Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment
1. Why was this movement started and what made it different?
· To answer this question we examine three major points,
1. Unlike the major thinkers of the medieval, Renaissance and Reformation, the
Enlightenment rejected the notion that past knowledge was the most reliable source of
wisdom. In the words of the freethinking Immanuel Kant the slogan of the
Enlightenment was, ‘dare to know’.
2. The Enlightenment stressed that all knowledge was useless unless it could be put to
use. This is a clear rejection of religious philosophy of the age, which promoted abstract
wisdom as a means of escaping the corruption of the physical world.
3. The universe was a much less mystical place than previously thought. The notion
that the whole universe could be broken down to a serious of laws replaced the notion
that bizarre and occult forces controlled the universe.
2. What are the basic principles of the Enlightenment?
a. The entire universe is fully intelligible and governed by natural rather than
supernatural forces.
b. Rigorous application of Scientific Method can answer fundamental
questions in all areas of inquiry.
c. The Human race can be educated to achieve nearly infinite
improvement.[1]
3. Who are some of the major figures in the Scientific Revolution?
a. Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) English scientist who in his work Novum
Organum (New Instrument) promoted studying the world through
empirical knowledge (knowledge gained only through the senses). Bacon
is considered the father of the English scientific revolution.
b. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) is the French equivalent of Bacon. They both
agree that all past knowledge should be discarded and an ideas worth
should be judged on how useful it is. Descartes is responsible for several
major ideas including the concepts of dualism. Dualism states that god
made two kinds of reality-matter and mind. According to Descartes’ mind
was mans property and all else was matter, he used this believe to arrive at
his famous slogan, ‘I think, therefore I am’.
c. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) - Newton is often considered the greatest
scientific mind ever. Newton Law of Gravity that was explored in his
work Principia Mathematica (1687) is one of the most groundbreaking and
original studies ever done. Newton influence outside of science was
equally dramatic his work shattered the notion of an earth centered
universe. Newton was also the hero to the famous American politician
and philosopher Thomas Jefferson.
4. Is the Enlightenment a movement against god and the church?
a. Mostly No. The majority of philosophers in the Enlightenment considered
themselves followers of Deism. Deists believe that God after creating an
utterly flawless universe no longer cared about the world he created. In
the language of the era god was a, ‘divine clockmaker’.
5. Who were the major philosophers of the Enlightenment?
a. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Hobbes actually died a few decades before
the Enlightenment the major event of his life was the English Revolution
which deeply shaped his political vision. In Leviathan, (1651) Hobbes
argues that man is in a constant state of conflict that life is ‘nasty, brutish,
and short’ and since all people were self-serving at their core, a strong
government was needed to control them. Leviathan is considered one of
the most important political treaties ever written not because of its
popularity but because of the desire that most Enlightenment figures had
in opposing him. In this regard, he is a father figure to the Enlightenment
philosophers who are constantly rebelling against him.
b. John Locke (1632-1704) Locke rejected Hobbes ideas and most of his
political works exist solely as rejections of Hobbes works. Locke
promoted that laws of nature should only govern humanity and that men
had the right to life, liberty, and property. He deeply opposed absolute
rule and promoted a government that respected the rights of the
individual.
c. Voltaire (1694-1778) This French philosopher combined the best from
both English and French traditions. Voltaire is responsible for the modern
notion of civil liberty by stating that, “I do not agree with a word you say,
but I will defend to the death your right to sat it”. Voltaire rejected the
absolute power of the French King and promoted a government that more
(but not fully) represented the people such as the English system.
d. Montesquieu (1689-1755) In his the Spirit of Laws, he promoted a
government of check and balances with no single group or individual
having sole power. This concept was tremendously important to the
founding fathers of the American government.
e. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Diderot is best known for his invention of the
Encyclopedia which served to compile all knowledge and present it to the
reading public. While only read by the literate liberal top of society, this
publishing concept had a tremendous impact on Europe.
f. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Rousseau was on the fringes of the
Enlightenment but his concept of the ‘general will’ is one of the most
important of the era. Rousseau stated that the government should always
act in the best interest of the majority of society forcing individuals to
submit to the state in the best interest if society. Ruling by the ‘General
Will’ was been an excuse for terror and dictatorship from the Reign of
Terror in the French Revolution to the Fascist government of Nazi
Germany.
g. Adam Smith (1723-1790) Smith dealt primarily with economic issues. He
despised government interference in business and promoted this concept
known as ‘laissez-faire’ in his landmark work The Wealth of
Nations (1776). Smith thought he was trying to help the poor with his
theories but instead the era of capitalism that he introduced has enslaved
and injured the poor more than any other human invention.
h. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Kant is always considered one the greatest
philosophers of all recorded human history. His work often defies
category. He dealt mainly with ethical and philosophical
issues. The categorical imperative, which states that people should always
act as if their actions were to become a universal law of nature, is one of
his most famous concepts.
6. Did anyone but a tiny few rich, royal, or academics ever know or care about this
movement?
a. No. In their lifetimes most Enlightenment thinkers thought that their ideas
and discussions were far ‘over the heads’ of most people. This movement
is important because of the impact that it had on latter events; namely the
American and French Revolutions.
