English Teaching
Methodology Package
By Claire Chia-hsing Pan
Department of Applied Foreign Languages,
Shu-te University
Fall, 2005
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Introduction to English Teaching Methodology
Syllabus
Part I: a general picture of English teaching/learning
1. Why learning, why English, and why learning English?
2. What makes a good learner/teacher of English?
3. How to describe learning and teaching
4. Recent issues concerning English teaching and learning
Part II: Theories of language acquisition
1. Human learning
2. First Language Acquisition
3. Second Language Acquisition
4. Factors of learning success: neuro-linguistic, cognitive, linguistic,
affective, and socio-cultural considerations
Part III: Practice
1. Introduction of important terminology of TESOL
2. Development of English Teaching Methodology
3. Curriculum design
4. Teaching the four and sub-skills
5. Language testing
Reference books:(1, 2, 3 & 4 有中譯本; 1-4 a must)
1. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, Diane Larsen-Freeman,
Oxford University Press.(英語教學法大全 敦煌代理)
2. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, H. Douglas Brown, Prentice
Hall Regents.（第二與教學最高指導原則 東華代理）
3. Teaching by Principles, H. Douglas Brown, Prentice Hall Regents.（原則導
向教學法 東華代理）
4. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Jack C. Richards &
Theordore S. Rodgers, Cambridge University Press.
5. An introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Diane
Larsen-Freeman & Michael H. Long
6. The Practice of English Language Teaching, Jeremy Harmer, Longman, Ltd.
7. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.Celce-Murcia, M. H&H
8. Second Language Teaching & Learning. David Nunan. (1995). H& H.
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9. Teaching Language in Context. Alice Omaggio Hadley (2001) Hieinle &
Heinle.
10. How Languages are Learned.(1999) Patsy M. Lightbown & Nina Spada.
Oxford University Press.
Contact me just in case you have any
problems: clairep@mail.stu.edu.tw
my website:
home.kimo.com.tw/chiahsingpan
(ESL glossary) http://bogglesworld.com/glossary.htm
(Definition) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
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Part I: A general picture of English teaching/learning
1. Why learning, why learning a second/foreign language,
and why English?
2. What makes a good learner/teacher of English?
3. How to describe learning and teaching
4. Recent issues concerning English teaching and learning
1. Why learning, why learning a second/foreign language, and why
English?
1.1 (1) a behavioristic view: focus on external rewards to reinforce behaviors
(the M& M theory); motivation as the anticipation of reinforcement
(2) a cognitive view: drive theory (motivation stems from basic innate
drives); Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (from low to high levels) (Book 3 p.74)
Physiological-< safety-> love (belongingness)-> esteem (self-esteem and attention
from others)-> self-actualization (to become everything that one is capable of
becoming); human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower
needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. People are basically
trustworthy, self-protecting, and self-governing. Humans tend toward growth and love.
Humans are motivated to satisfy those deficiency needs toward growth and
self-actualization; self-control theory (focus on the importance of people deciding for
themselves what to think or feel or do-> the need for autonomy)
1.2 English as a global language: cultural imperialism or intermixing? (Book
6)
the place of English: as a lingua franca
the number of English speakers: 600-700 million speak English; in Asia alone, 100
million children are learning English.
How English got there: a colonial history, economics (globalization), travel,
information exchange (academic discourse; the Internet), popular culture (music,
movies)
Varieties of English: inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle; for specific or
general purposes
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1.3 Reasons of learning a 2nd/foreign language and what goals of it
1.3.1 Academic: to pursue degrees or certificates (* only a small portion in fact)
1.3.2 Non-academic:
(a) to survive in Target Language community e.g. talking to neighbors,
helping children at school, or carrying out daily functions effectively
(b) English for specific purpose (ESP): to learning the lg as to apply in
work
(c) Culture: to know about the target community
1.3.3 Miscellaneous: to learn for pleasure, for integrating into a culture or to be
forced to
* To understand students’ need and motivation of learning a language is crucial for
successful learning and teaching.
1.4 Goals of learning
1.4.1 Performance-oriented goals: to look smart
1.4.2 Mastery-oriented goals: to become smart
1.4.3 Short-term goals: extrinsic goals (immediate needs)
1.4.4 Long-term goals: intrinsically motivated; to get a better job, higher social
status, a more successful life
2. What makes a good learner/teacher of English?
2.1 A Good learner of English is
2.1.1 Willing to experiment
2.1.2 Willing to listen
2.1.3 Willing to ask questions
2.1.4 Willing to think about how to learn
2.1.5 Independent/responsible
Neil Naman included a tolerance of ambiguity as a feature of good learning as well as
positive task orientation (being prepared to approach tasks in a positive fashion), ego
involvement (where success is important for a students’ self-image), high aspirations,
goal orientations, and perseverance.
J.Rubin and I. Thompson also listed the following characteristics.
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2.2 good language learners are (Rubin, 1975)
2.1.1 willing and accurate guesser
2.1.2 willing to communicate
2.1.3 not inhibited
2.1.4 prepared to attend to form
2.1.5 practicing
2.1.6 monitoring their own and others’ speech
2.1.7 attending to meaning
Different cultures however value different learning behaviors. Teachers
should demand students act in class in certain ways, whatever their
learning background. Besides, learner personalities and styles also have a
place. Understanding them is virtually important to optimize learning
effect. Learners styles according to Tony Wright include the enthusiast,
the oracular, the participator, and the rebel.(Book 6, p.42). Keith Willing
described learner styles as convergers, conformists, concrete learners and
communicative learners.
2.3 nine characteristics of good ESL teachers by Harold B. Allen, 1980
2.3.1 competent preparation leading to a degree in TESL
2.3.2 a love of the English language
2.3.3 critical thinking
2.3.4 the persistent urge to upgrade oneself
2.3.5 self-subordination
2.3.6 readiness to go the extra mile
2.3.7 cultural adaptability
2.3.8 professional citizenship
2.3.9 a feeling of excitement about one’s work
*good language-teaching characteristics (Teaching by Principles, p.430) in terms of
technical knowledge, pedagogical skills, interpersonal skills, and personal qualities
2.4 A good teacher of English:
2.4.1 An ability to give interesting classes
2.4.2 Using the full range of their personality
2.4.3 The desire to empathize with students
2.4.4 Treating them all equally
2.4.5 Knowing their names
2.4.6 Giving staged and comprehensible input
2.4.7 Providing the need for variety within a secure setting
2.4.8 Responding flexibly
2.5 elements for successful language learning in classrooms: exposure, practice
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and use; elements for successful language learning in general: exposure,
motivation and opportunities for use
* a common classroom procedure: 3P (influenced by Audiolingualism) (Book 6
78-84)
Presentation: The teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the
language to be taught and then present the language.
Practice: The students then practice the language using accurate
reproduction techniques such as choral repetition, individual repetition, and
cue-response drills.
Production: The students use the new language and make sentences of their
own.
3 What is learning and what is teaching? (Book 2, p.7)
3.1
Learning is acquisition or getting,
Learning is retention of information or skill.
Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive organization.
Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or
inside the organism.
Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting.
Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced practice.
Learning is a change in behavior.
3.2 Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn,
setting the conditions for learning. Your understanding of how the learner
learns will determine your philosophy of education, your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom techniques. Your theory of teaching is your
theory of learning stood on its head.
4.Current related issues of TESOL (Refer to a CET article by Richards,
2004)
http://cet.cavesbooks.com.tw/htm/m0520111.htm
Related issues of Children English Learning
(1) Current situations of a nine-year consecutive curriculum of primary and
secondary education;
(2) Advantages children benefit from in learning a foreign language:
(a )children’s greater potential for developing accurate pronunciation,
accent and fluency before puberty
(b )children’s favorable attitude towards a language and its culture, either
their mother tongue or a second language.
(c) Children’s less mental barriers of learning than adults
(d) Children’s learning two languages simultaneously without suffering
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from inter-lingual interference
(e) Listening along with speaking, a preliminary and preferable role in the
natural order of language acquisition for children
But “learners of different ages have different characteristics” is more
preferable than the critical hypothesis. Besides, accurate pronunciation is
not the most important goal of language learning but a necessary or
desirable goal. There are also other factors that determine the effectiveness
of one’s language learning such as teacher’s language competence, the
learning environment and so on.
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Part II: Theories of language acquisition
1.Human learning
2. First Language Acquisition
3. Second Language Acquisition
4. Factors of learning success: neuro-linguistic, cognitive,
linguistic, affective, and socio-cultural considerations
1. Human Learning (Book 2, Chapter 4): (1) and (2) representing a
behavioristic viewpoint, (3) for a rational/cognitive stance, and (4) for a
constructivist school of thought
1.1 Classical Behaviorism by Pavlov: respondent conditioning that is
concerned with respondent behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus
1.2 Operant Conditioning by Skinner: operant behavior is one in which one
operates on the environment; a concern about the consequences that follow the
response; the operant is emitted by the consequence of itself.
1.3 Meaningful Learning Theory by David Ausubel: learning takes place in a
meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing
cognitive concepts
1.3.1 any learning situation can be meaningful if learners have a meaningful
learning set and the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners
1.3.2 a meaningfully learned, subsumed item has greater potential for retention
1.3.3 forgetting is a second stage of subsumption (納入整合過程) for
an economical reason through cognitive pruning （刪除） where a single
inclusive/global (廣泛全面的) concept than a large number of more
specific items is retained （記憶）
language attrition （語言削弱）to focus on the possible causes for the loss
of second language skills: the strength and conditions of initial learning;
lack of an integrative orientation; rare use of a L2
subtractive bilingualism (減弱性雙語政策): members of a minority group
learn the language of the majority group and the latter group downgrades
speakers of the minority language(see additive bilingualism)
1.3.4 strengths of the subsumption theory: the disadvantage of rote memory in
language learning; systematic forgetting; shift of the goal to communicative
competence
1.4 Humanistic Psychology mainly by Rogers: constructivism by highlighting
the social and interactive nature of learning in the affective domain
1.4.1 the whole person as a physical, cognitive, but primarily emotional being
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1.4.2 learning how to learn-> fully functioning persons
1.4.3 teachers as facilitators of learning through the establishment of
interpersonal relationships with learners and genuine trust and empathy
1.4.4 establishment of a climate of nondefensive learning
1.4.5 empowerment of students (students are allowed to negotiate learning
outcomes, to cooperate with teachers and other learners, to engage in
critical thinking, and to relate everything they do in the school to their reality
outside the classroom), not banking (filling students by making deposits of
information) (by Paolo Freire)
Behavioristic
classical: (Pavlov)
respondent conditioning
elicited response
S->R
operant: (Skinner)
governed by consequences
（由結果主宰）
emitted response (發出回應)
R-> S (reward)
Cognitive
Constructivist
(Ausubel)
(Rogers)
meaningful=powerful fully functioning
person （全功能
rote=weak
subsumption （歸入）的人）
of new items under a learn how to learn
more inclusive
community of
learners （學習者
conceptual system
association （聯結） 的共同生活）
empowerment（權
and retention
No punishment
systematic forgetting 力的賦予）
Programmed instruction (編序 （系統性的遺忘）
教學)
cognitive pruning
（認知性的刪除）
1.5 Transfer, interference, and overgeneralization
1.5.1 A more correct explication: The interaction of previously learned material
with a present learning event
1.5.2 Transfer: positive transfer and negative transfer (interference, usually L1->
L2, & overgeneralization L1-> L1 or L2 -> L2)
1.5.3 All generalizing involves transfer and all transfer involves generalizing.
Transfer is a general term describing the carryover of previous performance or
knowledge to subsequent learning. Positive transfer occurs when the prior knowledge
benefits the learning task--that is, when a previous item is correctly applied to present
subject matter. Negative transfer occurs when previous performance disrupts the
performance of a second task. The latter can be referred to as interference, in that
previously learned material interferes with subsequent material--a previous item is
incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned (Brown
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2000). Over-generalization takes place within L1 or L2 or between the two.
1.6 Inductive and deductive reasoning
1.6.1 Inductive reasoning: one stores a number of specific instances and induces
a general rule or conclusion that governs the specific instances (e.g. classroom
learning)
1.6.2 Deductive reasoning: a movement from a generalization to specific
instances
1.6.3 Gestalt learning: perception of the whole before the parts (against
structuralism)
完形」心理學認為人類對於任何視覺圖像的認知，是一種經過知覺系統組織後的
形態與輪廓，而並非所有各自獨立部份的集合。易言之，「完形」心理學的基本
理論認為：「部份之總和不等於整體，因此整體不能分割；整體是由各部份所決
定。反之，各部份也由整體所決定」。由此一觀念推論，人們在欣賞一幅圖畫或
一張攝影作品時，畫面裡的每一個部份形成了各自獨立之視覺元素，如果想讓觀
者留下深刻的視覺認知，元素與元素之間必須彼此產生某種形式之關連。人類的
認知系統，如何把原本各自獨立的局部訊息串聯整合成一個整體概念，正是「完
形」心理學派主要的研究課題。
1.8 Aptitude and intelligence
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2. L1 Acquisition
2.1 Introduction to Language Acquisition
Interests in L1 competence for many centuries
(1) beginning of analyzing child language systematically and its
psychological process in the second half of the 20th century
(2) analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition especially the differences in
the case of adult SL learning in terms of cognitive and affective contrasts
(3)three theoretical positions of first language acquisition
2.2 Theories of L1 acquisition
2.2.1 Behaviorism (Say What I Say): a psychological theory of learning claiming
lg learning is the result of imitation, practice, consistent feedback (reinforcement)
on success and habit formation (in the 1940s-50s in the U.S.)
