his need to
be Americanized before mixing with Anglos, and his slowness in school, which would
hinder the progress of Anglos” (Carter, 1970, p.67). Separate schools were said to cure
Mexican deficiencies and keep them from feeling inferior.
“Mexican Americans living in the Southwest were typically assigned to separate,
inferior schools simply because they had a Spanish surnames” (Zehr, 2004, p.33). In the
segregated schools, many teachers and administrators believed their students had fewer
abilities beyond farm and domestic work (Ruiz, 2001, p.24). The Spanish language was
banned in these schools as well. “Throughout the Southwest, Spanish-speaking children
had to sink or swim in an English-only environment. Even on the playground, students
were punished for conversing in Spanish” (Ruiz, 2001, p.24). With the inability to take
academic courses and prevention of holding onto one’s culture, segregated schools
promoted inequality. “Both Anglo and Mexican American children were expected to
internalize the national American culture, including such basic values as equality, at the
same time that they are learning the different and unequal roles expected of them by local
society” (Carter, 1970, p.14).
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World War II brought about changes for Mexican Americans. The federal
government of the United States contracted with Mexico for their agricultural labor in
order to improve the economy. As a result, the Mexican government called for
improvement of education for Mexican American children (Carter, 1970, p.11). As the
U.S. and Mexico began depending on one another, Mexican Americans began to fight for
equal education opportunities. At the same time the NAACP began examining inequality
of racial segregation, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC)
implemented a strategy to challenge school segregation in California (Ruiz, 2001, p25).
“In 1945, five Mexican American fathers, including Gonzalo Méndez, filed a class action
in a federal court in Los Angeles challenging segregated schools on behalf of their
children as well as 5,000 other Latino children” (Zehr, 2004, p.33). The case is known as
the Méndez vs. Westminster case and called for the school board to propose a bond issue
for construction of a new, integrated school (Ruiz, 2001, p.26). By 1946, Judge Paul
McCormick ruled in favor of the plaintiffs stating that segregation of Mexican Americans
was a violation of the 14th amendment (Zehr, 2004, p.33). By 1947, under the ruling of
Governor Earl Warren, who seven years later would preside over the Brown case, all
California schools mandated segregation (Ruiz, 2001, p.27). Although, Latinos attended
desegregated schools in California, they would not be considered a distinct legal class
nationally until 1973 (Zehr, 2004, p.33).
Historically, immigrants from Mexico have experienced racial neglect and
extreme pressure to assimilate to the American culture. Although, Mexican Americans
are more widely accepted in today’s society, discrimination and attempts to Americanize
these individuals still exists. Numerously, I have heard individuals say, “If they are
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going to come here and take our jobs, they need to learn how to speak our language.”
Learning the English language is the primary goal in Americanization. Social scientists
and society have and still look to the public schools to accommodate this process.
English as second language courses have made advances and encourage Spanish speakers
to speak only English in the classroom. Policy makers today are trying to close the
achievement gap by implementing standardized tests however these tests do not
accommodate non-Anglo cultures. Evidence on standardized tests shows Mexican
Americans are still achieving at lower levels. Policy makers should consider years in
American public schools and language skills when dealing with testing issues.
Although Mexican Americans are provided more opportunities today more than
ever before in terms of curriculum and education, their overall social status remains low.
It seems that the majority of Mexican Americans still maintain low-paying jobs dealing
with manual labor such as; construction, landscaping and housekeeping. These
occupational roles are present in the media as well. In addition, segregated communities
are still visible all over the country. The majority of Mexican Americans still migrates
and resides in the Southwest barrios. I have been told that I should go to California, “they
really need Spanish speaking teachers there.” Even in Michigan segregated communities
exist, for example “Mexican town.” Overall, I believe society has become more
culturally receptive to the Mexican American population but stereotypes still exist and to
say that it is the school’s job to Americanize these individuals is unfair when society
portrays different.
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References:
Camarillo, A. (1979). Chicanos in a changing society: From Mexican pueblos to
American barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Carter, T.P. (1970). Mexican Americans in school: a history of educational neglect.
New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
Guglielmo, T. A. (2003). Italians, race, color, and power in Chicago, 1890-1945. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Ruiz, V. L. (2001, Winter). South by Southwest: Mexican Americans and segregated
schooling, 1900-1950. Magazine of History, 15, 23-27.
Sanchez, G. J. (1993). Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, culture, and identity in
Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945. New York: Oxford University Press.
Zehr, M. (2004, March). A Long Struggle for Equality. Education Week, 26, 33.