CROSS COUNTRY COMPARISON OF RELIGIOUS VALUES AND
INCOME: IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
Constance S. Bates, Florida International University, Miami, FL bates@business.fiu.edu
ABSTRACT
Fundamental differences exist between high and low income countries. Among these are cultural values. The
World Values Survey and the European Values Survey show an important difference in the view toward religion.
Generally, low income countries value religion more than high income countries. This article reviews survey results to
show specific differences regarding view toward religion. The resulting implications for managers are discussed,
focusing on high income managers going to low income countries and vice versa.
INTRODUCTION
As international business activities expand around the globe, managers are faced with the challenge of adapting to
new environments. One of the more subtle but challenging situations is how to manage in a country with a very
different view toward religion. This article uses the World Values Survey and the European Values Survey to show
how high and low income countries differ regarding view towards religion. Six questions from the surveys are explored
to further understand the view towards religion of these two groups.
With this knowledge, managers can expect to have to modify their managerial practices when going from one
income group to another. Managers from high income countries can expect to encounter a greater presence of religion
at work than they are used to. They will also find that there is a greater reliance on the unknown and God to plan and
solve problems. Managers from low income countries will be surprised to see an almost total lack of references to
religion in the high income countries’ business offices. This article explores what differences the managers will find
and suggestions for adapting their styles to be effective in a new work environment.
LITERATURE SEARCH
There have been many attempts to evaluate the relationship between religion and income. One hundred years
ago, Max Weber (Uppal) wrote that the Protestant Reformation produced a fundamental change in the way people think,
paving the way for the Industrial Revolution. In other words, the change in religious values led directly to a large
change in productivity.
Since then, research has been conducted in the economic, sociological, psychological, and finance literature
relating religion and income. Many studies examine income and different religious groups in single countries. In the
United States, examples are Smith, Steen, Lipford, Heath, and Meng. Elsewhere, Kim looked at South Korea, Brown
looked at South Asia, Lam looked at China, and Woodrum looked at Japanese-Americans. Cross-country studies have
been conducted; Guiso, Sapienza, and Zingales compared intensity of religion with economic attitudes, such as
cooperation, government, working women, legal rules, thriftiness, and the market economy. The study also
distinguished between religious denominations. Alon studied income and different levels of religious freedom. In spite
of all these studies, none has focused simply on religious values and income across countries. This study’s place in the
body of research is to focus solely on the differences in means of stated religious values between high- and low-income
respondents across many countries.
SURVEY AND DATA
The income information for the countries was taken from The International Monetary Fund, World Economic
Outlook Database, September 2005. It was gross domestic product (nominal) per capita for the year 2000. The source
for the classification systems for low income, lower middle, upper middle, and high income was from the World
Development Indicators database, July 2005, World Bank. The classification system was chosen for the year 2000, to
match with the year of the income data and the values data for the majority of the countries.
The World Values Survey and European Values Study are large surveys conducted by over 80 professors
around the world. These surveys covered over 85 societies in the six inhabited continents of the world. The sample size
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of each country was at least 1,000. The surveys were conducted in waves of 1990-91, 1995-96, and 1999-2001. The
data for this article were from the 1999-2001 wave, except for 12 countries. Data from 1995 were used from Australia,
Azerbaijan, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Georgia, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland, Taiwan,
and Uruguay.
The questions addressed a wide range of human values: from happiness to income to raising children to
government to environmental protection to civic engagement. Basically, there was information about cultural,
economic, and political views. The data that appears in each table were only part of the response. Most tables represent
only the percentage choosing “high” or “very important” as a response. For example, in the first table, for the question,
“indicate how important religion is in your life,” the numbers represent the percentage ranking religion as “very
important.”
Six questions were selected to review for this study. To test for differences among income groups on the
percentage in each country who answered "high" or "very important" to the 6 religion questions, one way analyses of
variance (ANOVAs) were performed. Fisher's Least Significant Difference test was used to compare low and high
income countries at p<.05 for significant ANOVAs.
Table 1. How Important is religion in
Your life? Numbers are (%) responding
Very Important
Low Income
Indonesia
Nigeria
Bangladesh
Tanzania
Pakistan
Zimbabwe
Uganda
India
Georgia
Moldova
Azerbaijan
Ukraine
Vietnam
mean =
n=
(%)
98
93
88
85
82
78
74
57
49
35
30
22
10
61.6
13
High Income
Puerto Rico
Malta
US
Singapore
Italy
Greece
Ireland
Canada
Portugal
Australia
S. Korea
Austria
New Zealand
Iceland
Belgium
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Switzerland
Finland
Taiwan
Great Britain
Slovenia
Norway
France
Sweden
Germany
Denmark
Czech Republic
Japan
mean =
n=
Table 2. How important is God in
Your life? Scale from 1-10.