(a) assumptions: “Behaviorism” deriving from Pavlov and Watson first
and extended by Skinner.
Children come into the world with a tabula rasa, a clean slate bearing
no preconceived notions about the world or about language as to be
shaped by their environment and slowing conditioned through
reinforcement
Effective language behavior is the production of correct responses to
stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or
conditioned.
(b) Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner (1957): an experimental behavioristic
model of linguistic behavior extended from operant conditioning as the
dominant paradigm of psychology in the U.S. from the 1920s to 1970s.
*Assumption: more emphasis on the consequences of a stimulus than
on the stimulus itself
(i) an operant (an utterance) is emitted, nor elicited, without necessarily
observable stimuli;
(ii) that operant is learned by reinforcement such as from another person.
(iii)verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences((rewards and no
punishment ) which increase the probability of a recurrence of that behavior
*Criticism: Behaviorism cannot explain creativity of child language (by Noam
Chomsky, transformational generative grammar, e.g. use of the past -tense
verbs); it tends to decrease internal motivation although there are situations
when incentives and external supports are necessary; it can’t explain how
children acquire complex grammatical structures
* Strength: it offers a reasonable way of understanding how children learn
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some of the regular ad routine aspects of lg
* tactics for teachers in the use of behavioral management: (1) direct teaching
is useful to maintain class discipline and to teach such topics as precise
mastery of grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation. (2) Behavioral
management in the classroom is useful when rewards are in demand and the
students depend on the teacher for the rewards. (3) Balancing external rewards
with intrinsic motivation meets the needs of a variety of students. (4) Careful
alignment of instructional objectives, direct teaching, and assessment is useful
for mastering a highly structured curriculum. (5) Mastery learning
supplements direct instruction by inducing students to achieve incremental,
precisely defined objectives.
2.2.2 The Nativist Approaches （語法天生說）It’s all in your mind
(a) innateness hypotheses (Innatism)
(i)Assertion: language acquisition is innately determined.
* Language is a species-specific behavior and certain modes of
perception, categorizing abilities are biologically determined so
virtually every child learns lg on a schedule which is similar in
spite of different circumstances of life (by Eric Lenneberg, 1967,
a biological view to compare learning to talk with learning to
walk at the right time)
* Language acquisition device (LAD) in a little black box (暗箱)
where children are exposed to confusing input and given no
corrective feedback; it contains all and only the principles which
are universal to all human lgs; input triggers its operation.
* “What LAD does by Anderson: sound discrimination,
organization of linguistic data, only one possibility of a certain
kind of linguistic system within one’s head, constant evaluation in
developing linguistic system to construct the simplest possible
system out of the available linguistic input (by Chomsky, 1965)
(ii) strengths: able to account for the generativity of child language, lg abilities
as human specific ones different from other aspects of cognitive development,
success of learning L1 for children by mastering the basic structure of L1 in a
variety of conditions with insufficient input and limited correction.
(b) Universal Grammar (Cook 1993, Mitchell & Myles 1998)共通語法 as
children’s innate endowment rather than LAD any longer by Chomskians
(i) all human beings are genetically equipped with a set of principles which are
common to all lgs that enable them to acquire language
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(ii) to discover what it is that all children bring to the language acquisition
process from question formation, negation, word order, subject deletion and so
on.
(iii) If children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the
ways in which their own lg makes use of these principles and the variations
(parameters) on those principles which may exist in the particular lg which
they hear spoken around them.
(c) the development of generative grammar: children construct
hypothetical grammar, formal representations of deep structures which
start as pivot grammars (two-word utterances for two word classes) and
mature
(d) the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model 平行分散處理
(Connectionism 連結論 by Feldman) : See Summary of SLA below
(i) A learner’s linguistic performance may be the consequence of many levels
of simultaneous neural interconnections rather than a serial （連續性）process
of one rule being applied, then another and so on; lg acquisition does not
require a separate module of the mind but can be explained in terms of
learning in general (refutation to the innatism); what children need to know is
essentially available in the lg they are exposed to such as a computer program
which can learn certain things if it is exposed to them often enough.
(ii) refutation of the generative rule-governed model: generative rules （衍生
語法） in a linguistic sense are not connected serially, with one connection
between each pair of neurons in the brain
(iii) connectionism describes mental processing by means of connections
among very simple processing units in complex neural networks; learning
consists of adjusting the strengths of connections by frequent patterns in the
input so that a given teaching input finally results in a desired output; no
innate endowment or mechanism specifically pre-programmed for lg learning;
so there are no “rules” in connectionist systems although they exhibit regular
or rule-like behavior.
(e) Contributions of Nativism:
(i) able to explore the unseen, observable, underlying, abstract linguistic
structures being developed in the child
(ii) systematic description of the child’s linguistic repertoire as either
rule-governed or operating out of parallel distributed processing capacities
(iii) the construction of a number of potential properties of UG
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2.2.3 the interactionism (a little help from my friends)
(a) Two emphases:
(i) seeing language as one manifestation of the cognitive and affective ability
to deal with the world, with others and with the self; lg develops as a result of
the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child
and the environment in which the child develops.
(ii) nativism as being unable to deal with the deeper levels of meaning of
language constructed from social interaction but with the forms of language
(iii) lg which is modified to suit the capability of the learner is crucial element
in the lg acquisition process e.g. child-directed speech- the lg addressed to
children and adjusted in ways that make it easier for them to understand
(iv) lg acquisition is similar to and influenced by the acquisition of other kinds
of skill and knowedge, rather than as sth independent of the child’s experience
and cognitive development.
(b) cognition and language development:
(i) Lois Bloom (1971): children learn underlying structures and not superficial
word order as shown in pivot grammar, depending on the social context
(ii) Jean Piaget (1969): what children know (cognition development) will
determine what they learn about the code for both speaking and understanding
messages (language development)
sensorimotor stage (Age 0-2) 感官動作期
preoperational stage (2-7)前運思期
operational stage (7-16)- concrete operational stage (7-11) 具體運思期;
formal operational stage (11-16 formal thinking at puberty) 形式運思期
(iii) Dan Slobin (1971): in all languages, semantic learning depends on
cognitive development and that sequences of development are determined
more by semantic complexity, than by structural complexity-> schema of
cognition on the functional level and schema of grammar on the formal level
(c) social interaction and language development
(i) Holzman (1984): a reciprocal model
-> a reciprocal system operates between the language –developing infant-child
and the competence adult language user in a socializing-teaching-nurturing
role
(ii) Berko Gleason (1988) & Lock (1991): the interaction between language
acquisition and learning of social systems
(iii)Budwig (1995) & Kuczaj (1984): the function of language in discourse
(relations between sentences) in terms of conversational cues
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*Summary of theories on language learning
Empiricism (Environmentalism)-> rationalism (mentalism/ nativism/connectionism/
/Parallel Distributed Processing)->functionalism (constructivism)
1. Empiricism /Environmentalism/behaviorism
(1) definition: Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that
only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental
activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the
acquisition of new behavior, that is, associative learning or habit
formation.
(2) Key assumptions:
(a) Human learning and animal learning are similar.
(b) The child’s mind is a tabula rasa. There is no innate pre-programming
specifically for language learning at birth.
(c) Psychological data should be limited to that which is observable.
(d) All behavior is viewed as a response to stimuli. Behavior happens in
associative chains; in fact, all learning is associative in nature.
(e) Conditioning involves the strengthening of associations between a
stimulus and a response through reinforcement.
(f) Human language is a sophisticated response system acquired through
operant conditioning.
(3) Influences: It relies only on observable behavior and describes several
universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement
techniques can be very effective--both in animals, and in treatments for
human disorders such as autism and antisocial behavior. Behaviorism
often is used by teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors.
Audiolingualism relies much on it by using controlled drills for
association of stimulus, response and reinforcement.
(4) Criticism:
(a) Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it
disregards the activities of the mind.
(b) Behaviorism does not explain some learning--such as the recognition of
new language patterns by young children--for which there is no
reinforcement mechanism. Without imitation and negative feedback,
children can still acquire a language and create it with limited input.
(c) Reserach has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new
information. For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to
changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through
reinforcements.
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2. rationalism (mentalism/ nativism/connectionism/ /Parallel Distributed
Processing)
Three rationalist perspectives of language learning (since 1960s)
2.1 Universal Grammar:
2.1.1 Definition: There is a set of basic grammatical elements or fixed abstract
principles that are common to all natural human languages, that predispose
children to organize the input in certain ways and that are a product of the
LAD.
2.1.2 Assertions:
(1) Language is a species-specific, genetically determined capacity.
(Lennenberg, 1967; McNeill 1966)
(2) Language learning is governed by biological mechanisms.
(Lennenberg, 1967; McNeill 1966)
(3) The ultimate form of any human language is a function of language
universals, a set of fixed abstract principles that are innate. (Chomsky,
1965)
(4) Each language has its own parameters whose settings are learned on
the basis of linguistic data. That is where environmental input is crucial.
(Ellis, 1985)
(5) There is a core grammar, congruent with universal principles, and a
peripheral grammar, consisting of features that are not part of universal
grammar. (Chomsky, 1965)
(6) Core grammar rules are thought to be relatively easier to acquire, in
general, than peripheral rules.
2.1.3 Critiques:
(1) All models of generative grammar have at least two flaws: confusion
of mathematical notation with linguistic form and circularity of
argumentation
(2) lack of applicability
(3) unable to explain individual differences
(4) no consensus on the accessibility of UG to SLA learners.)
2.2 Krashen’s Monitor Model: First- and Second-Language Acquisition are Similar.
2.2.1 Five central hypotheses
(1) The acquisition-learning distinction: Adults have two distinct and
independent ways of developing competence in a L2: Acquisition,
a subconscious process similar to the way children develop ability
in L1; and learning, conscious knowledge of the rules of grammar
of a L2 and their application in production
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(2) The Natural Order Hypothesis: Acquisition of grammatical
structures (primarily morphemes) follows a predictable order
when that acquisition is natural, not via formal learning.
(3) The monitor hypothesis: acquisition is the sole initiator of all L2
utterances and is responsible for fluency while learning can
function only as an editor or monitor for the output. This monitor
operates only when there is sufficient time, the focus is on form,
and the learner knows the rule being applied.
(4) The input hypothesis: We acquire more language only when we
are exposed to comprehensible input (lg that contains structures
that are a little beyond our current level of competence i+1), but
which is comprehensible through our use of context, our
knowledge of the world, and other extralinguistic cues directed to
us. Acquirers go for meaning first and then structure. Then, input
need not be deliberately planned to contain appropriate structures:
if communication is successful, there is enough of it, so i+1 is
provided automatically. At last, speaking fluency cannot be taught
directly, bur rather emerges naturally over time. Accuracy will
develop over time as the acquirer hears and understands more
input.
(5) The affective filter hypothesis: comprehensible input can have its
effect on acquisition only when affective conditions are optimal:
the acquirer is motivated, he has self-confidence, and his level of
anxiety is low. So error correction should be minimized in the
classroom.
2.2.2 Implications for classroom practice
(1) The main function of the classroom may be to provide
comprehensible input in an environment conducive to a low
affective filter.
(2) The classroom is mot useful for beginners, who cannot easily
utilize the informal environment for input.
(3) Optimal input must be comprehensible, interesting, relevant,
not grammatically sequenced, provided in sufficient quantify
to supply i+1, and delivered in an environment where
students are off the defensive.
(4) Error correction should be minimal in the classroom.
(5) Students should not be required to produce speech in L2
unless they are ready to do so.
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2.2.3 Critiques by MaLaughlin
(1) The distinction of learning/acquisition and
conscious/unconscious has been questioned.
(2) The Monitor does not work as Krashen thought and the
restrictions on the conditions under which it would be
used effectively make his conceptualization of learning
of limited usefulness in explaining a learner’s conscious
knowledge of grammar.
(3) The Natural Order Hypothesis is weak since some
things are learned before others, but not always.
(4) No clear definition of comprehensible input is given.
(5) Krashen hasn’t explained how the affective filter
develops and does not consider individual differences
among learners.
2.2.4 Influences:
(1) The distinction of learning and acquisition has at least an intuitive appeal.
(2) There is a need to provide learners with comprehensible input.
(3) Affective considerations as primary in the classroom are appealing.
2.3 Cognitive Theory: First- and Second- Language learning differ.
2.3.1 Assertions
(1) Learning results from internal mental activity. Language learning is a
type of general human learning and involves the acquisition of a
complex cognitive skill.
(2) Subskills involved in the complex task of language learning must be
practice, automatized, and integrated into organized internal
representations, or rule systems, in cognitive structure.
(3) Internal representations of language are constantly restructured as
proficiency develops.
(4) Skills are automatized (learned) only after they have first been under
controlled processing, which requires attention to the task and leads to
automatic processing where attention is not needed to perform the
skill.
