Briefing Paper for Trainee Teachers
Of Citizenship Education
Multicultural Education and Citizenship
By: Jite Eferakorho
University Of Bradford
Produced by citizED
(a project of the Training Development
Agency)
Summer 2008
More information about the series of Briefing
Papers for Trainee Teachers can be found at
www.citized.info
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Multicultural Education and Citizenship
Background
Multicultural education is an approach to teaching and learning that is (a) based on
democratic values and beliefs, and (b) affirms cultural pluralism (Bennett, 2007).
Multicultural education as an educational reform emerged out of the United States Civil
Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s (Banks, 2004; Bennett, 2001). This movement led
to significant breakthroughs in terms of landmark legislation, such as Civil Rights Act (1964)
and Brown v. Board (1954) United States Supreme Court decision reversing the legality of
‘separate, but equal’ or segregated schooling. Scholarship within multicultural education
covers a broad continuum of approaches, ranging from the assimilationist to the social reconstructionist model (Sleeter, C. & Grant, C., 1999).
What is multicultural education?
In the Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, Banks and Banks (2004) defined:
“Multicultural education is a field of study and an emerging discipline whose major
aim is to create equal educational opportunities for students from diverse racial,
ethnic, social-class, and cultural groups. One of its important goals is to help all
students acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively
in a pluralistic democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with
people from diverse groups to create a civic and moral community that works for the
common good” (p. xi).
Banks and Banks’ definition closely corresponds to the concept of multicultural citizenship
as will become apparent in subsequent discussions.
Key concepts covered in multicultural education include race, ethnicity, social class, religion,
gender, culture, democracy, cultural pluralism, assimilation, equality, respect, diversity,
equal educational opportunities, social justice and multicultural citizenship.
National Curriculum
In key stage 3:
Under the first strand ‘knowledge and understanding about becoming informed citizens’, students
should be taught “the origins and implications of the diverse national, regional, religious and ethnic
identities in the United Kingdom and the need for mutual respect and understanding”.
In key stage 4:
Under the first strand ‘knowledge and understanding about becoming informed citizens’, students
should be taught “the diversity of national, regional, religious and ethnic identities in the United
Kingdom and the need for mutual respect and understanding”.
Relationship between multicultural education and diversity
As indicated above, diversity (and other variants, such as diverse) is addressed in the
Citizenship Programmes of Study in Key Stages 3 and 4. As the preferred label within the
national curriculum framework, diversity is mentioned throughout the curriculum literature.
Arguably, diversity is a semantically ambiguous term with more neutral political
connotations than multicultural education (Placier, P., Eferakorho, J., Cockrell, K., and Willis,
B., 2004; Wrong, 1999). On the other hand, “multiculturalism is a highly contested term and
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there is no agreed upon definition of what it pertains to or represents”(Kiwan, 2008, p.17).
Generally, multicultural scholars often delineate three ideological positions within the
discourse of multicultural education, namely conservative multiculturalism, liberal
multiculturalism, and critical multiculturalism (McLaren, 1995; Sleeter, 1995). Following is
an overview of McLaren’s classification of multiculturalism.
 Conservative multiculturalism-based on the assumption that a common culture
exists, thereby de-legitimizing other cultures and languages; this approach refuses
to treat whiteness as a form of ethnicity and thus uses the term ‘diversity’ to cover
up an assimilationist agenda; the prerequisite for being assimilated or ‘joining the
club’ is to become denuded, deracinated, and culturally stripped’ (McLaren, 1995,
p.38).
 Liberal multiculturalism-presents a veneer of equality and sameness across ethnic
groups; this approach ignores the presence of structural inequalities or power
dynamics and privileges that are enjoyed by individuals from the dominant groups in
society; scholars within this tradition believe naively that through proper ‘reforms’,
cultural, social and economic equality can be achieved.