(%) Important Scale 7-10
Low Income (%) High Income
Pakistan
100 Puerto Rico
Indonesia
99 Malta
Nigeria
97 US
Tanzania
96 Portugal
Bangladesh
95 Israel
Zimbabwe
95 Italy
Uganda
93 Greece
India
88 Canada
Azerbaijan
86 Ireland
Georgia
72 Singapore
Moldova
70 Austria
Ukraine
49 Iceland
Vietnam
39 Finland
mean = 83 Switzerland
n = 13 Spain
Australia
New Zealand
Luxembourg
Germany
Belgium
S. Korea
Netherlands
Slovenia
Great Brit.
Taiwan
Norway
Japan
France
Sweden
Denmark
Czech Rep.
mean =
n=
(%)
76
66
57
36
33
33
32
30
27
23
23
20
19
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
13
12
12
11
11
9
8
7
7
23.3
29
2
(%)
97
93
83
74
71
69
68
67
66
60
54
51
49
49
46
45
44
40
39
37
37
36
35
34
31
30
28
27
23
21
20
49.2
31
Table 1 shows the results of the first question: “For each of the following aspects, indicate how important it is
in your life.” There was a significant difference among income groups on the importance of religion, F(3,72) = 9.72,
p<.001. The table shows that the average ranking of Low Income respondents who rated religion as “very important”
was 61.62% which was significantly higher than the 23.34% of High income respondents who rated religion as “very
important.”
Table 2 illustrates the difference in means. There was a significant difference among income groups on the
importance of God, F(3,73) = 12.18, p<.001. When asked, Low Income respondents said God was important in their
lives; the mean was 83%. This was significantly more than the High Income countries who responded with a mean of
49.2%.
Table 3 shows similar results to another question on religion. The question asked was, “Here is a list of
qualities that children can be encouraged to learn at home. Which, if any, do you consider to be especially important?”
Income groups differed significantly on the importance of religious faith in raising children, F(3,73) = 9.98, p<.001.
The mean for how many Low Income respondents rated religious faith as especially important is 53.85%., which was
significantly more than the mean for High Income respondents (22.32%).
Table 4. Do you get comfort and
Strength from religion? (%) Yes
Table 3. Of the list of qualities that
Children can be encouraged to learn
At home, which do you consider to
Be especially important? (%) Religious
faith
Low Income (%) High Income (%)
Indonesia
93 Puerto Rico
69
Pakistan
86 Malta
56
Tanzania
75 US
52
Zimbabwe
74 Greece
39
Bangladesh
70 Ireland
38
Uganda
69 Italy
31
Nigeria
68 Canada
31
India
47 Singapore
30
Moldova
43 Israel
29
Georgia
31 Portugal
25
Azerbaijan
19 Australia
21
Ukraine
17 S. Korea
21
Vietnam
8
Switzerland
21
mean = 53.8 Austria
20
n = 13 Spain
20
Great Brit.
18
Slovenia
18
Luxembourg
17
Finland
16
New Zealand
16
Belgium
14
Germany
14
Norway
12
Iceland
11
Netherlands
9
Taiwan
9
Denmark
8
France
8
Czech Rep.
7
Japan
7
Low Income
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Nigeria
Tanzania
Pakistan
Uganda
Zimbabwe
Moldova
Azerbaijan
India
Georgia
Ukraine
Vietnam
mean =
n=
Sweden
5
mean = 22.3
n = 29
3
(%)
100
99
98
96
96
95
93
92
88
85
83
65
27
85.9
13
High Income
Malta
Puerto Rico
Portugal
US
Singapore
Greece
Ireland
Iceland
Italy
Taiwan
S. Korea
Canada
Austria
Finland
Switzerland
Spain
New Zealand
Australia
Belgium
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Netherlands
Norway
Great Brit.
Japan
France
Sweden
Denmark
Czech Rep.
mean =
n=
(%)
93
86
80
80
77
76
75
75
72
68
67
63
62
59
55
54
50
49
49
49
48
43
40
37
35
35
33
33
26
57.6
29
When asked if “you get comfort and strength from religion,” there was a significant difference among income
groups, F(3,70) = 9.91, p<.001. Table 4 shows a significant difference in means from 85.9% to 57.6% between the Low
Income countries and High Income countries.
Another question asked is “how often do you attend religious services these days? Table 5 shows the % of
respondents who attended once a month or more. There was a significant difference among income groups, F(3,74) =
3.20, p =.028. The mean for Low Income countries (54.6%) was significantly higher than for High Income countries
(32.2%). The mean for Low Income countries is twice as high as High Income countries.
