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To what extent does Achilles behave as a hero in books 1,9,22 and 24 of the Iliad?
To be a hero in ancient Greece, it was important to follow the heroic code of
excellence (‘aretē’). To follow this was to be ever in the quest for ‘Kleos’, or fame
and glory. Achilles was told by his father Peleus: ‘always to be bravest and best and
excel over others’ (Iliad,bk XI, p 185). In the Iliad, there is no significant afterlife
mentioned, so this intensifies the hero’s rush to endow life with meaning, and to be
remembered after death. As a child, Achilles was dipped in the River Styx by his
mother, Thetis, and as a result became almost immortal (except for his ankle, where
she held him); this gave Achilles the potential to be a very great hero, an aim which
would dominate his later life. Achilles had been given a choice about his destiny: to
live long, without ‘Kleos’, or to die young, but gain ‘Kleos’. Having chosen the
second option, ‘Kleos’, and heroism, become Achilles’ prime aim. Honour and glory
could be won by bravery and excellence in battle and at the time it was acknowledged
that a hero’s glory would be enhanced by the status of those he killed. For these
reasons Achilles saw the war at Troy as the opportunity to fulfil his aim, and he is
there for that reason rather than for any particular hostility to the Trojans, as he says:
‘It was not the spearsmen of Troy who caused me to come here and fight – I have no
quarrel with them.’(Iliad,bk I, p 7)
In Book I comes the first challenge to Achilles’ aspiration. A plague has been
cast by Apollo over the Greek camp, until Agamemnon gives back the daughter of
Apollo’s priest, Chryseïs, Agamemnon’s slave-girl. While the plague rages, Achilles
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fears that he may die an unheroic death in the plague. Kalchas, the Greek soothsayer,
tells Agamemnon he must return the girl to stop the plague, but first asks for Achilles’
protection, as he expects Agamemnon to be angry with his news. Achilles agrees,
which is a brave and heroic thing to do, but this also begins his quarrel with
Agamemnon. Having returned Chryseïs, Agamemnon then takes Achilles’ slave-girl,
Briseïs, instead.
‘Kleos’ was very much dependent on material possessions, which were
awarded for skill and bravery in battle (‘geras’, gift of honour). Achilles thinks that
by removing his ‘geras’, given to him by his troops, Agamemnon has violated an
important code of his society. The Greek word ‘timē’ meaning ‘price’ or ‘value’, as in
something tangible, is used also to mean honour. Such honour that material prizes
could award is demonstrated in Achilles’ speech to Agamemnon: ‘Glorious…most
acquisitive of all men’ (Iliad, bk I, p 6). Losing his slave-girl, who had been awarded
to him after battle, amounted to losing his ‘Kleos’, and he therefore gets angry with
Agamemnon, and evens wonders whether to ‘draw his sharp sword from behind his
thigh’ (Iliad, bk I, p 7-8) and kill Agamemnon, before he is stopped by the goddess
Athene. Such insubordination is not compatible with the heroic ideal. When Athene
stays his hand, she tells him: ‘…leave your quarrelling and do not let your hand draw
the sword. But use your tongue to bring shame on him.’ This suggests an alternative
type of heroism: the ability for greatness in the assembly as well as in battle, a skill
which ‘godlike’ and ‘resourceful’ (Iliad book IX p 139, 140) Odysseus exploits in
Book IX.
After this Achilles decides to withdraw from the fighting altogether; this again
is not a very heroic action, as it endangers the lives of the other Greek troops. He
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shows that this is actually an integral part of his revenge on Agamemnon, for he says
‘…when many fall dying at the hands of murderous Hektor…you will tear your heart
within you in remorse, that you showed no honour to the best of the Achaians.’ (The
Iliad, bk I, p 9) Also, he cannot strive for ‘Kleos’ if he doesn’t fight, and kill.
However, from Achilles’ point of view, Agamemnon’s actions have endangered his
chance of gaining ‘Kleos’ permanently; if his glory can be taken away as easily as
Agamemnon has been able to snatch it from him, how can he know this will not
simply happen again? And what would be the point in fighting if ‘Kleos’ can be taken
away? Achilles, therefore, decides to abandon the fighting as he is rewarded with
nothing, as he later explains in Book IX ‘…now…there is no thanks if a man fights
the enemy relentlessly on and on’ (Iliad, bk IX, p 141) and shows himself to be very
bitter at Agamemnon for the injustice that he has received: ‘Coward and hero are
honoured alike.’ (Iliad, bk IX, p 141). Also he demonstrates self-pity: ‘I am the only
Achaian he has robbed’ (Iliad, bk IX, p 141), which is not a very heroic attitude.
However, to some extent his behaviour is understandable, as the heroic equation,
normally a risk of death against certain honour, has changed to a certainty of a young
death and, although he has been promised glory as a result of his decision,
Agamemnon’s act has shaken his trust that honour will really be his. Since he knows
already that he is going to die young, the removal of his ‘geras’ shows him that he is
in a very precarious position, and that it is hardly worth risking his death, if there is no
longer a guarantee that he will receive, and get to keep, his deserved glory for
fighting.