 Critical multiculturalism-unlike liberal multiculturalism, which is immersed in the
discourse of reform; critical multiculturalism advances an agenda of social
transformation; McLaren (1995) advocates a critical multiculturalism approach and
argues that “multiculturalism without a transformative political agenda can be just
another form of accommodation to the larger social order” (McLaren, p. 42)
Curriculum Debates
 The Crick Report
Concern for the diminishing status of citizenship as a curricular theme within schools and
the growing political apathy among the youths led to the creation of an Advisory Group in
1998 on Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy, chaired by Professor
Bernard Crick (hereafter, Crick Report, 1998). Citizenship “was introduced as a new
statutory subject in England in 2002, following the policy review of citizenship education by
the Crick Advisory group in 1998” (Kiwan, 2008). The Crick Report recommended that
Citizenship education be conceived in terms of three strands: Social and moral responsibility;
Community involvement; and Political literacy. T.H. Marshall’s definition, which reflected
the 20th century political philosophy Zeitgeist, largely influenced the Crick Report (Kiwan,
2008; Osler, 2000). Marshall’s definition of citizenship is comprised of the following three
crucial elements:
 Civil element-comprise individual rights and freedom, such as the freedom of speech,
thought and faith; the right to own property and right to justice.
 Political element-comprise rights to participate in the exercise of political power,
membership of a political organisation and run for elected office.
 Social element- comprise more broadly of economic welfare rights and share in full
the social heritage of the society, such as is provided through education and social
services institutions.
In spite of the significant contributions of Marshall’s definition, it needs to be stated that
Marshall’s definition was made in a particular context of post-war Britain, when society was
more homogenous (Marshall and Bottomore, 1992). While Marshall’s definition was
adequate for that particular sociocultural context, it needs to be broadened to take into
consideration the multicultural nature of contemporary British society. Osler (2000)
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critiqued the Crick Report as an example of institutionalised racism, particularly with respect
to its characterisation of minority groups and narrow conceptualisation of citizenship as
quoted below:
“the need to develop a shared understanding of citizenship which is based on
a broader theoretical base than that of Marshall (1950), recognizing that,
despite formal equality, various groups may encounter barriers to claiming
their citizenship rights as a result of disadvantage and/or discrimination
based on, for example, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexuality, disability,
poverty or a combination of such factors” (Osler, 2000, pp. 34-5).
 The Ajegbo Report
The Diversity and Citizenship Curriculum Review (hereafter, Ajegbo Report) builds upon the
framework of the Crick Report and recommends that “diversity and citizenship be brought
together more coherently by developing a fourth strand in the citizenship curriculum of
Identity and Diversity: Living Together in the UK” (Ajegbo, K., Kiwan, D., and Sharma, 2007, p.
22). The Ajegbo Report further demonstrates the link between education for diversity and
citizenship education by stating:
“The link between education for diversity and Citizenship education is clear: whilst
we need to understand and celebrate the diverse cultures and backgrounds of the
UK’s population, we also need to acknowledge what brings us together as active
citizens and agents of change. Diversity has been recognised as a crucial area in
education for some time; and concepts of citizenship are deficient without a
substantive understanding of diversity. Education for diversity is key to preparing
children and young people for the 21st century world, where borders are becoming
porous and global citizenship is an increasing imperative” (Ajegbo Report, 2007, p.
21).
The Ajegbo Report advances the curriculum debate in the UK towards embracing the notion
of multicultural citizenship. Dialogues around the recognition of multicultural citizenship
are well underway in Europe. For example, in keeping with the commitment to celebrate
the rich cultural diversity in Europe, 2008 was named The European Year of Intercultural
Dialogue (EYID). On the official website of the EU it states:
‘Europe is becoming more culturally diverse. The enlargement of the European
Union, deregulation of employment laws and globalisation have increased the
multicultural character of many countries, adding to the number of languages,
religious, ethnic and cultural backgrounds found on the continent. As a result,
intercultural dialogue has an increasingly important role to play in fostering
European identity and citizenship’
http://www.interculturaldialogue2008.eu/406.0.html?&redirect_url=my-startpageeyid.html. (Retrieved on 20/05/08)
Instructional Resources:
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National Curriculum website:
http://nc.uk.net/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=6004&Subject/@id=4164 retrieved on 12
May 2008
The Crick Report (1998): http://www.qca.org.uk/qca_4851.aspx
The Ajegbo Report (2007). Diversity and Citizenship Curriculum Review:
http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/DfES_Diversity_&_Citizenship.p
df
UK National Statistics website: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273
The Challenge of Multicultural Citizenship
Banks (2008) notes “multicultural societies are faced with the problem of constructing
nation-states that reflect and incorporate the diversity of their citizens and yet have an
overarching set of shared values, ideals, and goals to which all their citizens are committed”
(p. 133). The shared values, ideals, and goals to which all citizens are committed should
include providing equal opportunity, respect, and a commitment to social justice. Put
differently, the demands placed on modern states to recognise minority group identities
and accommodate these cultural differences within the larger structure of society is what
Kymilka (1995) refers to as the “challenge of ‘multiculturalism”. Recent census figures show
that the United Kingdom is a multicultural society with a growing number of ethnic minority
populations1 representing 7.9% of the entire UK population (UK National Statistics, 2001).