Respondents were asked, “independently of whether you go to church or not, would you say you are a religious
person?” There was a significant difference among income groups on this item, F(3,74) = 4.82, p=.004. An average of
84.4% of the Low Income respondents said they were “religious persons.” This was significantly higher than the 63.7%
of the High Income respondents who said they were “religious persons.”
Table 5. How often do you attend
religious services? Once a month
or more (%)
Low Income
Nigeria
Pakistan
Uganda
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
Indonesia
Bangladesh
India
Armenia
Moldova
Georgia
Ukraine
Azerbaijan
Vietnam
mean =
n=
(%)
95
91
88
87
81
75
67
51
30
29
27
17
14
13
54.6
14
High Income
Malta
Puerto Rico
Ireland
US
Italy
Portugal
Singapore
Austria
S. Korea
Spain
Canada
Greece
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Germany
Belgium
Netherlands
Australia
Switzerland
New Zealand
Great Brit.
Taiwan
Finland
Japan
Norway
Iceland
Denmark
France
Czech Rep.
Sweden
mean =
n=
Table 6. Would you say you are a
religious person? A religious
person (%)
(%)
87
70
67
60
54
51
44
42
38
36
36
34
32
31
30
27
25
25
25
22
19
15
14
12
12
12
12
12
12
9
32.2
30
Low Income
Bangladesh
Nigeria
Tanzania
Uganda
Moldova
Pakistan
Georgia
Zimbabwe
Azerbaijan
Indonesia
India
Ukraine
Armenia
Vietnam
mean =
n=
(%)
97
97
94
94
91
91
89
89
88
84
79
75
75
38
84.4
14
High Income
Portugal
Italy
US
Puerto Rico
Greece
Austria
Denmark
Taiwan
Malta
Malta
Ireland
Iceland
Canada
Slovenia
Belgium
Finland
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Spain
Australia
Switzerland
Germany
New Zealand
Norway
France
Czech Rep.
Great Brit.
Sweden
S. Korea
Japan
mean =
n=
(%)
88
86
83
82
80
80
77
75
75
75
74
74
74
70
67
67
63
62
61
59
57
56
51
47
47
43
42
39
31
27
63.7
30
CONCLUSIONS
There were significant differences between the views of Low- and High-Income respondents regarding
religion. The difference of means showed that repeatedly, Low Income countries valued religion more than High
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Income countries. The greatest difference in means showed up in the first three questions: how important is religion,
how important is God, is religion especially important in raising children. The last three questions also showed
significant differences: do you get comfort from religion, how often do you attend religious services, and are you a
religious person. The straight-forward nature of these questions and the large difference between the means pointed to a
meaningful difference in views. It is expected that these differences will be reflected in managerial behavior.
Table 7. Summary of Results and Difference of Means
Lower Income
Lower Middle
Upper Middle
Mean (%)
Mean (%)
Mean (%)
Table 1
61.6
54.3
39.5
Table 2
83.0
80.9
67.0
Table 3
53.8
49.2
36.1
Table 4
85.9
80.9
70.9
Table 5
54.6
41.9
45.3
Table 6
84.4
73.0
73.8
High Income
Mean (%)
23.3
49.2
22.3
57.6
32.2
63.7
Low - High
Mean Diff
38.3
33.8
31.5
28.5
22.4
20.7
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
Given that religion plays a larger role in low income countries, one can expect it to have a greater impact at
work in those countries. It shows up in the office in at least four forms: concrete, communication, thinking, and
managerial differences. Each area presents challenges to a manager coming from a different income group.
FROM HIGH TO LOW INCOME COUNTRIES
Concrete Differences
A more religious country will have more religious holidays. The United States (US) has only 7 nationally
observed holidays, the least in the world, and only 2 are religious: Easter and Christmas. Managers coming from the
US may be resentful of the high number of days off due to religious holidays. If they express impatience, local
subordinates may assume the manager resents their religion.
A more religious country will have more pictures, statues, and symbols based on the religion. This may mean
that the work place becomes home to religious artifacts. People may wear clothes or jewelry that identifies their
religious identity. They may place religious items in certain places, like cars and trucks, to protect them. There may be
more religious ceremonies that are expected to be performed at work. For example, in many countries it is common to
have cleansing ceremonies when a new business is opened, a new building is built, or a major modification in facilities
is made. Other ceremonies may involve blessing animals at meat-processing plants, purifying food, and acknowledging
a particular religious entity.