(5) Tarone maintains that learners’ production is variable, depending on
styles in terms of formality where the degree of attention differs.
(6) Anderson and Ellis distinguish declarative knowledge (knowing what)
and procedural knowledge (knowing how).
(7) Ausubel emphasizes that meaningful learning, which is learning is
relatable to what we already know, is preferable to rote learning, which
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is arbitrary and verbatim.
2.3.2 Critiques:
(1) Conceiving of lg learning as a complex cognitive skill is not
comprehensive enough.
(2) Cognitive theory needs to be linked to linguistic theories of SLA.
(3) It doesn’t predict explicitly when certain features of a L1 will be
transferred to a L2.
2.4 Connectionism or PDP (Rumelhart & McClelland 1986): a new challenge to
rationalist models of cognition
2.4.1 Assertions:
(1) No innate endowment or mechanism specifically pre-programmed
for lg learning.
(2) Learning consists of the strengthening of connections between
and among simple processing units in complex neural networks to
result in a desired output.
(3) Cognitive processing is assumed to occur in a parallel distributed
fashion throughout the network rather than in a sequential or
serial fashion.
(4) Knowledge is in the connections rather than in the processing
units themselves.
(5) The strength of connections is determined by the relative
frequency of patterns in the input.
(6) There are no rules in connectionist systems, although they exhibit
regular or rule-like behavior.
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* Schools of thought in First Language Acquisition
Time Frame
Schools of thought
Early 1900s, 1940s &1950s Behaviorism 行為主義
Typical themes
Tabula rasa （白板）
Stimuli: linguistic
responses
Conditioning（制約作用）
Reinforcement（增強）
1960s & 1970s
Nativism 天賦說
Innate predispositions
(LAD & UG) 天賦的傾向
Systematic, rule-governed
acquisition
Creative construction
Pivot grammar 樞紐文法
Parallel distributed
processing (PDP)
1980s, 1990s & early 2000 Functionism 功能主義
Constructivist
Social interaction
Cognition and language
Functions of language
Discourse 言談
Language Acquisition
Research on language acquisition/use can be divided into first and second language
learning settings. The literature on first language learning is most relevant to child
development while second language learning pertains primarily to adult learning,
although most general theories of language learning apply to both. While it is not
clear whether different psychological processes are involved in first and second
language learning, there are differences in the way children and adults learn and this
has important implications. Theories of adult learning (e.g., Cross, Knowles, Rogers )
and literacy (e.g., Sticht ) are more likely to provide an appropriate framework for
second language learning compared to those concerned with child development (e.g.,
Bruner, Piaget ).
Linguistic-oriented theories of language learning tend to emphasize genetic
mechanisms (socalled "universal grammars") in explaining language acquisition (e.g.,
Fodor, Bever & Garrett, 1974). Behavioral theories (e.g., Hull, Skinner, Thorndike)
argue that association, reinforcement, and imitation are the primary factors in the
acquisition of language. Cognitive theories (e.g., Ausubel, Landa, Schank) suggest
that schema, rule structures, and meaning are the distinctive characteristic of language
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learning. Memory processes have been singled out as the basis for language
comprehension (e. g., Anderson, Craik & Lockhart, Paivio). Theories of discourse
(e.g., Hatch, 1983) argue that interaction with other speakers is the critical dimension
in learning language, i.e., syntactic structures develop from conversations. Indeed,
Vygotsky argues that all cognitive processes, including those involved in language,
arise from social interaction.
Research and theory on first language learning tends to be closely intertwined with
the development of cognition (e.g., Brown, 1973; Carroll & Freedle, 1972; Hayes,
1970). Theoretical frameworks for second language learning present a number of
different perspectives. For example, Brown (1980) argues that the analysis of errors
made in language learning reveals the development of an interlanguage -- a set of
rules made up by the learner that map the new language onto their native language.
According to Brown, correction of errors is important in helping the student
understand the grammar of the new language. Krashen (1981) distinquishes between
acquisition and learning processes; the former involve understanding and
communication while the latter are concerned with the conscious monitoring of
language use (i.e., metacognition). Krashen argues that acquisition processes are more
critical than the learning processes and should be encouraged through activities that
involve communication rather than vocabulary or grammar exercises. Many language
researchers emphasize the inter-relationships among listening, speaking, reading, and
writing processes (e.g. Clark & Clark, 1977; Cohen, 1990).
The significance of learner variables in language learning has been studied
extensively, including abilities, motivation, cognitive styles, and learning strategies.
Theories of intelligence (e.g., Gardner, Guilford, Sternberg) clearly indicate that there
are distinct linguistic abilities that differ across individuals. Research on learning
strategies (e.g., O'Malley & Chamot, A., 1990; Wenden & Rubin, 1987) indicates that
student performance can be improved by following certain strategies but the results
are highly dependent upon the nature of the task and differ across learners.
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3 Second Language Acquisition
* Schools of thought in SLA
Time Frame
Schools of thought
Early 1900s, 1940s &1950s Structuralism &
Behaviorism
1960s & 1970s
Typical themes
Description
Observable performance
Scientific method
Empiricism
Surface structure
Conditioning, reinforcement
Rationalism &
Generative linguistics
Cognitive Psychology Acquisition
innateness
Interlanguage (learner lg)
systematicity
Universal grammar
Competence
Deep structure
1980s, 1990s & early 2000 Constructivism
Interactive discourse
Sociocultural variables
Cooperative group learning
Interlanguage variability
Interactionist hypotheses
3. 1. Age and acquisition
3.1.1 the Critical Period Hypothesis ( a biological timetable for language
acquisition)
-- Assumption: a biologically determined period of life when language can be
acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to
acquire
3.1.2 Cognitive considerations
(a) intellectual development (by Piaget)
(i) three stages: sensorimotor stage (0-2); preoperational stage (2-7);
operational stage (7-16)(concrete operational stage 7-11; formal operational
stage 11-16)
(ii) arguments for the critical period: at puberty, one is capable of abstraction
by Piaget; benefits of deductive thinking for adult learners by Ausubel
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(b) affective, rather than cognitive factors, that facilitate adult learners’
second language acquisition
(i) adults are aware of their learning and can use strategies to help themselves
to be successful
(ii) dominance of the left hemisphere after puberty contributes to a tendency to
overanalyze and to be too intellectually centered on SLA
(c) equilibration (平衡化): cognition develops as a process of moving from
states of doubt and uncertainty to stages of resolution and certainty; from
disequilibrium（不平衡） (which provides motivation for language
learning: language interacts with cognition to achieve equilibrium) to
equilibrium
(d) rote and meaningful learning (by Ausubel): learning must be related
to existing knowledge and experience; foreign language classroom should
not become the locus of excessive rote activity
3.1.3 Affective considerations: empathy(同理心), self-esteem, extroversion,
inhibition (壓抑)(self-protection), anxiety, attitudes
(a) egocentricity: esp for children
(b) language ego 語言自我 by Alexander Guiora (1972):
(i) the identify a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks
(ii) children’s ego is dynamic and flexible so learning a new language is not a
threat to the ego; adults’ is protective and defensive
(iii) successful learning- one’s language ego must be strong enough to
overcome inhibitions
(c) identity: affective inhibitions of children and adults; a second identity
(d) attitudes: advantage of young children whose attitudes towards races,
cultures, classes of people haven’t been developed
(e) peer pressure: children’s strong constraints upon them to conform;
adults tolerate linguistic differences more than children
3.1.4 Linguistic considerations
(a) Bilingualism
(i)
two kinds of bilinguals
coordinate bilinguals 協調式雙語學習: two meaning systems learned from
different language contexts
compound bilinguals 複合式雙語學習:
one meaning system from which
both language operate
(ii) code-switching of most bilinguals: the act of inserting words, phrases, or
even longer stretches of one language into the other, especially when
communicating with another bilingual
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(iii) a considerable benefit of early childhood bilingualism: bilingual children
are more facile at concept formation and have a greater mental flexibility
(b) interference between L1 and L2: usually not in young children
(c) interference in adults: not necessarily since adults manifest errors not
unlike some of the errors children make as the result of creative
perception of the second language
(d) order of acquisition: (Book 2 p 69)
(i) focus on morphemes by Dulay and Burt: a creative construction process
children use in learning a L2 as they do in L1
*criticism: methodological arguments, lack of generalizability (only 11
morphemes)
(ii) the myth of “the younger, the better” by Scovel: adults can benefit from
literacy, vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge, and even syntax planes
although after puberty their accent is hardly changeable.
3.2 Process, styles and strategies (Book 2 p.112-139)
Process: is characteristic of every human being engaged in association, transfer,
generalization and attrition. (most general in three)
Style: rather enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual for
intellectual functioning such as the visual-oriented style.
Strategies: specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of
operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs for
controlling and manipulating certain information; they vary with time
and within individuals
3.2.1 Learning styles: FI/FD, the left- and right-brain functioning, ambiguity
tolerance, reflectivity/impulsivity, visual/auditory styles
(a)field independence/field dependence styles:場地獨立/依賴
Definition
field
the ability to
independence perceive a
particular,
relevant item or
factor in a field
of distracting
items
field
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Personal
traits
Classroom
learning
Age difference
a more
analytical,
analysis,
attention to
Adults: by Krashen
Use more monitoring
deductive,
details,
more
mastering of
independent, drills in
competitive, classroom
and
learning, better
self-confident in deductive
person
lessons
The tendency to More
25
or learning strategies
for language
acquisition(conscious
attention to forms)
Natural, face to Children: use
dependence
be dependent on socialized,
face
(field
sensitivity)
the total field so
that the parts
embedded
within the field
are not easily
perceived.
communication, acquisition
the kind of
(subconscious
communication attention to
rare in the
functions)
average
language
classroom
empathetic,
inductive,
and
perceptive of
the feelings
and thoughts
of others,
strategies of
* significance of FI/FD
FI and FD are not in complementary distribution within an individual
Both styles are important to assume a person’s general inclinations in a given context
with an appropriate style
* cognitive styles: a link between personality and cognition to tackle a problem;
learning styles: the cognitive styles that are specifically related to an educational
context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled
(b) left- and right-brain functioning
Left-brain dominance
Right-brain dominance
Remember names
Remember faces
Deductive-> analytical
Inductive->holistic
Logical-> logical problem solving
Visual, auditory, emotional-> intuitive
problem solving
Linear processing
Elusive, uncertain information
FI->intellectual, planned and structured
FD-> intuitive, fluid, spontaneous
Prefers talking and writing-> less body
language
Prefers drawing and manipulating objects
-> more body language
Make objective judgments
->multiple-choice tests
Make subjective judgments-> open-ended
questions
(c) ambiguity tolerance: to predict academic success 對語意含糊的忍受度
(i) definition: how much one tolerates ideas and propositions opposing to
one’s belief system
(ii) with ambiguity tolerance-> free to entertain innovative and creative
possibilities and not be disturbed by uncertainty
(iii) too much ambiguity tolerance-> prevent meaningful subsumption of ideas
due to wishy-washy tendency（空洞）; rote memorization
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(iv) no ambiguity tolerance->rigid, dogmatic mind
(d) reflectivity 反思 and impulsivity 衝動
reflectivity
impulsivity
Systematic styles
A slower, more calculated
decision maker
Accurate reader
Inductive reasoning
Intuitive styles
A quick, hunch-based decision
maker
Fast reader
Willing to guess-> master the
psycholinguistic guessing game (by
Goodman who supported the
Whole Language Approach)
(p.121)
* More patience for a reflective learner, fewer judgments on mistakes made by an
impulsive learner.
