Digital Word Walls and Vocabulary Learning:
The Use of iPods to Facilitate Vocabulary Instruction with ESL Students
Lucretia Fraga and Janis Harmon
The University of Texas at San Antonio
USA
lucretia.fraga@utsa.edu
janis.harmon@utsa.edu
This poster presentation aims to provide information regarding the use of mobile devices, such as iPods
as potentially effective learning tools especially for advancing the vocabulary development of English
learners. The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) investigate the understandings of ESL high school
students about using iPods for learning vocabulary; and (2) determine achievement differences in ESL
high school students’ vocabulary when exposed to two traditional vocabulary instructional frameworks
using word walls versus digital word wall instruction.
Introduction
The potential uses of mobile devices, such as iPods, for learning hold interesting possibilities for
advancing the vocabulary learning of students—in particular, English learners who face tremendous
challenges in learning new vocabulary. Today’s advances in technology have provided us with a variety of
useful tools to aid in vocabulary teaching and learning that can supplement and enrich the ways in which
students have traditionally learned vocabulary. In fact, one of the latest trends in technology that may
impact the way we teach and learn involves the use of mobile devices – this technology is expected to
become a mainstream addition to classroom practices in the immediate future (Johnson, Levine, Smith, &
Stone, 2010).
The use of mobile devices aids in learning and increases the ways in which students use these devices to
learn (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009). Mobile learning encourages and enhances the creation of learning
environments based upon current pedagogical theories, including constructivism (Wang, Shen, Novak, &
Pan, 2009) as well as socio-constructivism (Kanselaar, 2002). Mobile devices enable learners to create
their own learning “anytime, anywhere” in isolation ( Wagner & Wilson, 2005) and in social collaborative
settings (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009). The mere use of a mobile device provides access to the vast amount of
information available via the Internet. Web 2.0 is seen as a social collaborative environment enabling
learners to build their own knowledge in isolation or with others (Peters, 2007; Wishart, 2009). Through
interactions within social contexts, learners are able to interact with one another in a way that produces
more learning than if they worked alone (Sivian, 1986).
Literature Review
English Learners and Vocabulary
Students who speak a language other than English at home continue to trail native English speakers in
reading achievement (Nation’s Report Card, 2007; National Center for Education Statistics, 2010). This
gap tends to widen with each successive grade level. While the reasons point to many complex factors
such as linguistic ability, socioeconomic status, and cultural influences, (Carlo, August, & Snow, 2005),
one critical factor is word knowledge. Insufficient vocabulary for handling the demands of academic texts
hinders the reading comprehension of English learners (ELs) (August, Carlo, Dressler, & Snow, 2005:
Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996; Nagy, 1997). Studies have documented the difficulties ELs face in
reading due to lack of general vocabulary knowledge as well as limited academic vocabulary in their
second language (Fitzgerald, 1995; Garcia, 1991; Klingner & Vaughn, 2004). These difficulties persist not
only in terms of quantity but also in understanding different meanings of individual words as well as the
finer nuances of particular word meanings (Wallace, 2007). In addition, students also need to move
beyond a definitional level of word knowledge to higher cognitive processing where they are able to use
words in meaningful ways in speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Furthermore, they need to master
critical independent word learning strategies given the large number of new words that need to be learned
each year to keep up with school demands (Nagy & Anderson, 1984). For these compelling reasons,
ELLs need both direct vocabulary instruction and strategy instruction for independent word learning to
build a strong vocabulary knowledge base. Such instruction should be part of all learning environments
for ELLs—ESL classroom experiences as well as mainstream content area classroom experiences.
Mobile Devices for Learning
There is a dearth of research in the area of mobile learning (mLearning). The research in the use of
mobile devices as a learning tool is still in its beginning stages (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009). Furthermore,
some of the research that has been conducted lacks the rigor of empirically designed studies. Koszalka
and Ntloedibe-Kuswani (2010) suggested the early mLearning studies lack evidence for the positive
conclusions published and that more studies are needed to distinguish the reasons for the positive
conclusions.
Just as the use of mobile learning in education is in its early stages, the research in the use of mobile
devices as learning tools is also in the beginning stages (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009). Research in this area is
steadily moving past the definition of mobile learning toward its use in improving teacher education and K12 education. In order to strengthen this area of research in teacher education, research must also focus
on student achievement as well as preservice teacher education. Koszalka and Ntloedibe-Kuswani (2010)
pointed out that previous mLearning studies lack evidence for the positive conclusions published and that
more studies are needed to distinguish the reasons for the positive conclusions. In addition, more
empirically rigorous research is needed to create a solid foundation for the topic of mobile learning. For
that reason, it is important to continue this line of research on mobile devices for learning.