A more religious country often have more rules about proper behavior. There are religious proscriptions
against eating certain foods. Food may have to be certified by a religious person. Muslims and Jews don’t eat pork,
Hindu’s don’t eat beef or use cowhide. This will impact food manufacturing and retailing, as well as the handling and
use of cowhide in products. Islamic countries prohibit the use of alcohol. Islamic countries also have gender rules
about clothing, proper behavior in public, and suitable jobs.
The high income manager needs to allow the local practices to be performed within the firm. The key is to
follow local, business customs. The task for a foreign manager, then, is to determine what the local customs are. It
might seem to a high income manager that there are excessive references to religion and he/she may be uncomfortable
with this. However, subordinates could react negatively if they sense the foreign boss does not like their religion. The
best course of action is to operate as close to local firms regarding religious practices at work.
Communication
More religious countries make more public acknowledgments of God. For example, in Islamic countries it is
common to add, “in shallah,” at the end of sentences. This means “God willing.” It is a way of showing respect for a
religious entity in every day speech. People in a more religious country may engage in more religious activities outside
of work and request time off from work.
There may be religious gestures that are commonly used in public, like the Christian gesture of outlining the
cross. People may regularly touch a doorway, or nod or kneel by a stature or picture to show respect. They may make
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small offerings of rice or a flower to niches devoted to departed family members or religious entities. People may feel
they need to publicly express their religious devotion in order to be accepted or ward off evil.
This brings up an important issue: while a foreign manager is expected to allow religious practices at work,
he/she must not adopt the religious practices. This would be viewed as insincere, even immoral. No one expects the
manager to change his/her religion. Locals would not have confidence in someone who abandons his/her religion just
because the job sends them to another country. So a foreign manager, allows religious practices, but doesn’t take part.
The appropriate course of action is to allow customary religious practices, treat them respectfully, but not adopt them.
Thinking Differences
People in more religious countries ascribe more to God. Their thinking is: God has a plan, God is in charge,
God is a mystery. A devoted person recognizes his/her powerlessness and accepts the unknown. It is a sign of wisdom
and maturity to accept what one cannot understand or control. High income managers would call it fatalism.
Managers from less religious countries will find this thinking to be unusual. They are used to a more selfdeterministic view of the universe, based on scientific method. They believe there are laws that govern the universe. If
one can understand those laws, one can control the situation. A belief in cause and effect means if one influences the
cause, one can change the effect. For example, if Californians dam up a river and divert the water to their desert-like
valleys, they can increase agricultural production.
Managerial Differences
Since God has a plan and He is in charge, why make a business plan? The thinking is, ‘God will reveal his
plan to us as He is ready.’ Less religious managers are more likely to think ‘God created an ordered universe so I can
understand it and use it to be productive.’ Hence, amount of time spent on planning and reliance on planning will be
different.
Goal setting is another area of difference. Why set goals if you don’t know the plan and God is in charge?
Conversely, less religious managers believe that goal-setting focuses efforts and motivates people, thus increasing
productivity.
Problem solving is another realm of disagreement. Fatalists don’t believe they can understand or control their
situation. Self-determinists believe they can control a number of things, and influence a lot of other things. So a search
for solutions in a more religious country may mean looking to the past, praying to God, or doing nothing (waiting for a
solution to appear). Self-deterministic managers believe answers exist and they can discover them. Their efforts to
gather information and try new approaches reflect this belief. They will be frustrated in a low income country, having to
wait for answers or guidance from God.
In a more religious country, gracefully accepting what one cannot control is viewed as mature behavior. In a
less religious country, there may be a persistent quest to solve the mysteries of the universe and discover the ideal. High
income managers in Germany, for example, are known for trying to determine the best design, best process, best
technique, and so on. As a result, more religious managers may seem passive and less religious managers may seem
aggressive in managing the firm.
In sum, less religious managers will be expected to allow more religious ceremonies, pictures, and time off.
The will get used to more religious references in communication and gestures. They will learn to understand the
thinking of more religious people and accept that they view planning and goal-setting as a waste of time. The less
religious managers may struggle to find a rationale to get more religious workers to plan, set goals, and problem solve.
They may have to resort to a reward system to accomplish this as it is very difficult to change the way someone thinks.
This will continue to be a challenge to less religious managers.
FROM LOW TO HIGH INCOME COUNTRIES
Concrete Differences
There are few references to religion in high income country offices. There will be fewer religious holidays,
and probably no religious pictures, statues, or symbols. One may occasionally see personal identifiers, like crosses or
stars on necklaces, but one will seldom see religious representations in offices, unless they have general, historical
significance.
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Also, there will be fewer religious ceremonies; the high income manager will probably never be asked to
facilitate a religious ceremony at work. There will seldom be religious-proscribed clothing, as in Islamic countries.