(e) visual and auditory styles
Visual
auditory
Prefer reading, studying charts,
drawing, and other graphic
information e.g. Korean students
Prefer listening to lectures and
audiotapes
* Successful learners utilize both visual and auditory input
3.2.2 Strategies (refer to Oxford’s strategy classification system, 1990): learning
and communication strategies (Book 2, p.122)
(a) Learning strategies: strategies to take in messages (input) from others
for processing, storage and retrieval
(i) good language learners described by Rubin and Stern (1975) in terms of
personal characteristics, styles, and strategies (p.123)
(ii) strategies by Michael O’Malley & Anna Chamot (1983) (p.125-6)
Metacognitive 後設認知 Cognitive 認知
Socioaffective 社會情意
An executive function
In specific learning Social-mediating activity
involving planning for
tasks for more direct and interacting with others
learning, thinking about
manipulation of the e.g. cooperation 合作,
the learning process,
learning material
question for clarification
monitoring of one’s
itself e.g. repetition 闡明問題
複誦, translation 翻
production or
譯, note taking 筆記,
comprehension, and
evaluating learning after an resourcing 資源,
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grouping 整理,
activity
e.g. advance organizers (預 deduction 演譯推論,
習計畫), directed attention recombination 重組,
（直接性注意）, selective imagery, auditory
attention （選擇性注意）, representation 意象,
self-management 自我管 keyword 關鍵字,
理, functional planning 功 contextualization 語
能性計畫, self-monitoring 文情境, elaboration
自我監控, delayed
延伸應用, transfer
production 延緩表達 and 轉移, inferencing 推
self-evaluation 自我評估 理
(iii) indirect learning strategies: metacognitive ( centering your learning,
arranging and planning and your learning and evaluating your learning),
affective ( lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself and taking your
emotional temperature) and social ( asking questions, cooperating with others,
and empathizing with others); direct learning strategies- memory (creating
mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, employing
action), cognitive (practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and
reasoning, creating structure for input and output) and compensation (guessing
intelligently, overcoming limitations in speaking and writing) by Rebecca
Oxford
* usefulness of adopting learning strategies in language learning
-> strategies-based instruction (SBI) (about how to learn) and autonomous
self-help training 策略教學（Book 2 p. 132-3）
1. be aware of one’s style, preferences and the strategies
2. practice successful strategies
3. practice compensatory strategies
4. strategy instruction in the textbook
(b) Communication strategies: how one expresses meanings; deliver
messages to others(output) especially when communication is deterred
from reaching its goal
(i) avoidance strategies: message abandonment 信息放棄, topic avoidance
主題避免, lexical, syntactic, and phonological avoidance
(ii)compensatory strategies (part of strategic competence) 補償策略 ( Book
2 p.128)
circumlocution 迂迴陳述 (the thing you open bottles with for
corkscrew) , approximation 近似陳述 (ship for sailboat), use of
all-purpose words 使用全功能的字( overuse of thing, stuff),
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word coinage 創新字(vegetarianist for vegetarian), prefabricated
patterns 預造句型 (where is the ____?), nonlinguistic signals 非
語言訊號 (facial expression, mime, gesture, or sound imitation),
literal translation 逐字翻譯, foreignizing 外語化 (using a L1
word by adjusting it to L2 phonology), code-switching 語碼轉換
(using a L1 word with L1 pronunciation or a L3 word with L3
pronunciation when speaking in L2), appeal for help 尋求協助
(rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression),
stalling/time-gaining strategies 暫停或拖延策略 (using fillers or
hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think e.g. well,
now let’s see, as a matter of fact)
* styles and strategies in practice
(a) Administer a learning styles checklist
(b) engage in frequent spontaneous hints about successful learning and
communication strategies
(c) Build strategic competence: to lower inhibitions, to encourage risk
taking, to build students’ self-confidence, to help them to develop
intrinsic motivation, to promote cooperative learning, to encourage
them to use right-brain processing, to promote ambiguity tolerance, to
help them use their intuition, to get students to make their mistakes
work for them, and to get students to set their own goals
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3.3 Personality factors: “affect” defined as emotion or feeling
3.3.1 the affective domain
(a) self-esteem 自信: a personal judgment of worthiness that’s expressed
in the attitudes that individuals hold towards themselves; related to one’s
willingness to communicate in a foreign language
(i)general or global self-esteem 整體的自信
- a median level of overall self-appraisal
-stable in a mature adult so resistant to change over time and across
situations
(ii) situational or specific self-esteem 情境的自信
- one’s self-appraisals in particular life situations e.g. home, work,
athletic ability, and personality traits
(iii) task self-esteem: 工作的自信
-particular tasks within specific situation e.g. one subject matter area in
the educational domain
* a high level of communicative ability doesn’t necessarily correspond with a
high willingness to communicate.
(b) Inhibition 情緒壓抑 n: sets of defenses to protect the ego
(i) language ego 語言自我 by Guiora (1972) and Ehrman (1996): occurs
when identity conflict as language learners take on a new identity with their
newly acquired competence
(ii)higher self-esteem + adaptive language ego-> lower inhibition
(c) risk-taking: ability to make intelligent guesses; impulsivity
(i) Being willing to take risks doesn’t necessarily contributes to success since
not necessarily accurate guesses
(ii)Willing and accurate guesses, high motivation and self-esteem are also
factors of learner success
(iii)Lack of willingness to take risks-> fossilization
(d) Anxiety
(i) trait anxiety 特質性焦慮 (permanent predisposition to be anxious)/
state anxiety 狀態性焦慮 (situationally anxious)-> language anxiety
(studied more nowadays)
(ii)debilitative anxiety 損害性焦慮(harmful anxiety)/
facilitative anxiety 助益性焦慮(helpful anxiety e.g. concern over a task to
be accomplished-> competitiveness)
(iii) three components of language anxiety by Horwitz et al and MacIntyre &
Gardner : communication apprehension
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fear of negative social evaluation test anxiety
(e) Empathy: the process of putting oneself into some else’s shoes usually
through language
(i) transactional variables to SLA: imitation, modeling, identification, empathy,
extroversion, aggression, styles of communication
(ii) “empathy”同理心 is more detachment from others; “sympathy” is an
agreement between individuals.
(iii) two aspects to the development and exercising of empathy:
--an awareness and knowledge of one’s feelings
--identification with another person (to know oneself first)
(f) Extroversion 外向性格: the extent to which a person has a deep-seated
need to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness
from others
(i) introversion: the extent to which a person derives a sense of wholeness and
fulfillment apart from a reflection of this self from other people
(ii) introverted≠ passive; extroverted≠bright and empathetic
(iii) extroversion as a factor in developing oral communicative competence
because of face-to-face communication

Myers-Briggs character types of functioning: (1)
introversion/extroversion (2) sensing/intuition (3) thinking/feeling (4)
judging /perceiving (16 possible combination of personality profiles)
p.158 -> character types related to strategy use

Successful learners know their preferences, their strengths, and
their weaknesses, and effectively utilize strengths and compensate for
weaknesses regardless of their natural preferences.
3.3.2 motivation:
(a) three views of motivation:
Behavioristic
Cognitive
Constructivist
Anticipation of reward Driven by basic human Social context
Desire to receive
needs (exploration, Community
Positive reinforcement
manipulation, etc)
External, individual
Degree of effort
forces in control
expended
Internal, individual
forces in control
Social status
Security of group
Internal, interactive
forces in control
(b) instrumental/integrative orientations instead of motivations as a case
of a learner’s context (Robert Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991): converted
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from instrumental and integrative motivations
(i) Instrumental orientation 工具效益性動機導向(usually from extrinsic
motivation): acquiring a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals;
academic or career-related
(ii) Integrative orientations 整合性動機導向 (from intrinsic motivation)
(weaker than assimilative orientation 同化性動機導向 by Graham, 1984):
learners wish to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language
group; socially or culturally oriented
(iii) Implications: no single means of learning a L2; the two orientations are
not necessarily mutually exclusive
(c) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
intrinsic motivation
extrinsic motivation
to bring out feelings of competence anticipation of a reward from
and self-determination
strongly favored for long-term
retention or self-realization
maybe turn out to be integrative
outside
for short-term retention
maybe instrumental
Gardner and Lambert (1972) introduced the notions of instrumental and integrative
motivation. In the context of language learning, instrumental motivation refers to the
learner's desire to learn a language for utilitarian purposes (such as employment or
travel), whereas integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a language to
integrate successfully into the target language community. In later research studies,
Crookes and Schmidt (1991), and Gardner and Tremblay (1994) explored four other
motivational orientations: (a) reason for learning, (b) desire to attain the learning goal,
(c) positive attitude toward the learning situation, and (d) effortful behavior.
Many theorists and researchers have found that it is important to recognize the
construct of motivation not as a single entity but as a multi-factorial one. Oxford and
Shearin (1994) analyzed a total of 12 motivational theories or models, including those
from socio-psychology, cognitive development, and socio-cultural psychology, and
identified six factors that impact motivation in language learning:
attitudes (i.e., sentiments toward the learning community and the target language)
beliefs about self (i.e., expectancies about one's attitudes to succeed, self-efficacy, and
anxiety)
goals (perceived clarity and relevance of learning goals as reasons for learning)
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involvement (i.e., extent to which the learner actively and consciously participates in
the language learning process)
environmental support (i.e., extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of
cultural and outside-of-class support into learning experience)
personal attributes (i.e., aptitude, age, sex, and previous language learning
experience).
Instructional Strategies to Enhance Student Motivation and Learning Transfer
Research studies have shown that language acquisition is the result of an interplay
between cognitive mechanism and environmental conditions (Spolsky, 1985; Sivert &
Egbert, 1995). Understanding and creating optimal language learning environments
thus becomes a primary concern of the language teacher. Teachers can observe
circumstances under which learners acquire language and can make adjustments
toward creating optimal learning conditions. In designing learning activities, the
language teacher should remember that because language learning focuses on both the
accuracy and appropriateness of application in various contexts of use, learners must
be given opportunities to participate as language users in multiple contexts. These
opportunities will result in learners' heightened motivation and awareness of the
intricacies of language use.
Some teaching strategies that can be used to foster motivation and provide better
transfer opportunities of language skills include the following:
Encourage learners to take ownership in learning.
Have learners take ownership of the learning assignment by letting them identify and
decide for themselves relevant learning goals. This will motivate them to apply what
they have learned to attain these learning goals.
Promote intentional cognition or mindfulness to learning in various contexts.
Learners must be able to practice language in multiple contexts in order to bridge
domains and foster active abstraction of concepts learned (Bransford, et al. 1990).
This will help learners recognize the relevance and transferability of different learning
skills or knowledge.
Increase authenticity of learning tasks and goals.
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Learners should recognize a real need to accomplish learning goals that are relevant
and holistic (rather than task-specific). This prepares them for the complexities of
real-world tasks that require them to use language skills and knowledge that have to
be continually transferred.
Learner anxiety (Horwitz, 1986) and other negative feelings can be stumbling blocks
to learners becoming cognizant of learning and transfer opportunities. Thus, providing
our learners with the motivation to learn is one of the best steps we can take to
facilitate learning success. This is best conveyed by Bruner (1960, p.31): "The best
way to create interest in a subject is to render it worth knowing, which means to make
the knowledge gained usable in one's thinking beyond the situation in which learning
has occurred."
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3.4 Sociocultural factors
3.4.1 stereotypes 刻板印象/ generalizations 概念化:
(a) Reality is perceived through one’s cultural pattern?
- too oversimplified
(b) Our cultural milieu shapes our world view (how do stereotypes form)?
(c) Stereotype-thinking towards a culture and people in it can be accurate
in depicting the typical member of a culture but not for particular
individuals so cultural differences need to be understood.
3.4.2 Attitudes: implied by stereotyping toward the culture or language;
developed in early childhood and be the result of parents’ and peers’ attitudes
(a) group-specific attitude-> an integrative orientation
(b) positive attitudes-> enhance proficiency
(c) negative attitudes-> positive by direct exposure to reality
3.4.3 second culture acquisition
(a) culture learning: a process of perceiving, interpreting, feeling, and
being in the world; to create shared meaning between cultural
representatives
(b) acculturation 文化適應: the process learners adapt to the target
language culture and acquire the L2 usually during the recovery stage
(the tourist stage-> the empty stage (culture shock)-> the recovery stage (culture
stress)-> the acceptance stage (adaptation)) * Not everyone going the same
sequence of stages
(c) culture shock:
--phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and
crisis
--a profound cross-cultural learning experience which takes place when one
examines the degree to which one’s influenced by his own culture and
understands the culturally derived values, attitudes, and outlooks of other
people
3.4.4 social distance 社會差距
(a) definition: the cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that
come into contact within an individual which is difficult to measure
(b) parameters of social distance by John Schumann (1976)
(i)dominance 主導性: TL/L2 politically, culturally, technically, economically
dominant, non-dominant or subordinate
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(ii) integration 整合性: L2 is assimilation, acculturation or preservation
(iii) cohesiveness 凝聚性: cohesive, size of L2
(iv) congruence 一致性: congruent value and belief systems in TL/L2
(v) permanence 永久性: L2’s intended length of residence in the TL area
(c) a good language learning situation:
(i) the L2 group is non-dominant in relation to the TL group;
(ii) both groups desire assimilation for the L2 group;
(iii) low enclosure is the goal of both groups
(iv) the two cultures are congruent
(v) the L2 group is small and non-cohesive
(vi) both groups have positive attitudes towards each other
(vii) the L2 group intends to remain in the target language area for a long time
(d) measurement of perceived social distance (W. Acton, 1979) by
quantifying the different attitudes towards various concepts
(e) implication: mastery of fluency in L2 occurs at the beginning of the
recovery stage of acculturation
(f) the optimal distance model by Brown (1980) for adults especially: a
culturally based critical-period hypothesis
1. an adult who fails to master a L2 might have failed to
synchronize linguistic and cultural development
2. In Stage 3 to Stage 4, those who have achieved nonlinguistic
means of coping in a foreign culture-> fossilization
(g) culture in the classroom: four conceptual categories to study the
cultural norms
(i) individualism 個人主義(loosely integrated)/collectivism (tightly integrated)
集體主義
(ii) power distance 權力差距- the extent to which the less power persons
accept inequality in power and consider it normal
(iii) uncertainty avoidance 免於不安- strong uncertainty avoidance-> active,
aggressive, emotional, compulsive, security-seeking and intolerant
(iv) masculinity- masculine cultures stress material success and assertiveness
3.4.5 language policy and politics
(a) world Englishes
(b) ESL/ EFL (Book 2, p 193-4)
(c) Linguistic imperialism and language rights
(d)Language policy and the English only debate
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3.4.6 Language, thought, and culture: the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis p.196
(a) euphemisms/verbal labels can shape the way one stores events for later
recall
(b) the way a sentence is structured will affect nuances of meaning
e.g. Did you see the broken headlight?- There is one.
Did you see a broken headlight?