For this presentation we will discuss the use of one mobile learning device, the iPod, for assisting English
learners in developing their vocabulary. The overarching research questions guiding this study were:

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What understandings do ESL high school students have about using iPods to learn
vocabulary?
Is there a difference in achievement of ESL high school students using traditional vocabulary
instruction versus digital word wall instruction to build vocabulary?
Methods
This study compared using regular (non-digital) vocabulary instruction with using digital word wall
instruction. The population for this study was 22 high school students in grades 10, 11, and 12.
Participants included 22 English learners in three ESL classrooms in a Title I high school in South Central
Texas.
Over a six-week time frame, we collected qualitative and quantitative data from multiple sources.
Qualitative data included: 1) student pre- and post-interviews about iPods and vocabulary learning; 2)
artifacts, both traditional paper/pencil and digital, developed from the vocabulary activities; 3) reflective
journal notes from the teacher and interviewers. Quantitative data included: 1) a standardized pretest
(GRADE – Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation)(AGS Group Assessments, 2001) in
meaning vocabulary; and 2) assessment results from teacher-developed vocabulary tests.
Data collection occurred over three phrases.
Phase 1. In phase I, we administered the vocabulary portion of the GRADE (AGS Group Assessments,
2001) to establish that both comparison and intervention groups were similar. Then, we collected preinterview data to find out what the participants understood about the use of iPods for learning.
Phase 2. Phase 2 of the study involved the actual instruction for both groups. The teacher used three
different ways to teach vocabulary all of which were instructional frameworks based upon the features of
effective vocabulary instruction that include integration, repetition, and meaningful use (Nagy, 1988). The
words for all instructional frameworks were selected by the teacher from the short stories students were
reading. Regular vocabulary instruction for the comparison group involved the use of the Frayer Model
(Blachowicz & Fisher, 2006). For this model, the teacher used vocabulary cards in which students write
definitions, synonyms, drawings and sentences using the words in context. For the regular vocabulary
instruction, newly learned word meanings were reinforced by whole class review sessions. For the
interactive word wall intervention, the students were responsible for developing a word wall while teaching
their peers new words. Activities for this instruction included using colors, symbols, and situations to make
connections to the word meanings (Harmon et al., 2009). For the interactive word wall, whole class review
sessions were implemented as well. For the digital word wall intervention, students again were
responsible for teaching each other new words selected by the teacher. However, for this intervention
students developed vodcasts that utilized the same constructs used in the interactive word wall
intervention. Students first completed a storyboard containing information about their words to guide the
creation of the vodcast. The storyboard contained an easily understood definition written by the students,
a color associated with the meaning, a symbol to represent the meaning, and also a visual representation
of a situation in which the word could be used. Students either drew a visual representation or found a
picture or image online. After completing the storyboard, the students created individual scenes in
Photostory which resulted in the final digital word vodcast. The teacher then downloaded all the studentcreated vodcasts into iTunes. At the point, all the vodcasts were then downloaded into the individual iPod
Nanos creating the digital word wall for students to review the vocabulary words. Students used the iPods
in the classroom the last two days of the lesson cycle to review all the words and study for the upcoming
vocabulary test.
Phase 3. In the final phase of the study, data collection included post interviews with each participant. A
delayed vocabulary test based upon words studied in the last lesson cycle was administered two weeks
later to measure retention of word meanings.
Results
For this presentation we will report the findings for each of the research questions we posed for this study.
For the question regarding students’ understanding of iPod use for learning vocabulary, we will present
the findings based upon the four categories: purpose, perception of use, importance, and pronunciation.
We also report students’ comparisons of the digital word wall instruction with the interactive word wall
instruction. Finally, we will present the quantitative data we used for our second research question
concerning student achievement.
Discussion
While this study focused specifically on vocabulary and iPods, in the broader context one major issue is
student engagement. Engagement in reading in particular is a priority for not only native English speakers
in middle and high schools, but also for English learners. Given the challenging task facing ELLs in
gaining proficiency in a second language; it becomes even more imperative that literacy instructional
practices reflect these key elements that promote reading engagement. ELLs need and deserve
opportunities to be successful in learning, as in this study, new vocabulary—success that strengthens
self-efficacy and assists students in becoming self-directed learners.
Conclusion
Educators need to look carefully at the potential for using mobile devices to support the language and
vocabulary development of ESL students. While the number of participants in this study was small,
outcomes were only measured using a standardized instrument and the quasi-experimental design itself
constrained randomization of participants, our findings suggest that we need to think carefully and
critically about how mobile devices can be used effectively in schools to promote vocabulary learning.
Moreover, the students in this study not only liked using iPods but also saw value in these tools as aids
for learning, especially vocabulary.
Changes in technology today are exponential. The vast amount of mobile technology available even at
this point offers multiple ways of teaching and learning especially with vocabulary. iPods are only one of
these technological tools that can be used to enhance word learning.