This phenomenon of cultural diversity is not unique to the United Kingdom, as global
migration is becoming more widespread. In order to meet the needs of students in an
increasingly diverse, pluralistic, and global society in the 21st century, schools must equip
students with the knowledge, skills and dispositions of a multicultural citizen. Multicultural
citizenship is a new conception of citizenship (Kymilka, 1995). Banks (2001; 2008) argues
that multicultural citizenship challenges the liberal assimilationist notion of citizenship,
which assumes that individuals from different groups have to relinquish their languages and
cultures in order to participate in the national civic culture. A recent report by the
Commission for Racial Equality (CRE, 2007), highlights some of the challenges with respect
to race relations in the U.K. The report noted the gains made in the reduction of overt and
explicit racism mainly due to the Race Relations Act (1976). However the CRE (2007) report
states that Britain “is still a place of inequality, exclusion and isolation. Segregationresidentially, socially and in the workplace-is growing, both political and religious, is on the
rise as people become disillusioned and disconnected from each other” (p. 1). As the CRE
Report suggests, it is clear that legislation alone is not a panacea for all of society’s malaise.
CRE report underscores the role of citizenship education in ‘promoting integration between
all ethnic groups and fostering good community relations’ (CRE, 2007, p. 15). Therefore,
through a combined effort of legislation on the one hand and citizenship education on the
other, society can live up to its ideals. The question then is-what type of citizenship
education should we teach in our schools? This paper makes the case for a multicultural
citizenship model, where citizens from diverse groups aspire toward transforming society to
better reflect the promises espoused both legally and morally. Multicultural citizenship
expands the idea of citizenship beyond the traditional civic, social and political elements
1
UK Population: 92.1% White; 1.2% Mixed; Asian (Indian 1.8%; Pakistani 1.3%; Bangladeshi 0.5%; Other
Asian 0.4%); Black or Black British (Black Caribbean 1.0%; Black African 0.8%; Black Other 0.2%); Chinese
0.4%; Other 0.4%; All Minority Ethnic Population 7.9%.
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(Marshall & Bottomore, 1992; Crick Report, 1988), by including a cultural dimension. Banks
(2008) argues “in nation-states that embrace multicultural citizenship, immigrant and
minority groups can retain important aspects of their languages and cultures while
exercising full citizenship rights” (p. 132).
Banks’ Typology of Citizenship
According to Banks (2008), the goal of this typology is “to help educators conceptualise
ways to help students acquire increasingly deeper citizenship that contains four levels” (p.
136). Although, these categories overlap and are interrelated, they nonetheless serve as a
useful instructional device for preparing students to reflect and develop a critical
consciousness about citizenship.

Legal Citizenship, the most superficial level of citizenship in the typology, applies to
citizens who are legal members of the nation-state and have certain rights and
obligations to the state but do not participate in the political system in any
meaningful ways.
 Minimal Citizenship applies to those who are legal citizens and vote in local and
national elections for conventional and mainstream candidates and issues.
 Active citizenship involves action beyond voting to actualize existing laws and
conventions. Active citizens may participate in protest demonstrations or make
public speeches regarding conventional issues and reforms. The actions of active
citizens are designed to support and maintain-but not to challenge-existing social
and political structures.
 Transformative Citizenship involves civic actions designed to actualize values and
moral principles and ideals beyond those of existing laws and conventions.
Transformative citizens take action to promote social justice even when their actions
violate, challenge, or dismantle existing laws, conventions, or structures.
(Banks, 2008)
Banks (2008) posits that “the important difference between active and transformative
citizens is that the actions taken by active citizens fall within existing laws, customs, and
conventions, whereas the actions taken by transformative citizens are designed to promote
values and moral principles-such as social justice and equality-and may violate existing
conventions and laws”(p. 137).