(c) conversational discourse signals, a factor of culture- casual/formal
(d) lexical items –intersection of culture and cognition e.g. color
categorization
(e) question: Does language reflect a cultural world view or does language
actually shape the world view?
(f) – Alternative labels of the Spair-Whorf Hypothesis
The Whorfian Hypothesis, linguistic relativity or linguistic determinism
(g) Criticism:
-It’s possible to talk about anything in any language but some concepts are
easier to express (codability), so the weak version is false.
-Through both languages and cultures, some universals are found.
(translability)
- A L2 learner can make positive use of prior experiences to facilitate the
process of learning
- The validity of the related research is questionable; not generalizable.
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3.5 Cross-linguistic influence and learner language
3.5.1 the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (by applied linguists) 對比分析法
(a) influenced by behaviorism/structuralism in the 1950s
(b) claim: the principal barrier to SLA is the interference of the L1 system
with the L2 system so the differences of L1 and L2 should be overcome
(c) “Linguistics across cultures” by Robert Lado (1957): the patterns that
will cause difficulty in learning can be predicted and described by
comparing systematically the target language and the L1; Similar in L1
and L2-> simple; different -> difficult
(d) Shortcomings of CAH:
(i) CAH is inadequate to predict the interference problems of a learner
(ii)Great difference doesn’t necessarily cause great difficulty->
intralingual/interlingual errors
(iii)It is difficult to determine exactly which category a particular contrast fit
into
3.5.2 Markedness 語言明顯差異理論 and UG: to better explain learning
difficulty than CAH
(a) Markedness theory by Fred Eckman (1977)
(i) Marked items in a language will be more difficult to acquire than unmarked
(ii) Degrees of markedness will correspond to degrees of difficulty
(iii)Marked structures are acquired later than unmarked ones.
(b)UG= rules shared by all languages
(i) to discover innate linguistic principles that govern what is possible in
human languages
(ii)to understand and describe contrasts of L1 and L2 and difficulties of
learners
3.5.3 Learner Language (Interlanguage by Selinker, 1972) 過渡語言
(a) IL: a system that has a structurally intermediate status between L1
and L2; It is neither L1 nor L2
(b) Approximative system byNemser (1971) 近似體系
(c) Idiosyncratic dialect by Corder (1971) 個人特有方言
(d) Study learner language from production data which are observable
and reflective of a learner’s underlying competence
(e) To analyze Interlanguage, errors of learners have to be studied
because correct production yields little information about competence
3.5.4 Error Analysis: (performance/ interlanguage analysis)
■errors provide the evidence of how language is learned, and what
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procedures or strategies the learner is employing in the discovery of language
■examination of errors from all possible sources, not just from L1
interference (like CA) e.g. intralingual, sociolinguisitc, psycholinguistic,
cognitive or affective sources
(a) mistakes 失誤 and errors 錯誤
mistakes
errors
a performance error either a
random guess or a slip due to a
failure to utilize a known system
correctly
a noticeable deviation reflects the
lack of the linguistic competence
Can be self-corrected by native
Cannot be self-corrected
speakers when attention is called
(b) identifying and describing errors
(i) norms & errors
(ii) how to distinguish errors and mistakes?
(iii)Describing errors by
■grammatical categories :Noun, verb…
■general error type: omission (e.g I went to movie.),
misinformation, misordering (e.g. I to the store went), addition
(e.g. Does can he sing?), substitution (e.g. I lost my road.)
■overt (ungrammatical at the sentence level)/covert errors
(grammatically well-formed but not discourse interpretable within
the context of communication)
■global (hinder communication)/local (at verbatim level)
■domain/extent by Lennon, 1991 e.g. a scissors (domain-phrase,
extent- an indefinite article); domain is the rank of linguistic unit
from phoneme to discourse that must be taken as context in order
for the error to become apparent; extent is the rank of linguistic
unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied, or
reordered to repair the sentence. (to operationalize the distinction
between global and local errors)
(iv)explaining errors:
systematic, universal, predictable? By repeated systematic
observation of learner speech
Sources:
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1. interlingual transfer: especially in the beginning stages of
SLA e.g. “sheep” for “ship” for Chinese students
2. intralingual transfer: overgeneralization when learners
have begun to acquire parts of the new system e.g “He goed”
or overuse of “the/a, ” or simplifications, developmental
errors, communication-based errors, errors of avoidance or
errors of overproduction.
3. context of learning: classroom (tutored) e.g. faulty
concepts from teachers/induced erros/bookish (uncontracted
forms) ;or social situation (untutored) e.g. dialect acquisition
or idiosyncratic dialect
4. communicative strategies: circumlocution, word coinage,
false cognates (by Tarone, 1981), or prefabricated patterns
(c) criticism:
(i) positive reinforcement of clear and free communication is also important
(fluency).
(ii)Overemphasis on production data; comprehension is also important.
(iii)It fails to explain avoidance
(iv)It too closely focuses on specific language rather than universal aspects of
language
3.5.5 Stages of learner language development: all are not able to measure overall
competence because one can be in different stages of different tenses
(a) Random 隨機 (presystematic): to guess or experiment e.g. John can to
sing
(b) Emergent 浮現: one begins to discern a system but then regresses to
some previous stage; unable to correct; avoidance of structures and topics
(c) Systematic 系統化: more consistent and able to correct errors when
pointed out
(d) Stabilization 穩定化(post-systematic): few errors, able to self-correct
3.5.6 Variability: due to context as the source of variation or gradual diffusion of
incorrect forms of lg in the 2nd or 3rd stages
(a) capability continuum paradigm by Elaine Tarone (1988): the extent
to which both linguistic and situational context may help to describe
variation; study on non-systematic free variation and individual variation
especially contextual variability; variation according to linguistic context,
psycholinguistic processing factors, social context, lg function
(b) variable competence model by Rod Ellis (1994): variation is due to
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disparity between classroom context and natural situations; a storehouse
of variable interlanguage rules depends on how automatic and how
analyzed the rules are from planned or unplanned discourse; unplanned
discourse causes automatic production
(c) criticism: something variable can be systematic later
3.5.7 Fossilization:
(a) definition: the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect
linguistic forms into a person’s L2 competence
(b) How do items become fossilized? Fossilized items are those deviant
items that first positive affective feedback and then cognitive feedback,
reinforcing incorrect forms. Negative affective feedback may result in
abortion of communication so meaningful communication is an affective
affirmation by the other person (by Vigil & Oller)
(i)affective feedback: feedback in terms of kinesic mechanism e.g. gestures,
tone of voice, or facial expressions.
(ii)cognitive feedback: feedback by means of linguistic devices
(c) Why does fossilization occur? Due to the presence or absence of
(i) internal motivating factors
(ii) seeking interaction with other people
(iii) consciously focusing on forms
(iv) one’s strategic investment in the learning process
3.5.8 Form-focused instruction:
(a) Does form-focused instruction work?
Yes, but it depends on the target structure being taught e.g plurals
(i) item learning (effective in instruction)/system learning
(ii) the Teachability Hypothesis by Penemann: Instruction can only promote
language acquisition if the interlanguage is close to the point when the
structure to be taught is acquired in the natural setting; instruction only helps
to speed up learners’ learning process
(iii)some structures seem to be permanently affected by instruction because
-system learning can last longer
-it depends on the nature of the instruction
-when learners use the structure frequently
- focus on form only in a communicative learner centered
curriculum
(iv)what structures to teach?
Marked functions first to trigger the unmarked ones; explicit
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instruction is for easily stated grammar rules, implicit instruction
for complex rules
(b) What kind of form-focused instruction works best?
(i)input-based instruction may be more effective than production-based
instruction
(ii)consciousness-raising by providing learners positive or negative evidence;
but positive input may help learners start using some difficult forms but may
not be sufficient to destabilize IL and prevent fossilization
(iii) the optimal time for form instruction is after a communicative task
(c) Individual differences are likely to influence the effects of instruction.
Particular students with analytic, field-independent, and
left-brain-oriented characteristics are likely to benefit FFI.
3.5.9 Error treatment
(a) when to treat errors:
the importance of errors, chance of eliciting correct performance
(b) what to correct:
global errors to be treated only but some utterances are not clearly global or
local
(c) How to correct:
One useful taxonomy by Bailey, 1985 (p.240) One useful taxonomy by Bailey,
1985- type, source, linguistic complexity, local/global, mistake/error,
learner’s affective state, learner’s linguistic stage, pedagogical focus,
communicative context, teacher style
(d) Learners’ system is a variable, dynamic, and approximate system, but
shouldn’t be treated as an imperfect system.
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3.6 Communicative competence (Book 2, p. 266)
3.6.1 Definition
(a) Dell Hymes: highlights the difference between linguistic competence
and communicative competence to contrast Chomsky’s definition of
competence
(b) Savignon: Communicative competence is relative and depends on the
cooperation of all the participants involved, a dynamic and interpersonal
construct that can be examined by means of the over performance of two
or more individuals.
(c) Cummins
(i) cognitive/academic language proficiency (context-reduced language->
school-oriented)
(ii) basic interpersonal communicative skills- the capacity all children acquire
to be able to function in daily communication (context-embedded language->
face to face communication)
(d)Canale & Swain
(i) Grammatical competence: knowledge of lexical items, morphology,
syntax….
(ii) Discourse competence-ability to connect sentences to form a meaningful
whole
(iii) Sociolinguistic competence-knowledge of sociocultural rules e.g roles,
shared information…
(iv) Strategic competence: the verbal or non-verbal communicative strategies
to compensate for breakdown
(e) Bachman (1990)
(i) organizational competence- grammatical and textual competence (cohesion
and rhetorical organization)
(ii) pragmatic competence- illocutionary 言外之意(ideational, manipulative,
heuristic, imaginative) and sociolinguistic (sensitivity to dialect, registers,
naturalness, figures of speech)competence
(f) M. Halliday: language functions
(i) Instrumental 工具: to manipulate the environment
(ii)Regulatory 控制: the control of events e.g. approval
(iii)Representational 表達: to make statements, convey facts, explain, report
(iv) Interactional 互動: ensure social maintenance
(v) Personal 個人: express feelings, emotions, and personality
(vi) Heuristic 啟發探究: to acquire language, to learn about the environment
(vii) Imaginative 想像: create imaginary systems or ideas
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3.6.2 functional syllabuses: (notional-functional syllabus as a precursor to CLT)
by Van Ek (See p.59)
(a) curricula are organized around functions like identifying, reporting,
denying, declining, invitation, asking permission, apologizing, etc
* notion- abstract concepts, contexts or situations e.g. health, travel, education,
or shopping
(b) controversy: a function is covered, which doesn’t mean learners have
internalized it for authentic use in the real world
3.6.3 discourse analysis:篇章結構分析或言談分析
(a) the analysis of the relationship between forms and functions of
language
(b) text attack skills to solve ambiguity: cohesive devices, discourse
makers, rhetorical organization
3.6.4Conversation Analysis:
(a) how to get attention, initiate a conversation, nominate a topic, develop
a topic (turn-taking), and terminate a topic
(b) Grice’s Maxims (1967)
(i) Quantity: say only as much as necessary for understanding the
communication
(ii) Quality: say only what is true
(iii) Relevance: say only what is relevant
(iv) Manner: be clear and brief
3.6.5 Pragmatics
(a) how meaning is conveyed and interpreted
(b) illocutionary force (intended meaning of an utterance)
(c) cooperative principles
3.6.6 language and gender (Refer to books by Deborah Tannen)
(a) girls- more standard language, more uncertainty, rapport, connection,
positive feedback, face needs
(b) boys-more interruptions, less polite, more value on status, compete for
the floor
3.6.7 styles and registers
(a) formal or informal styles
(i) Speech styles by formality by Martin Joos (1967) 正式性指標
演說 Oratorical (public speaking)->慎重 deliberative (classroom lecture)->
consultative 諮詢 (business transactions)-> 聊天 casual (friends,
colleagues)-> 親密 intimate (loved ones)
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(ii) verbal and nonverbal feature in styles
(iii) syntax: contractions or deletions in intimate and casual styles
(iv) lexicon: from intimate to frozen (on the ball, smart, intelligent, perceptive,
and astute)
(v) pronunciation: hesitation, misarticulations
(b) registers
(i) to identify with a particular group and maintain solidarity
3.6.8 Nonverbal communication:
(a) Kinesics: body language 肢體動作
(b) eye contact: signal interest, boredom, empathy, hostility,
understanding
(c) proxemics: physical proximity 人際距離
(d) artifacts: clothing or ornamentation (sense of self-esteem,
socioeconomic class, general character)人工製品
(e) kinethetics: touching 肢體動覺
(f) olfactory dimensions: smell 嗅覺
3.6.9 Research findings on SLA
(a) Adults and adolescents can acquire a L2
(b) The learners creates a systematic IL with the same systematic errors
as the child learning the L1
(c) There are predictable sequences in acquisition
(d) Practice doesn’t make perfect
(e) Knowing a linguistic rule doesn’t mean knowing how to use it
(f) Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective: esp complex
rules
(g) More adult learners fossilize: positive affective + cognitive feedback
(h) One cannot achieve nativelike command of a L2 in one hour a day
(i) The learners’ task is enormous since language is complex
(j) A meaningful context is paramount.