There will be fewer religious-based rules regarding diet, animals, alcohol, gender, or other customs and daily habits.
This will make the more religious managers feel uneasy. They will wonder why there is no religious presence
at work. They will have to adopt this lack of reference to religion in order to be effective. The less religious societies
consciously separate religion from government and work. They are proud of this accomplishment. Often, it is done
because there are multiple religious groups in the society. In this case the separation is done to keep one religious group
from intimidating another. Another reason is that secular societies often feel that religion is emotionally based and
should be suborned by the mental work done in government and businesses.
The more religious manager will have to also avoid religious references to be effective. They may be viewed
negatively and not taken seriously for making references to God. They will be admired for their intellectual prowess,
their effective actions, not their religious devotion.
Communication Differences
As above, there are seldom communications referencing religion in the less religious firms. It is not
‘politically correct’ to refer to religion. There is no “in shallah” or paying respect to God or departed spirits.
Expression of religious views is an unacceptable topic of conversation. In less religious societies, religion is private, not
public.
Since there are often multiple religions present in the office, it might be offensive to refer to one’s religion. A
subordinate might feel if the boss keeps talking about his religion, ‘maybe he/she doesn’t like mine, maybe I won’t get a
promotion.’ If the judge makes open displays of religious beliefs different from the defendant, he/she may worry about
getting a fair trial. Therefore in institutions and offices in the less religious countries, one keeps one’s religion to
oneself.
In a high income country, one will not hear pleas at work to departed spirits or God to influence life on earth.
Communication is, instead, about problem-solving, gathering information, planning, and getting the job of the firm
done. Less religious managers believe they can understand and control many things, and value exchanging information
to gain that understanding. The more religious manager should not make religious references at work in a less religious
country.
Thinking differences
Less religious managers believe they can understand the laws of the universe. They believe they can know the
unknown. They are empowered. Their approach to life is to gain knowledge and use it to take action to determine the
nature of their life. More religious managers may find this arrogant and irreligious. They believe that the universe is
the mind of God, it is a mystery, unknowable. As such, one is always guessing, hoping, praying for the best, but not at
all assured of what the best is or how to bring it about.
The more religious manager views the less religious manager as being in a frantic and futile search for
information to control their lives. The less religious managers will view the more religious managers as passive,
waiting to see what God wants.
Managerial Differences
More religious managers will find it difficult to engage in the amount of planning in less religious firms. Their
thinking will keep reminding them that planning is a futile exercise because God has a plan. More religious managers
will find goal setting to be confusing. How can one know the future? Guessing and goal setting may be viewed as a
waste of time, like planning.
Perhaps the greatest hurdle for more religious managers is understanding the aggressive, problem-solving
nature of the less religious work place. High income managers value action and productivity. They will not respect the
passive, let-God-reveal-his-plan approach to managing. Less religious managers take responsibility for understanding
the universe and expect to come up with a few workable models representing it. They believe they can get adequate
information about the environment, the competition, invent new technology, and advance the interests of the firm solely
by using their intellect. More religious managers think it is a waste of time gathering so much information. When God
is ready to reveal the information, He will do so.
What do more religious managers need to do in a less religious work environment? They should limit the
requests for time off for religious activities. They should expect there to be fewer religious holidays and ceremonies in
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a less religious society. They will probably want to avoid displaying or mentioning religion in the office. They may
avoid referring to God, His plan, His will, or the mysteries of God. With regard to management, the more religious
manager will be expected to be more proactive: plan, set goals, gather information, engage in problem solving. They
will be evaluated based on their business accomplishments, not their religious devotion.
FUTURE RESEARCH
It would be interesting to pursue the question of differences between low and high income countries. What
other attitudes expressed in the WVS/EVS differ from one income group to another? Is it possible to construct a profile
of the views of low income countries versus high income countries? If so, this might help managers anticipate
appropriate changes to their managerial practices when accepting a new foreign assignment.
One could start with macro variables like view toward government, politics, nationality, peace, freedom,
service to others, and health just to name a few possibilities. Variables more directly related to management could be
examined: view toward work, good human relationships, life satisfaction, economic growth, money, and technology. In
fact, there is a whole set of survey questions on work and work-related preferences that could be studied. The results
may enable one to profile each income group. This would help managers prepare for a new foreign assignment.
Apart from this database, one could pursue the question of finding effective managerial practices for different
country groups. For example, is it possible to get more religious managers to move from fatalistic views toward
planning to a deterministic view? When information is obtained about managerial practices in other countries,
managers can more adequately prepare to be effective in their new, foreign assignments.
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