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Activities
Background: In a multicultural society such as the United Kingdom, inequalities often exist around group
boundaries, such as race and ethnicity, social class, gender, disability, religious beliefs, and sexual orientation.
These inequalities often result from past and current discrimination and can lead to breakdown in social
cohesion.
In the UK, measures have been put in place to eradicate discrimination and guarantee equal opportunity for
every member of society. Several anti-discrimination legislation (e.g. Race Relations Act 1976, Sex
Discrimination Act 1975, Disability Discrimination Act 1995, and Equal Pay Act 1970, are enacted to help
eradicate discrimination. More recently, the government concerned about the different pieces of legislation
dealing with equality issues, made a commitment to introduce a Single Equality Bill. The Equality Bill was
presented to the House of Commons on 26 th June 2008, to help streamline and replace a substantial body of
equality legislation aimed at offering protection from discrimination and promoting greater equality
(Framework for a Fairer Future-The Equality Bill, 2008). In the forward to the new Equality Bill, Rt. Hon.
Harriet Harman stated that “Everyone has the right to be treated fairly and to have the opportunity to fulfil
their potential, but equality is not just right in principle…Our commitment to equality is based on the belief
that equality is:
 Necessary for the individual-it is a basic right to be free from prejudice and discrimination;
 Necessary for society-an unequal society can’t be at ease with itself, an equal society gives greater
social cohesion; and
 Necessary for our economy-a modern economy thrives in a culture of equality which brings
employers the widest labour pool, which sees all participate in the labour market rather than some
being marginalised and excluded and recognises that diversity makes us outward facing and helps us
compete in a global economy” (Framework for a Fairer Future-The Equality Bill, 2008, p.5). Retrieved
on July 1 2008 from
http://www.equalities.gov.uk/publications/FRAMEWORK%20FAIRER%20FUTURE.pdf
Classroom Activity 1: Key Stage 4
Objectives: In key stage 4:
Under the first strand ‘knowledge and understanding about becoming informed citizens’, students should be
taught (b)the diversity of national, regional, religious and ethnic identities in the United Kingdom and the need
for mutual respect and understanding.
Students must have the knowledge and skills of a multicultural citizen. Other skills learned through this
activity include: Reflection, Dialogue, Critical thinking skills, Group work, Active learning.
Class Activity: Although equal opportunities policies and legislation have been enacted to address the
problems of discrimination and inequity, there is still a need to change practices, as women, disabled workers
and other marginalised groups continue to face barriers to exercising their full citizenship rights in a
multicultural society.
Participation and skills
 To participate in discussion through active listening and communicating their own views regarding the
various strands of diversity

To encourage pupils to address or confront stereotypical views and prejudices due to their individual
socializations.
Materials and preparation needed
List the equality strands on a flip chart or OHP (e.g. race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion and
beliefs, disability, age, disability) to sensitise pupils to the activity. Teacher needs to mention that equality
strands refer to different forms of diversity that are covered by specific government legislation.
Write a list of equality strands the same number of times on cut out pieces of paper; the papers are folded and
placed in a box.
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The box is passed round and each pupil picks a piece of paper. The purpose is to get pupils with similar strands
forming group according to the number of pupils in the classroom. For example, in a class of 30 pupils, the
teacher will write five strands on all 30 cut out paper so that six pupils end up in the each group.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tell the pupils that they will be asked their understanding of the meaning of various equality
strands, such as race, religion or belief, age, disability, gender or ethnicity within the context of
citizenship
Ask all students in each group to get a piece of paper and pen and be prepared to respond
individually in writing to a focus question for each strand written on the OHP. For example: what
are some of the challenges that women could face in exercising their roles and responsibilities of
citizenship in a multicultural society where different religions, ethnic, and cultural beliefs
concerning the roles of women in society exist? Should members from all ethnic groups share
common commitments and values of citizenship? If my religion or belief in pacifism requires me
to be a conscientious objector in times of war, does it make me an inactive citizen? [this process
is going on simultaneously for all groups]
The goal is to brainstorm and write their understanding of their particular strand [although the
process is teacher-facilitated, the purpose is to encourage group discussion and reflection].