After telling Agamemnon he is withdrawing from the fighting,
Achilles goes to see his mother, the sea nymph, Thetis. He asks her to go to Zeus
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himself, to get him to give the Trojans the upper hand, so they can drive the Achaians
back to the sea and ‘even…Agamemnon, may come to recognise his folly’ (Iliad, bk I,
p 13). This action shows Achilles not behaving in the manner of a hero, as this is a
positive input into damaging the Greeks, even though his argument is with
Agamemnon, not the ordinary Greeks. However, all heroes require divine support, for
example Hektor and Apollo and Achilles is often called ‘loved of Zeus’, so from this
aspect Thetis’ intervention is a necessary part of Achilles’ heroism.
By withdrawing from the fighting in Book I of the Iliad, and thus putting his
comrades at risk, Achilles displays selfish, egotistical, and ruthless characteristics.
However unpleasant, these are necessary qualities for ancient Greek heroes. Hektor in
the Iliad seems not to exhibit these characteristics and, although these may make him
a nicer person, he is killed by Achilles, and so does not gain the ultimate glory of
killing his heroic rival.
By Book IX Achilles is sulking in his tent, refusing to fight. He is addressed
by three of his companions: Phoenix, his old tutor, Odysseus, and Ajax. He firstly
replies that he will not consider returning to the fighting, but will leave for Greece the
next morning. His position changes after each speech, until he finally says that ‘I will
not think of bloody warfare until… godlike Hektor…has killed…right up to the
Myrmidon’s huts and ships’ (Iliad, bk IX, p 148). This statement confirms that he is
happy to let other Greeks die in his absence from the fighting, although some loyalty
to the other Greeks remains. However, he shows his stubbornness by refusing the gifts
which Agamemnon has sent to him (‘…and rejects both you and your gifts.’ Iliad, bk
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IX, p 149). The gifts mean nothing to Achilles, because at that time he is dissatisfied
with the heroic code, and therefore these material possessions mean less to him.
Achilles shows himself to be a powerful speaker in this section, and while this
may not seem to be an archetypical heroic action, following on from Athene’s
suggestion and the need for heroes to be articulate, it proves quite impressive, for
example: ‘Like a bird that brings back to her unfledged chicks every morsel she can
find, and has to go without herself, so it has been with me.’
(Iliad, bk IX, p 141). Another aspect of Greek society was the importance
placed on a heroic background and well-bred family. This interest is displayed
throughout the Iliad by the patronymics, eg. ‘Son of Peleus’, and the importance is
also emphasised by a speech in the embassy to Achilles, using his father as an
example to try and persuade Achilles to return to the fighting. Phoenix, his old tutor,
mentions Achilles’ father, and other heroes back through history, whom Achilles
should try to emulate.
In the end, Achilles does not return to the fighting until his best friend,
Patroklus, is killed by Hektor, and he seeks to kill Hektor in revenge (‘...you will make
me lump payment for the pain of my companions’ deaths’ Iliad bk XXII, p358). At
this point he returns only for revenge, which is a selfish reason, for he is so angry that
‘Kleos’ means less to him than revenge. Even so, killing an opponent of such status as
Hektor raises Achilles’ standing as a hero, providing the victor with much ‘Kleos’.
Achilles kills Hektor in Book XXII. Hektor is tricked into fighting by Athene,
who, pretending to be his brother, Deïphobos, persuades him that they should ‘face
him together’ and she leads ‘him forward in her treachery.’(both Iliad, bk XXII,
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p357). This raises the question as to whether, under these circumstances, the fight is a
fair one, but Achilles had previously been distracted by Apollo, who appeared as the
Trojan hero Agenor, and divine support is necessary for heroism. Before they fight,
however, Hektor asks Achilles to make a bargain with him: the victor will return the
body of the defeated hero for proper burial. In ancient Greece, being properly buried
was sacrosanct, with occasional treaties between warring sides for retrieving bodies. It
was very important, especially to heroes, and was usually protected by religious
values. Achilles refuses this demand, which is not only discourteous to another hero,
to the gods and an action frowned upon by society, but also puts him at a significant
risk of losing his heroic burial, should he be the one killed. It shows that the heroic
ideal is not so important to Achilles at this time as his hatred of Hektor. However,
Achilles is also unnecessarily rude to Hektor: ‘I wish I could eat you myself,’ (Iliad,
bk XXII, p 360) and ‘... the dogs and birds will share you for their feast and leave
nothing.’ (Iliad, bk XXII, 360) which demonstrates his anger and reveals he has no
respect for another hero. Having killed him, Achilles puts ‘...glorious Hektor to
shameful treatment.’ (Iliad, bk XXII, p 361) by piercing his feet, threading ox-hide
straps through them, and dragging the dead hero behind his chariot, so that
‘…Hektor’s head was all sullied in the dust.’ (Iliad, bk XXII, p 361). The gods
disapprove of this behaviour, which is by no means in accordance with the heroic
code.