Scientific Revolution- Main Themes:
1. The Renaissance and Reformation paved the way for the new science and philosophy
of the 17c and 18c.
2. The transition from the Middle Ages to early modern times represented a shift in
emphasis from authoritative truth to factual truth.
I. The Scientific Revolution:
A. Basic questions were asked: Who am I? What is my purpose in life? How can
science and natural laws be applied to society? What is the nature of the good
society?
B. Rene Descartes --> deductive method; systematic doubting (I think, therefore I
am.) --> Cartesian dualism
C. Sir Francis Bacon --> inductive reasoning.
D. Changing views of the universe:
-- classical and medieval view --> geocentric theory (Ptolemaic view).
-- Copernicus --> heliocentric theory.
-- Kepler --> Laws of Planetary Motion (elliptical orbits).
-- Galileo --> perfected the telescope; analyzed the nature of motion.
-- Newton --> Law of Universal Gravity; the universe is seen as one great
"machine" operating according to unalterable universal laws and principles.
II. Affects of the Scientific Revolution:
A. Philosophical --> 17c was a period of intellectual transition (weariness with
religious strife).
-- Blaise Pascal --> reason will bring one to faith and a dependence upon
divine grace.
-- Spinoza --> mind and matter are extensions of the infinite substance of God.
-- Deism --> God is seen as the "first cause" in the universe; but the world
operates without God's constant intervention.
B. Literature --> Milton (Paradise Lost); John Bunyon (Pilgrim's Progress).
C. Other scientific discoveries --> chemistry (Boyle), botany, anatomy (Harvey),
physiology.
Enlightenment- Main Themes:
1. The Enlightenment had its origins in the scientific and intellectual revolutions of the
17c.
2. Enlightenment thinkers felt that change and reason were both possible and desirable
for the sake of human liberty.
3. Enlightenment philosophes provided a major source of ideas that could be used to
undermine existing social and political structures.
I. The Major Themes of the Era:
A. rationalism --> logical reasoning based on facts.
B. cosmology --> new world view based on Newtonian physics --> analysis of
natural phenomena as systems.
C. secularism --> application of scientific theories to religion and society.
D. scientific method --> experimentation; observation; hypothesis.
E. utilitarianism (Bentham) --> laws created for the common good and not for
special interests. The greatest good for the greatest number.
F. optimism & self-confidence --> anything is possible (a reversal of medieval
thinking).
G. tolerance --> a greater acceptance of different societies and cultures.
H. freedom --> a mind as well as a society free to think, free from prejudice.
I. mass education.
J. legal / penal reforms --> Beccaria, Bentham.
K. constitutionalism.
L. cosmopolitanism.
II. The Philosophes:
A. Not really philosophers, but men who sought to apply reason and common sense
to nearly all the major institutions and mores of the day.
B. They attacked Christianity for its rejection of science, otherworldliness, and
belief in man's depravity Deism).
C. Their major sources:
LOCKE --> man's nature is changeable and can be improved by his
environment.
NEWTON --> empirical experience and the rationality of the natural world.
BRITAIN --> exemplified a society in which enlightened reason served the
common good.
D. France became the center for Enlightenment since its decadent absolutism and
political and religious censorship seemed to prove the need for reform.
E. Paris salons.
F. Diderot's Encyclopedie.
G. physiocrats:
FRANCOIS QUESNAY --> land is the only source of wealth, and
agriculture increases that wealth; therefore, the mercantilists were wrong to put so much
importance on the accumulation of money.
ADAM SMITH --> Wealth of Nations --> he challenged mercantilist
doctrine as selfish and unnatural; the interdependence among nations;”Father of Modern
Capitalism".
H. Montesquieu --> The Spirit of the Laws
-- admired the British government.
-- separation of powers in the government.
-- checks and balances.
I. Rousseau --> The Social Contract
-- "Father of Romanticism".
-- he differed from the other philosophes, esp. Locke:
-- law is the expression of the "General Will."
-- rejected science and reason; go with your feelings (inner conscience).
-- "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains!"
J. Voltaire -- Candide
-- champion of individual rights.
-- "I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your
right to say it!"
-- leading advocate of Enlightened Despotism.
III. Enlightened Despotism:
A. Prussia:
-- Frederick I (1714-1740) -- the "Sergeant" King.
-- Frederick II (1740-1786)
B. Habsburg Austria:
-- Maria Theresa (1740-1780) --> Pragmatic Sanctions.
-- Joseph II (1765-1790) --> considered to be the only true "enlightened"
despot.
C. Russia:
-- Peter the Great (1682-1725) --> Westernization ("Windows to the West").
-- Catherine the Great (1762-1796) --> rigorous foreign policy; partitions of
Poland.
IV. Results of Enlightenment Thought:
A. contributing factor in the American and French Revolutions.
B. Enlightenment thinking reflected in the U. S. Declaration of Independence.
C. Enlightened Despots.
D. European thought became centered on the belief in reason, science, individual
rights, and the progress of civilization.
E. New evangelical religious movements --> Pietists, Methodists.