Ask a volunteer in each group to collect the papers, shuffle and redistribute the statements. The
result will be each pupil reading someone else’s statement
Teacher needs to facilitate and encourage whole class discussion asking whether they agreed or
disagreed with the statements and why
Based on the discussions, the teacher should ask pupils to identify a set of rights and
responsibilities of citizenship that engender mutual respect and understanding of all members of
society
Assessment: Teacher needs to ask the following questions as part of the reflection process.
 How did this activity make you feel?
 Did you get a better understanding of citizenship?
 What are some challenges encountered in your group?
 What did you do to overcome those challenges?
 What are some barriers certain groups might face in exercising their citizenship rights?
Differentiation: while this activity will generate a lot of interest such that all pupils will be able to write short
responses to the focus questions, the teacher could challenge the more advanced students to write an essay
or debate the positions that emerge from the written responses.
See useful website resources below that a teacher could draw upon for ideas to base discussion/essay/debate
on. Activities could focus on a special commemoration day, such as international day for the elimination of
racism (21 March), or be discussed within the context of the UN millennium goal aimed at eliminating gender
disparity in primary and secondary education by 2015.
Website resources:
http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/iderd/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Elimination_of_Racial_Discrimination
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
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Whole School focus: Knowledge and understanding about becoming informed citizens:
Key Stage 3: Students should be taught “the origins and implications of the diverse national, regional, religious
and ethnic identities in the United Kingdom and the need for mutual respect and understanding”.
Key Stage 4: Students should be taught “the diversity of national, regional, religious and ethnic identities in
the United Kingdom and the need for mutual respect and understanding”.
Banks (2008) notes “multicultural societies are faced with the problem of constructing nation-states that
reflect and incorporate the diversity of their citizens and yet have an overarching set of shared values, ideals,
and goals to which all their citizens are committed” (p. 133). The shared values, ideals and goals to which all
citizens are committed should include providing equal opportunity, respect, and a commitment to social
justice.
Objective: Develop school citizenship policy that are based on overarching set of shared values, ideals, and
goals to which all pupils are committed
Procedure
 Each class should categorise its student body according to demographic characteristics, such as race
and ethnicity, gender, religion or belief, etc. this exercise is not meant to critique any of the
demographic characteristic
 List all the shared values, ideals and goals all students in each class are committed to
 Identify a representative in each class to report the findings (demographic and values, goals, and
ideals) to the school administration and present it to the school assembly
 Post the result on the school notice board and compare with other classes
 What are the differences and similarities compared to other classes?
 Are these values, ideals and goals more similar in classes that are more homogenous demographically?
 Are these values, ideals and goals less similar in classes that are more heterogonous demographically?
 How do the results (shared values, goals and ideals) compare to the school mission/vision statement?
 Based on lessons learned, make recommendations to the school to expand, modify or revise their
citizenship policy to ensure better commitment to equal opportunity, respect and social justice. Ideas
for citizenship policies can be based on recognised international charters/agreements, such as the
Universal declaration for Human Rights (see website link below)
 Finally, based on the recommendation, the school could draft and adopt the recommendation as its
official policy
Assessment: Clearly this process of developing a school wide policy will be reached by consensus and
compromise. Ask students in class during debriefing sessions to discuss aspects of the proposed school policy
they agree or disagree with and why. The teacher should use this occasion to address the importance of being
an active citizen by engaging in political dialogue and resolving difference in a mutually respectful manner.
Useful website resources:
http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/
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Activity 3: School and Community
Case Study: There are responsibilities that go along with the rights enjoyed by citizens. For instance, as part
of a global community we have a responsibility toward caring for the environment. In the recent G8 summit in
Japan, the Prime Minister of Britain, Gordon Brown called for Britons to stop wasting food in an effort to help
combat rising living costs [and by implication, world poverty].
School-community activity and Procedures: Pupils should explore setting up a school pantry where they could
put together canned foods from every culture that they will then distribute to charities located in the
community.
Objective: Pupils will raise awareness about the real dangers of poverty and develop the skills to eliminate this
problem through hands-on community initiatives by donating food to charity organisations. This activity will
involve students researching different cultural food stores in the community, either through peer dialogue,
group discussion or internet searches.