At the beginning of book XXIV, the gods are preserving Hektor’s body. They
are seriously displeased by the actions of Achilles, for they are taking such pains to
try to undo them. Achilles is still angry, as he shows by dragging Hektor behind his
chariot around Patroklus’ tomb every day. Apollo says that this treatment is unheroic,
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as it: ‘…does nothing to his honour or his good’. (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 389). The
importance of Achilles as a hero, however, is shown by the outrage he causes among
the gods, sparking an argument between Hera and Apollo (she calls him: ‘…you
coward-lover, you were always a traitor!’ Iliad, bk XXIV, p 389), and even involving
Zeus (‘… my own anger is the greatest among all the immortals’ Iliad, bk XXIV, p
391). Iris is sent to instruct Thetis to go to Zeus, and at this meeting he suggests that
she should tell Achilles of the gods’ anger, and that Iris should send Priam to
Achilles, to bargain for the return of Hektor’s body. He says that Priam should go:
‘…bringing gifts to Achilles which will soften his heart.’. (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 391).
This shows that Achilles will be appeased on a hero’s terms, as Zeus says, ‘…here is
a means of glory I can grant to Achilles.’( Iliad, bk XXIV, p 390), with material gifts
to convince Achilles that he will keep his honour. His heroic status will be reinforced
by gifts from the Trojan king himself, Priam.
Priam goes to Achilles’ camp, accompanied until he arrives by Hermes. Priam
asks Achilles to remember his own father, and to feel pity for him, who has lost his
favourite son: ‘I am more pitiable than he…I have brought to my lips the hands of the
man who killed my child.’ (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 400). This speech rouses in Achilles:
‘…the desire to weep for his father.’ (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 400), proving that he can
pity, and honour his enemy, as ‘the two of them began to weep in remembrance.’
(Iliad, bk XXIV, p 401). Achilles remembers his father, and how ‘he surpassed all
other men in wealth and substance,’ (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 401). However, he adds that:
‘even on him god brought evil’ (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 401), proving that after the death of
Patroklus he has realised material possessions do not ensure happiness with glory. He
goes on to emphasise this point when Priam offers him: ‘this great ransom we bring
you’ (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 402) and Achilles scowls and replies: ‘Do not provoke me
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more, old man. It is already my own mind to release Hektor to you’ (Iliad, bk XXIV,
p 402). He continues that Priam should stop provoking him, or he might kill him
‘…and so offend against Zeus’ command’. (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 402); at this point
Achilles is again god-fearing, as a hero should be, in contrast to his earlier offence in
his treatment of Hektor. Achilles’ serving women anoint the body of Hektor with oil,
again an action in contrast with the earlier defilement of the body, and even ‘Achilles
himself lifted it (the body) and placed it on a bier,’ (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 402).
Achilles has now returned to the position of a hero. He explains to the dead
Patroklus that he should not be angry with the release of the body, ‘as it was no
unworthy ransom he gave me’ (Iliad, bk XXIV, p 403). Even if the material
possessions no longer mean as much to Achilles himself, it is still important to him to
have them for ‘Kleos’; and having been given this ransom, his honour, taken away
from him in Book I, has been regained. That night ‘the beautiful Briseïs lay beside
him’; she the girl who personifies Achilles’ loss, and subsequent regain, of his
honour, and the near rejection, and then reacceptance, of the heroic ideals. In a final
act of grace, Achilles promises that he: ‘…will hold back the fighting for the time that
you ask’, in order that Hektor might have a proper funeral.
To be acknowledged as a hero, Achilles had to win honour and glory in battle.
In book I, IX, and XXIV, Achilles is not in battle, and so cannot be acting as an
ancient Greek hero should. His anger and pride hold him back from following the
heroic ideal in books I and XXIV, but in book XXIV he acts as a different kind of
hero from that which he is on the battlefield. He displays qualities such as forgiveness
and grace, in contrast to the characteristics he has previously displayed, such as
arrogance and anger. He acts as a ‘traditional’ hero in book XXII, where he wins
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glory by killing the best of the Trojans, Hektor. By doing this he proves himself to be
the greatest of all the heroes at Troy, but ironically at the time this means little to him,
as he seeks only for revenge for the death of Patroklus. However, by the end of the
Iliad, Achilles is no longer angry, and no longer wants revenge. At this point he has
reclaimed Briseïs, his ‘geras’, or the symbol of his glory, and a ransom from Priam.
As the Iliad ends, therefore, Achilles has achieved the material markers of heroism
and ‘timē’, has overcome his rival, and has overall gained more ‘Kleos’, more honour,
glory and fame than any other hero, for his goal to be remembered after his death has
succeeded in the writing, and reading hundreds of years later, of the Iliad.
References:
The Iliad; translated by Martin Hammond
Homer; Martin Thorpe