Innatist (Krashen) (Book 2 Cognitive
p. 288)
(McLaughlin/Bialystok)
Constructivist (Long,
Swain & Seliger)
Subconscious acquisition
superior to learning and
monitoring
Comprehensible input
Low affective filter
Natural order of acquisition
Interaction hypothesis
Intake from input through
social interaction
Output hypothesis
(Swain)
High Input Generators
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Controlled/automatic
processing (M)
Focal/peripheral attention (M)
Restructuring (M)=
subsumption
Implicit/explicit (B)
45
Zero option for grammar
processing
(Seliger)
instruction
Unanalyzed/analyzed
knowledge (B)
Form-focused instruction
Authenticity
Task-basked instruction
Part III: Practice
1. Introduction of important terminology of TESOL
2. Development of English Teaching Methodology
3. Curriculum design
4. Teaching the four and sub-skills
5. Language testing
Part IV: Reviewing previous exam questions & discussion of heated issues
Definitions of important terms:
TESOL, TEFL, TESL
TESOL—an acronym for teaching English to speakers of other languages, used,
particularly in the USA, to describe the teaching of English in situations where it is
either a second language or a foreign language.
TEFL—an acronym for teaching English as a foreign language, used to describe the
teaching of English in situations where it is a foreign language.
TESL—an acronym for teaching English as a second language, used either to
describe the teaching of English in situations where it is a second language or to refer
to any situation where English is taught to speakers of other languages.
ESL & EFL (Book 2 p. 193-4) & EIL
ESL—an abbreviation for English as a second language e.g. learning English of an
Arabic speaker in the USA
EFL— an abbreviation for English as a foreign language in a context where English
in one’s own culture with few immediate opportunities to use the lg within the
environment of that culture. E.g. a Japanese learning English in Japan
The ESL/EFL terminology seems to have created a world view that being a native
speaker of English will somehow bestow on people not only unquestionable
competence in the use and teaching of the lg but also expertise in telling others how
English ought to be taught. However, native speakers do not necessarily exemplify the
idealized competence. The multiplicity of contexts for the use of English worldwide
demands a careful look at the variables of each situation before making any
generalization that the two models apply. Although on the surface L2 learning in a
culture involves the deepest form of culture acquisition, we should not too quickly
dismiss L2 learning in the native culture from having a potential acculturation factor.
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* ph.D: pizza-hut delivery
EAP & ESP & EGP
EAP--- English for Academic Purposes are courses and programs of study for helping
learners develop the skills needed for speaking and writing for academic English, for
example, writing essays and reports, taking part in tutorial discussions, giving
academic presentations
ESP—English for Specific Purposes are courses designed around the specific needs
of particular groups of learners, for example, “ English for computer engineers. “
EGP--- English for general purposes, contrasting with ESP
EOP--- English for Occupational Purposes
Deductive v.s. inductive learning of grammar
Deductive learning— an approach to language teaching in which learners are taught
rules and given specific information about a language. They then apply these rules
when they use the language. (such as grammar translation method)(time-saving; used
in EFL more often)
Inductive learning— an approach to language learning in which learners are not
taught grammatical or other types of rules directly but are left to discover or induce
rules from their experience of using the language. Language teaching methods
which emphasize use of the language rather than presentation of information about the
language such as the direct method, communicative approach and counseling learning.
(time-consuming; used in ESL more often) (Refer to Book 2 p.193; Book 3 p.118)
Approach, method, procedures, and technique (Book 2 p 169-172)
Approach— refer to different theories about the nature of language and how
languages are learned such as cognitive (the most general of three, the broadest); an
approach describes how lg is used and how its constituent parts interlock and also
how people acquire their knowledge of the lg and makes statements about the
conditions which will promote successful lg learning.
* cognitive code approach—language learning is a process which involves active
mental processes and not simply the forming of habits. The communicative approach
makes some use of these principles.
Method— a set of procedures, a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a
language such as the silent way; a practical realization of an approach where decisions
about types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kinds of material which
will be helpful and some model of syllabus organizations, including procedures and
techniques.
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Procedures--- an ordered sequence of techniques which can be described in terms
such as first you do this, then you do that…. It is smaller than a method but bigger
than a technique.
Technique— a classroom device or activity such as silent viewing when using video
materials to facilitate language practice
* term definitions: Book 2, p.171; Book 3 p. 13-16 (Anthony’s distinction
among approach, method and technique; Richards & Rodgers’ distinction
among method (methodology), approach, design and procedure; a set of
definitions reflecting the current usage)
1. methodology 方法論: The study of pedagogical practices in general.
Whatever considerations are involved in how to teach are
methodological.
1. approach 教學觀: Theoretical positions and beliefs about the
nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the
applicability of both to pedagogical settings.
3. method 教學方法: A generalized, prescribed set of classroom
specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend
to be primarily concerned with teacher and student roles and
behaviors, and secondarily with such features as linguistic and
subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are
almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of
audiences n a variety of contexts.
4. curriculum 課程 for U.S. /syllabus 大綱 for U.K. : Designs for
carrying out a particular lg program. Features include a primary
concern with the specification of linguistic and subject-matter objects,
sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated group of
learners in a defined context.
5. technique 教學技巧: any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or
devices used in the lg classroom for realizing lesson objectives.
Error & mistake in error analysis
Error—a piece of speech or writing that is recognizably different in some way from
native speaker usage. They can occur at the level of discourse, grammar, vocabulary
or pronunciation. (* local & global errors) Errors have been studied to discover the
processes learners make use of in learning and using a lg and explain the development
of learner lg (interlanguage).
Mistake—deviations is usage that reflects learners’ inability to use what they actually
know of the target language caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness or some
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other aspect of performance.
fluency & accuracy /function & form/ language use & language analysis
Fluency—the ability an individual to speak or write without undue hesitation
Accuracy—the ability an individual to speak or write grammatically
receptive & productive language (a current view: interactive listening/reading)
receptive (not passive) language: listening and reading
productive language: speaking and writing
declarative (know what) & procedural (know how) knowledge by Anderson
Declarative knowledge (factual knowledge)—knowledge that can be stated or
declared, such as grammatical rules and can consist of concepts or ideas that can be
stored as propositions. E.g. an account of the tense system in English can be presented
as a set of statements, rules or facts, i.e., it can be learned as declarative knowledge.
Procedural knowledge—the ability to use the knowledge to get things done, for
example, being able to use grammatical rules and principles to communicate meaning
such as how to ride a bicycle or how to speak German; it is acquired gradually
through practice and underlies the learning of skills. Many aspects of SLA consist of
procedural rather than declarative knowledge.
In the three stages of skill acquisition by Anderson (1995), learners use conscious
declarative knowledge in the cognitive stage, then in the association stage, they start
to proceduralize this knowledge and finally in the autonomous stage performance
becomes more or less automatic and errors disappear.
performance and competence by Chomsky
Performance-- a person’s actual use of language; how a person uses his knowledge
of a language in producing and understanding sentences.
Competence-- a person’s knowledge of a language (usually refers to the ideal
speaker/hearer, not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of the whole
lg); a person’s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they
have never heard before and the knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of
a particular lg; the focus of language learning (based on an ideal listener/speaker)
People may have the competence to produce a long sentence but when they actually
try to use this knowledge, there are reasons why they restrict it. For example, they
may run out of breath or their listeners forget what has been said if the sentence is too
long. Due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention, nervousness or
excitement, their actual use of language may not reflect their competence. The
errors they make are described as examples of performance.
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Acquisition vs. learning (Book 2 p. 132, 277) by Krashen, a dichotomy
Acquisition--the implicit and subconscious processes by which people naturally
develop proficiency in a language; similar to children picking up L1
Learning-- the explicit and conscious processes by which people formally develop
language proficiency.
Bottom-up processing vs. top-down processing from Schema Theory, coined by
Barlett, 1932 (Book 6, p 201)
Top-down processing—a way in which humans analyze and process language as part
of the process of comprehension and learning by making use of previous knowledge
(higher-level knowledge) in analyzing and processing information which is received
such as one’s expectations, experience, schemata in reading the text.
Bottom-up processing— a way making use principally of information which is
already present in the data (words, sentences, etc.) such as understanding a text
mainly by analyzing the words and sentences in the text itself.
Minimal pairs: two words in a language which differ from each other by only one
distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning, such as bear and pear; it is also
sometimes used for any two pieces of lg that are identical except for a specific feature
e.g. The boy is here/the boys are here.
Minimal pair drill where minimal pairs are practiced together to help learners
distinguish a sound contrast.
The Phonics Approach vs. the Whole Language Approach
Phonics— a method of teaching children to read. Children are taught to recognize the
relationship between letters and sounds. They are taught the sounds which the letters
of the alphabet represent and then try to build up the sound of a new or unfamiliar
word by saying it one sound at a time.
Whole language— an approach to reflect principles of both first and second language
acquisition:
Language is presented as a whole and not as isolated pieces: it attempts to teach
language in real contexts and situations and emphasizes the purposes for which a
language is used
Learning activities move from whole to part. For example, students might read a
whole article rather than part of it.
All four modes of language are used, thus lessons include all four skills of listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
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Language is learned through social interaction with others, hence students often work
in pairs or groups instead of individually.
Teacher-centered vs. learner-centered teaching
Teacher-centered (fronted) teaching— a teaching style in which instruction is
closely managed and controlled by the teacher, where students often respond in
unison to teacher questions, and where whole-class instruction is preferred to other
methods.
Learner-centered teaching— methods of teaching which emphasizes the active role
of students in learning, tries to give learners more control over what and how they
learn and encourages learners to take more responsibility for their own learning. It is
encouraged by many current teaching approaches.
Target language vs. native language
Target language—the language which a person is learning
Native language— a first language or mother tongue which is acquired first.
Form vs. function (Language analysis vs. language use)
Form— the physical characteristics of a thing-> in language use, a linguistic form is
like the imperative
Function— a linguistic form can perform a variety of different functions: (Speech
acts)
Come here for a drink-> invitation
Watch out-> warning
Turn left at the corner-> direction
Pass the salt-> request
Structural syllabus & Notional syllabus & notional-functional syllabus
Structural syllabus—A syllabus organized around lists of grammatical
structures. E.g. the Audiolingual Method
Notional syllabus—A syllabus organized around sets of general concepts, such as
abstract concepts (existence, space, time, quantity, quality) and contexts/situations
(travel, health, education, shopping and free time)
Notional-functional syllabus (or functional syllabus)- the functional part of the
syllabus attended to functions as organizing elements of a foreign language
curriculum such as identifying, reporting, denying, apologizing, etc. (Van Ek &
Alexander, 1975) e.g. CLT. It provided popular underpinnings for the development of
communicative textbooks and materials in English lg courses. But this syllabus, not a
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method, does not necessarily develop communicative competence in learners since it
is only a syllabus and it still presents lg as an inventory of units- functional rather than
grammatical units. Communicative competence implies a set of strategies for
negotiating meaning. But it attends to pragmatic use of lg and provides contextual
(notional) settings to realize the functional purposes.
CALL-- computer-assisted language learning
such as collaborative projects, peer-editing of compositions, E-mail, web page design,
reinforcement of classroom material, games and simulations, computer adaptive
testing and speech processing.
3 P (or PPP)- a classroom teaching procedure of presentation, practice and production
(from the Situational Approach) (See also Handout A Part I)
Multiple Intelligences Theory—by Howard Gardner in “Frames of Mind”
Human do not possess a single intelligence, but a range of intelligences. They are c,
verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic,
musical/rhythmic, intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences. All people have all of
these intelligences but in each person one or more of them is more pronounced.
Gardner in 1993 added an eighth intelligence, Naturalistic intelligence to account for
the ability to recognize and classify patterns in nature.
If we accept this concept, it suggests that the same learning task may not be
appropriate for all students. By keeping our eye on different individuals, we can direct
students to learning activities which are best suited to their own proclivities.
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2 English Teaching Methodology
Method as a unified, cohesive, finite set of design features, is now given only minor
attention in the past two decades since we recognize the diversity of lg learners in
worldwide contexts which demand an eclectic blend of tasks. So there will never be a
method for all as what the designer methods claimed to be. The focus in recent years
has been “a search for valid communicative, interactive techniques suitable for
specified learners pursuing specific goals in specific contexts.” The interaction
between one’s approach and classroom practice is the key to dynamic teaching. Still
getting to know issues, findings, conclusions and principles of lg learning and
teaching along with teaching methods available equips lg teachers with more promise
to success.
A: Grammar-translation method (Prussian Method or Classical Method) (1840-1940)
Origin: In the Western world, foreign language learning in schools was synonymous
with the learning of Greek or Latin. Latin was thought to promote intellectuality
through mental gymnastics (exercise) and was taught by “the Classical Method,”
whose focus was on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and translation of
texts, and doing written exercises. Little thought was given at the time to teaching
oral use of language and foreign languages were taught as any other skill.
This approach became the Grammar-Translation Method late in the 19th century.