Also the school could raise awareness about the scourge of poverty and homelessness around the world and
the need for children to be more responsible. Activities could be linked to ongoing campaigns at both local
and global levels or even planned to commemorate important events. For example, October 16 was declared
the World Food Day by the United Nations to heighten public awareness of the world food problem and
strengthen solidarity to fight hunger, malnutrition and poverty (http://www.un.org/events/poverty/2006/
retrieved on July 10 2008) and will be a suitable for such activity. Related to the food problem is poverty,
which is such an important issue and countries have signed significant treaties to help eliminate it. One
example of an international effort aimed at solving this problem is the UN Millennium Development Goals,
which range from halving poverty to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS by the year 2015
(http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ retrieved on July 15 2008).
Procedure
1. Seek volunteers from school and community
2. Design flyers and post on the school notice boards to create awareness about the school and
community efforts
3. Use school recycle materials (for example, cardboard paper) to create receptacles for collecting
donated food
4. Encourage pupils to avoid discarding almost expired food that could be consumed
5. Pupils should set up receptacles at strategic points in the school
6. Parents/guardians should bring the food cans during drop off/pick up time
7. The school can organize drop off at the community distribution centre or food bank
8. Invite a staff from the charity organisation to talk to the school about the importance of this initiative
and the impact it will have on the lives of people around the world who are living in extreme poverty
Assessment: Pupils should maintain a log of the role they played in the activity. Teachers should ask questions
such as: was it a meaningful exercise, and how? What impact did the activity have on the pupils and the lives
of other children who might benefit from this effort? What are some challenges faced and what lessons can
be learned from this activity?
Web resources: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/note_5820.doc.htm
http://www.womenfightpoverty.org/
http://www.un.org/events/poverty/2006/background.html
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References:
Ajegbo, K., Kiwan, D., and Sharma,S. (2007). Curriculum Review: Diversity and Citizenship,
London:DfES.
Banks, J. A. (2001). Citizenship Education and Diversity: Implications for Teacher Education. Journal
of Teacher Education, Vol. 52(1).
Banks, J. A, & Banks, C. A. M. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education.
Second Edition. Jossey-Bass Publishers. San Francisco, CA.
Banks, J. A. (2004). Multicultural Education: Historical Development, Dimensions, and Practice. Pp.
3-29. In Banks, J. A, & Banks, C. A. M. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of Research on Multicultural
Education. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass Publishers. San Francisco, CA.
Banks, J. A. (2008). Diversity, Group Identity, and Citizenship Education in a Global Age. Educational
Researcher, Vol. 37(3), pp. 129-139.
Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of Research in Multicultural Education. Review of Educational Research.
Vol. 71(2), pp. 171-218.
Bennett, C. (2007). Comprehensive Multicultural Education: Theory and Practice. Sixth Edition.
Allyn and Bacon Publishers, Inc.
Commission for Racial Equality. (2007). A Lot Done, A Lot to Do: Our Vision of an Integrated Britain.
Belmont Press.
Kymlicka, W. (1995). Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Marshall, T. H. & Bottomore, T. (1996). Citizenship and Social Class. Pluto Classic Publishers.
McLaren, P. (1995). White Terror and Oppositional Agency: Towards a Critical Multiculturalism. In
Sleeter, C. & McLaren, P. (Eds.) (1995). Multicultural Education, Critical Pedagogy, and the Politics
of Difference. State University of New York Press, New York.
Osler, A. (2000). ‘The Crick Report: difference, equality and racial justice’. The Curriculum Journal.
Volume 11(1), pp. 25-37.
Placier, P., Eferakorho, J., Cockrell, K., &Willis, B. (2004). “Multicultural” and “Diversity” in Teacher
Education: What Difference does a Label Make? Paper Presented at the annual meeting of American
Educational Research Association (AERA), San Diego, April 2004.
Qualification and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (1998). Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of
Democracy in Schools (Crick Report), London: QCA.
Sleeter, C. (1995). An Analysis of the Critiques of Multicultural Education. In
Banks, J. & Banks, C. (Eds.). (1995). Handbook of research in multicultural education. Macmillan
Publishing, USA. New York.
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Sleeter, C. & Grant, C. (1999). Making choices for multicultural education: Five approaches to race,
class, and gender (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Wrong, D. (2001). Diversity: Catchword and Reality. The Hedgehog Review. Volume 3(1), pp. 7-23.
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