Goals:
it helps students read and appreciate foreign language literature;
through the deductive study of the grammar of the target language, students would
become more familiar with the grammar of their native language;
that will help them grow intellectually ;(metal-discipline theory)
reading and writing are the major focus;
accuracy is emphasized
Curriculum design:
teacher’s role: teacher-centered
learner’s role: passive
L1’s role: dominant
Classroom interaction: teacher-student interaction
Activity design and evaluation: early reading of difficult classical texts, translation,
rote memory (p.19) of lists of isolated words; classroom quizzes and formal written
tests
Advantages (a and b) and drawbacks (c-f):
(a) reading training and easily constructed tests of grammar and translations which
can be graded objectively
(b) few specialized skills required on the teacher
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(c) an inability of students to use L2 for communication
(d) tedious approach
(e) no theory/rationale to support it in terms of linguistics, psychology or educational
theory
(f) little attention to the content of texts
B. Direct Method: (1860-1920) (Book 2 P.43-5) affected by Gouin’s Series Method
and Berlitz’s efforts but declined both in Europe and USA by the end of the first
quarter of the 20th century when a reading approach became popular in the USA.
I. Background
Origin: toward the mid-nineteenth century, a reaction to the grammar-translation
method and its failure to produce learners who could use the foreign language they
had been studying were formed. Naturalistic principles of language learning were
proposed since speech was the fundamental elements of language. (L. Sauveur and
Maximilian Berlitz ) For example:
1. the spoken language is primary and that this should be reflected in an oral-based
methodology; lg learning is primarily a matter of transforming perceptions into
conceptions.
2. the findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training
(1886, IPA)
3. learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form
4. words should be presented in sentences; that is in context
5. the rules of grammar should be taught only after the students have practiced the
grammar points in context (inductive)
6. translation should be avoided
Approach:
Principle: meaning is to be conveyed directly in the TL through the use of
demonstration on everyday vocabulary and sentences and visual aids and no
translation is allowed.
Characteristics:
No use of L1
Beginning with dialogs and anecdotes to build up oral communication skills
Grammar and culture taught inductively
Actions and pictures to make meanings clear
Advantages: learners are highly motivated and the use of native-speaking teachers are
the norm
Drawbacks:
It overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic first language
learning and classroom foreign language learning (F. Gouin, mid 19th century)
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It lacked a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory
Only native- speaker teachers are required although at times L1 is more efficient to
comprehension; it largely depends on the teacher’s skill
It is time-consuming and can only be conducted in small classes
C. Background of Audiolingualism (the 1930s to 1960s): (also called the Michigan
Method or the Army Method)
Origin: By the 1920s, use of the Direct Method in noncommercial schools in
Europe had declined. In France and Germany, it was gradually modified into versions
that combined some Direct Method techniques with more controlled grammar-based
activities. On the other hand, the European popularity of the method in the early
20th century caused foreign language specialists in the U.S. to have it implemented
but with caution. The goal of trying to teach conversation skills was considered
impractical due to the restricted time available in school, the limited skills of teachers
and the perceived irrelevance of conversation skills in a foreign language for the
average American college student. Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a
reading-based approach through the gradual introduction of words and grammatical
structures in simple reading texts. Reading then became the goal of most foreign
language program in the U.S. until World War II.
In order to supply the U.S. government with personnel who were fluent
in other foreign languages, the government commissioned American universities to
develop foreign language programs for military personnel. The objective of the
programs was for students to attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign
languages. Linguists, such as Leonard Bloomfield at Yale, had already developed
training programs known as “the informant method”. The informant, a native
speaker of the language, served as a source of phrases and vocabulary and provided
sentences for imitation and a linguist supervised the learning experience. The
students and the linguist were able to take part in guided conversation with the
informant and gradually learned how to speak the language. This was adopted by
the army and in small classes of mature and highly motivated students, excellent
results were often achieved.
The Army Specialized Training Program lasted only about two years but attracted
considerable attention. It convinced a number of linguists of the value of an
intensive, oral-based approach to the learning of a foreign language. In addition, With
America emerging as a major international power, there was a growing demand for
English teachers to thousands of foreign students entering the U.S. to study in
universities. These factors led to the emergence of Audiolingualism in the
mid-fifties.
Charles Fries, trained in structural linguistics, established the first English Language
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Institute in the University of Michigan in 1939. For him, unlike Direct Method, the
language was taught by systematic attention to pronunciation and by intensive oral
drilling of its basic sentence patterns. Expertise in linguistics was regarded as a
necessary foundation for expertise in language teaching. Particularly, the
Contrastive Analysis in applied linguistics was strongly applied to predict language
interference. Influenced by the launching of the first Russian satellite in 1957, the
U.S. government acknowledged the need for a more intensive effort to teach foreign
languages in order to prevent Americans from being isolated from scientific advanced
made in other countries. Funds for the study and analysis of modern languages were
provided. Language teaching specialists combined structural linguistic theory,
contrastive analysis, behaviorist psychology and aural-oral procedures to propose
Audiolingualism. (coined by Nelson Brooks in 1964) It even provided
methodological foundation for English teaching materials at college and university
level to prosper such as the Lado English Series (1977) and English 900 (1964).
Principles:
A language is speech; speaking skills should be presented first.
Language mastery is represented as acquiring a set of appropriate language
stimulus-response chains, a habit formation. Students developed correct language
habits by repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in
language labs.
Analogy, the processes of generalization and discrimination, provides a better
foundation for language learning than analysis. Drills can enable learners to form
correct analogies.
The meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.
Characteristics of the approach
A conversation is followed by an introduction to sentence patterns and drills of them.
Students’ errors have to be corrected right away to prevent the formation of bad
habits.
A variety of drills are presented to reinforce positive learning.
Vocabulary learning is kept to minimum.
Influences:
(1) Language learning is a process of habit formation.
(2) A variety of drills are introduced to language teaching.
Drawbacks:
(1) Students are found to be unable to transfer skills acquired to real communication
outside the classroom.
(2) The experience of studying through audiolingual procedures may be boring and
unsatisfying.
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(3) The theoretical foundation of auidolingualism was attacked as being unsound both
in terms of language theory and learning theory.
(4) Language is not a habit structure: Ordinary linguistic behavior involves innovation,
formation of new sentences and patterns. (Transformation Grammar by Noam
Chomsky 1966)
(5) Human language use is not limited behavior but is created anew from
underlying knowledge of abstract rules. Sentences are not learned by imitation and
repetition but generated from the learner’s underlying competence.
D. The Silent Way Method: (the early 1970s) one of the Designer Methods by David
Nunan (promises of success; one size fits all)
Origin:
This method was devised by Caleb Gattegno to the teaching of initial reading in
which sounds are coded by specific colors with cuisenaire rods (developed by
Georges Cuisenaire, a European educator who used them to teach math). He believed
that learning is best facilitated if the learner discovers and creates language rather than
just remembering and repeating what has been taught.
The Audio-lingual Method has the problem that students are unable to transfer the
habits they have mastered in the classroom to communicate use outside it.
Furthermore, the idea that learning a language meant forming a set of habits was
seriously challenged in the early 1960s, particularly by Linguist Noam Chomsky. He
proposed that speakers have knowledge of underlying abstract rules, which allow
them to understand and create new utterances.
In addition, in the early 1970s, the emphasis on human cognition led to see learners in
a more active role to formulate hypotheses to discover the rules of the target language.
When errors occur, they are signs that learners are testing their hypotheses. The
general objective of this method is to give beginners oral and aural facility in basic
elements of the target language such as near-native fluency, correct pronunciation and
mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language. It adopts a basically
structural syllabus, with lessons planned around grammatical items and related
vocabulary. Language items are introduced according to their grammatical
complexity. The “function vocabulary” because of their high utility such as numbers,
prepositions, pronouns, quantifiers and so on is introduced early in the course. The
Silent Way shares certain principles with the Cognitive Approach.
Principles:
Teaching should be subordinated to learning= learning through self-reliance (key
words- independence, autonomy and responsibility)
Learning is a problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which learners are
expected to become independent, autonomous and responsible.
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Learning is not primarily imitation or drill- The teacher’s strict avoidance of
repetition forces alertness and concentration on the part of the learners:
The teacher should be silent as much as possible to let the learners do the learning. So
the teacher does not dominate learning processes.
Each student has a retaining system.
What students have experienced is recorded in their language systems. There is no
need to repeat the language concept they have already gained from their L1. In silence,
students concentrate on the task to be accomplished.
Silence, as avoidance of repetition, is thus an aid to alertness, concentration, and
mental organization.
Students’ self-awareness leads to self-correction.
When students are aware of how their learning is and become alert to it, they can try it
and correct themselves at any time.
Characteristics of the method:
The teacher silently monitors students’ interaction and creates an environment that
encourages student risk taking.
Special teaching aids are used such as a pointer, cuisenaire rods, sound-color chart,
fidel charts and word charts to provide students physical foci for their learning and
also create memorable images to facilitate student recall.
Influences:
Teaching is subordinated to learning. (discovery learning, responsible learners)
Language learning can also train students to be independent and responsible.
Teachers don’t model pronunciation but direct and monitor students’ performance.
It promotes the use of phonemic charts and points to objects and sounds and
Cuisenaire rods as well as the use of discovery techniques. (Book 6, p 161)
Criticism:
It was too harsh a method and the teacher was distance. Some aspects of language can
be taught directly instead of having students struggle for hours.
The rods and charts wore thin after a few lessons. Other than those, it resembled any
other language classroom.
E. Desuggestopedia: one of the Designer Methods, tapping subconscious resources
Origin:
Originator: in the 1970s by Georgi Lozanov, a Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator
An affective-humanistic approach (respect for learners’ feelings): derived from
Suggestology
Suggestology: science concerned with the systematic study of the nonrational and
nonconscious influences that human beings are constantly responding to; involving
loading the memory banks with desired and facilitating memories
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Desuggestion: involving unloading the memory banks or reserves of unwanted or
blocking memories; in this method the suggestive atmosphere takes place with soft
lights, baroque music, cheerful room decorations, comfortable seating and dramatic
techniques used by the teacher in the presentation of material
Principles:
(1) Most learning takes place in a relaxed but focused state so attentiveness can be
manipulated to optimize learning and recall.
(2) The emphasis on memorization to vocabulary pairs—a target language item and
its native language translation—suggests a view of language in which lexis is central
and in which lexical translation rather than contextualization is stressed
(3) Six principal components through which desuggestion and suggestion operate
Authority: people remember best and are most influenced by information coming
from an authoritative source
Infantilization: a teacher-students relation is like that of parent to child; learners take
part in role playing, games, songs and gymnastic exercises that help the older students
regain the self-confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of the child.
double-planedness (involving both hemispheres of the brain (analysis + synthesis) &
using both the conscious and unconscious mind): the learner learns not only from the
effect of direct instruction but from the environment in which the instruction takes
place
intonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness: Varying the tone and rhythm of
presented material helps both to avoid boredom through monotony of repetition and to
dramatize, emotionalize, and give meaning to linguistic material. Both intonation and
rhythm are coordinated with a musical background. The musical background helps to
induce a relaxed attitude, concert pseudo-passiveness in which anxieties and tension
are relieved and power of concentration for new material is raised.
Characteristics:
(1) The students with a new identity and personal information
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(2) The decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and
the authoritative behavior of the teacher to create an optimal learning environment
(3) Teachers trained to read dialogues in a special way of using voice quality,
intonation, and timing to deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly and
have students understand and create solutions of problems
(4) The centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning
(a) Three functions of music in therapy by Gaston in 1968
(i) to facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal relations
(ii) to bring out increased self-esteem through increased self-satisfaction in musical
performance
(iii) to use the unique potential of rhythm to energize and bring order (Lozanov calls
upon in his use of music to relax learners as well as to structure, pace and punctuate
the presentation of linguistic material)
(B) The type of music:
slow movements (sixty beats a minute) in 4/4 time for Baroque concertos strung
together into about a half-hour concert (the body relaxed, the mind alert)
an eight-second cycle for pacing out data at slow intervals: the first four beats of the
cycle is silence, the second four beats the teacher presents the material (The
experiments show that not only human but vegetable subjects thrive under 60-beat
stimulation)
The procedure:
At the beginning of the session, all conversation stops for a minute or two, and the
teacher listens to the music coming from a tape-recorder. He waits and listens to
several passages in order to enter into the mood of the music and then begins to read
or recite the new text, his voice modulated in harmony with the musical phrases. The
students follow the text in their text-books where each lesson is translated into the
mother tongue. Between the first and second part of the concert, there are several
minutes of solemn silence. In some cases, even longer pauses can be given to permit
the students to stir a little. Before the beginning of the second part of the concert,
there are again several minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard
again before the teacher begins to read the text. Now the students close their
textbooks and listen to the teacher's reading. At the end, the students silently leave the
room. They are not told to do any homework on the lesson they have just had except
for reading it cursorily once before going to bed and again before getting up in the
morning. (Lozanov 1978: 272)
Influences and contributions:
(1) fine arts to relax learners
(2) emphasis of keeping students’ privacy and dealing with their feelings
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(3) contexualized dialogues that are culturally based for developing functional
proficiency through role-plays and other interactive activities
(4) an interest in the development of accuracy, as explanations are provided for
grammatical structures learned
Drawbacks:
(1) questionable results from Suggestopedia of Lozanov’s experiment data
(2) lack of practicality
(3) the input material is almost pedagogically prepared: lack of authenticity
F. Community Language Learning (Counseling- Learning): (1970s) one of the
Designer Methods stressing the role of the affective domain in promoting cognitive
learning
Origin:
CLL was developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates in Chicago, 1955. It is
sometimes cited as an example of a humanistic approach and derives its primary
insights from counseling. With that, the roles of the teacher are the counselor and
learners, the clients. The counselor does not automatically assist the clients but
passively offer his help to them. CLL involves humanistic techniques which engage
the whole person, including the emotions and feelings as well as linguistic knowledge
and behavioral skills. Influenced by Carl Roger’s humanistic psychology, Curran
found that adults often feel threatened by a new learning situation or fear that they
will appear foolish. A way to deal with the fears of students is for teachers to
become language counselors, skillful understanders of the struggle students face as
they attempt to internalize another language. In this way, teachers can help students
overcome their negative feelings and further turn them into positive energy in
learning.
Principles:
Learning is persons: human individuals need to be understood and aided in the
process of fulfilling personal values and goals; this is best done in community with
others striving to attain the same goals; whole-persons learning in a relationship of
trust, support, and cooperation between teacher and students and among students
Learning is dynamic and creative: learning is a living and developmental process
Building a relationship with and among students is important as well as lessening
their fears to a new learning situation.
Teachers do not remain in the front of the classroom to reduce threat to them.
To let students feel secure facilitates their learning such as use of L1, more
cooperation in the community, understanding what will happen in each activity and so
on.
Characteristics:
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a conversation in a beginning class in L1 with translation of the teacher and later on
transcription
students sitting in a circle with a tape recorder: a dependent community to cooperate
with each other rather than compete with each other.
teachers as counselors and students as clients: sensitive to students’ feelings and fears
six elements necessary for nondefensive learning: security, aggression, attention,
reflection, retention and discrimination
Contributions and influences:
the role of teachers as counselors who understand and assist students to help them
overcome the threatening affective factors
emphasis of classroom interaction in cooperation, not competition
respect for students’ choice of learning content with a learner-generated conversation
no translation but for Ss to induce rules
Drawbacks:
The procedure doesn’t ensure that a variety of contexts necessary for coping in the
target culture is included since the content is determined by the participants.
Students may feel uncomfortable with the apparent lack of structure or sequence in
the introduction of grammatical and lexical items; that is too much reliance on an
inductive strategy of learning. Besides, there is no syllabus for CLL, a posteriori
approach to syllabus specification. The teacher is too nondirective. Finally, the
success of CLL depended largely on the translation expertise of the counselor.
Review of the principles: (Book 1) ten key questions to answer
What are the goals of teachers who use the CLL method?
-- To learn how to use the target language communicatively in a nondefensive manner
What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
T—a counselor; S—a client
The relationship between T and S from dependency to independency through five
stages (focus of fluency or accuracy)
What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
a conversation in L1-> translation in chunks recording of the conversation a
transcript with L1 equivalents activities based on the conversation
six elements necessary for nondefensive learning
security—non-threatening learning environment
aggression—actively involved in the learning experience
attention—ability to attend to many factors simultaneously by narrowing the scope of
attention initially
reflection—when Ss reflect on the language as the teacher reads the transcript three
times; when Ss are invited to stop and consider the active experience they have
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retention—the integration of the new material that takes place within the whole self
discrimination—sorting out differences among target language forms such as Human
Computer
What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of
student-student interaction?
S-T first and S-S interaction afterwards; teacher-student-centered with both being
decision-makers in the class
How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
Inviting Ss to comment on how they feel to keep their security
How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Language for communication in a supportive learning process; culture as an integral
part of language learning
What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Grammar points, pronunciation patterns and vocabulary based on the language Ss
generate; the importance of understanding and speaking the language at first, then
reading and writing
What is the role of the students’ native language?
L1 to enhance students’ security as a bridge from the familiar to the unfamiliar; literal
L1 equivalents but less L1 in later stages
How is evaluation accomplished?
An integrative test rather than a discrete-point one such as writing a paragraph or an
oral interview or self-evaluation too
How does the teacher respond to student errors?
T repeats correctly what Ss say incorrectly without calling further attention to the
error
G. Total Physical Response (TPR): by James Asher, 1977, one of the Designer
Methods
Origin:
Developed by James Asher in the 1970s, TPR is a language teaching method built
around the coordination of speech and action. TPR is linked to the developmental
psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy. It is based on the belief that
the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is to
follow instruction uttered by the instructor without native language translation.
In psychology, it is linked to the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more
often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory
association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. Retracing can be done
verbally such as rote repetition or in association with motor activity.
In addition, in a developmental sense, Asher claims that speech directed to young
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children consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before
they begin to produce verbal responses. The emphasis on developing
comprehension skills before the learner is taught to speak links to the so-called
Comprehension Approach, the principles of which share the belief that (1)
comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language; (2) the
teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established; (3)
skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills; (4)teaching should emphasize
meaning rather than form; (5) teaching should minimize learner stress (Richards &
Rodgers, 1986).
There are other methods being practiced under this common ground such as Krashen
and Terrell’s Natural Approach, which emphasizes students’ developing basic
communication skills and vocabulary through their receiving meaningful exposure to
the target language. By using pictures and occasional words in the students’ native
language, teachers have to make sure their input is comprehensible, acquisition will
proceed naturally and a low affective filter should be created to reduce anxiety.
Another example is Winitz and Reed’s self-instructional program and Winitz’ The
Learnables. In this method, students listen to tape-recorded words, phrases, and
sentences while they look at accompanying pictures. The meaning of the utterance is
clear from the context the picture provides.
Another method is the Lexical Approach developed by Michael Lewis. It is more
concerned that students receive abundant comprehensible input. Especially at lower
levels, teachers talk extensively to the students while requiring little or no verbal
response from them. They are particularly encouraged to notice multi-word lexical
items such as I see what you mean.
Principles:
Understanding of the target language should be developed before speaking.
Meaning can often be conveyed through actions, especially by using commands.
Feelings of success and low anxiety facilitate learning.
Spoken language should be emphasized over written language.
Teachers should be tolerant of errors which are expected to be made by students.
Meaning is more important than form.
Influences:
Learning a foreign language is similar to the first language acquisition.
Make language learning as enjoyable as possible in a low-anxiety environment->
Feelings of success and low anxiety facilitate learning, especially effective for
beginners
TPR represents a useful set of teaching ideas and techniques that can be integrated
into other methodologies for certain instructional purposes.
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Limitations:
There may be substantial limitations on what can be effectively accomplished in terms
of proficiency goals through commands only (especially for advanced learners)
There is little emphasis on the development of accuracy in Asher’s description of the
method.
H. The Natural Approach (one of the Designer Methods): Tracy Terrell since 1982,
influenced by Stephen Krashen’s theories in the 1970s
Origin: a set of principles for language teaching adapted from
ways in which a first language is acquired, based on Krashen’s theories
Assumptions:
The goal is the ability to communicate with native speakers of the target language: the
level of communicative competence needed for minimal communication acceptable to
native speakers is much lower than that supposed by most teachers so the expectations
for structural accuracy should be lowered and the key to comprehension and oral
production is the acquisition of vocabulary.
Comprehension precedes production due to the silent period.
Production emerges naturally in stages. (inevitable errors within but correction of
errors is negative in terms of motivation, or attitude)
Group work encourages speech.
The affective filter should be lowered usually by TPR activities for the beginners.
Students are permitted to respond in both L1 and L2.
Influence of Krashen’s theories
(1) The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis: Adult L2 learners have two means for
internalizing the interlanguage but learning cannot lead to acquisition. Learning and
acquisition are mutually exclusive so large doses of acquisition activities in the
classroom with little rote learning is recommended
Acquisition
Learning
Implicit, subconscious process of
Explicit, conscious process where students
constructing the system of a lg, similar to attend to form, figure out rules, and are
children picking up their L1
aware of the process
Informal situations
Formal situations
Inductive learning of grammar
Deductive learning of grammar
Based on attitude
Based on aptitude
Stable order of acquisition
Simple to complex order of learning
(2) The Monitor Hypothesis
assumption: Conscious learning can function only as a monitor that checks and repairs
the output of the acquired system and we may call upon learned knowledge to correct
ourselves when we communicate.
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The monitor is involved conscious learning, not in acquisition.
Three conditions that limit the successful use of the monitor
--Time, focus on form, and knowledge of rules
(3) The Natural Order Hypothesis: following the earlier morpheme order
studies of Dulay & Burt, 1974 (there was a natural order in which grammar was
acquired, the order didn’t reflect the order in which items were taught, the natural
order could not be altered by instruction.-> it was not necessary to drill grammar)
Assumption: Grammatical items will be acquired in a
predetermined order that cannot be changed by
formal instruction.
cross-linguistic influence and learner language-naturalistic
developmental processes especially during acquisition, not learning.
(4) The Input Hypothesis: the relationship between input and language
acquisition
Assumption:
(i) learners subconsciously acquire language from input, a little beyond their current
competence; the acquirer understands input lg that contains structure a bit beyond his
current level of competence. So speaking cannot be taught directly or very early in the
lg classroom because speech will emerge as long as input is sufficient.
(ii) The hypothesis relates to acquisition, and not to learning
(iii) The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly but emerges independently
in time after learners have built up linguistic competence.
(iv) if there is a sufficient quantity of comprehensible input, I+1 will usually be
provided automatically.
Input gets converted to intake: input is language a learner hears or receives from
which he or she can learn e.g. reading a book, listening to a conversation or watching
a movie; intake is the subset of all input that actually gets assigned to our long-term
memory store (what you can remember over a period of time) so input should not be
too difficult for learners to convert input to intake through a learner’s process of
linking forms to meaning and noticing gaps between the learner’s current internalized
rule system and the new input.
Caretaker speech (provided to child acquirers of L1, rough-tuned to their present level
of understanding) & foreigner talk (to adult acquirers, native speakers use simplified
communication with foreigners)
Criticism:
1. The distinction between subconscious (acquisition) and conscious (learning) is
fuzzy- what is conscious and subconscious?
2. There is no evidence to show that there is no overlap between acquisition and
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learning: Krashen’s zero option (don’t teach grammar by Ellis) is not supported:
Varying degrees of learning and acquisition can both be beneficial, depending on the
learner’s styles and strategies
3. Success in a foreign language cannot be attributed to input alone since the Input
Hypothesis ascribes little credit to learners, and their own active engagement.
4. How input turns to intake is not clearly operationalized or consistently proposed.
5. The notion of i + 1 is nothing new but a reiteration of meaningfulness or
subsumability.
6. Enough input does not guarantee speech/production.
Refutation:
1.High/Low Input Generators by Seliger: a broader conceptualization of the role of
input that gives learners more credit for eventual success
HIG- people who are good at initiating and sustaining interaction or generating input
from others; high levels of interaction both in the classroom and outside so faster rate
in learning
LIG- more passive learners who do little to generate input from others; less interactive
in the classroom
2. Comprehensible Output Hypothesis by Swain
Comprehensible input must at least complemented by a significant amount of output
that gives credit to the role of the learner’s production. Output serves an important
role in SLA because it generates highly specific input the cognitive system needs to
build up a coherent set of knowledge.
(5) The Affective Filter Hypothesis
three kinds of affective variables related to SLA- motivation, self-confidence and
anxiety
Acquirers with a low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact with
confidence, and are more receptive to the input they receive
* Implications for language teaching
As much comprehensible input as possible must be presented
Whatever helps comprehension is important such as visual aids
Focus should be on listening and reading.
Meaningful communication rather than form as well as interesting input and a relaxed
classroom atmosphere should be centered to lower the affective filter
* Criticism of Krashen’s theories:
Drawbacks of the Natural Approach
The lack of form-focused instruction or corrective feedback in classroom instruction
and students’ responsibility for self-correction
Students speak much too soon, thereby raising anxiety and lessening the possibility of
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further risk-taking as the learner tries to progress.
* He modified this assertion in later years that an advance organizer to establish
form-meaning relationships in communicative activities is beneficial.
I. Communicative Language Teaching (A functional approach since 1970s (Hadley,
p.116)): since 1970s it is an approach, not a method; a unified but broadly based
theoretical position about the nature of language and of language learning and
teaching. (by Richards & Rodgers, 1986)
Background
This approach is found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating
from the late 1960s. A lot of British linguists contributed to the formation of the
Communicative Approach which aims to make communicative competence (Hymes,
1972) the goal of language teaching and develop procedures for the teaching of the
four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and
communication. Communicative competence is what a speaker needs to know in
order to be communicatively competent in a speech community.
Richards and Rodgers (1986) described CLT as an approach rather than a method,
since it represents a philosophy of teaching that is based on communicative lg use.
Advocated by many applied linguists, CLT in their views emphasizes
notional-functional concepts and communicative competence, rather than grammatical
structures, as central to teaching. The major characteristics are:
1. Meaning is primary; contextualization is basic.
2. Attempts to communicate in TL are encouraged in the beginning of instruction.
3. Material sequencing is determined by the content, meaning, and function.
4. L1 is acceptable when feasible.
5. Activities and strategies for learning are varied.
6. Communicative competence is the goal of instruction.
In Hyme’s view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both
knowledge and ability for language use with respect to
whether something is formally possible;
whether something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;
whether something is appropriate in relation to a context in which it is used and
evaluated;
whether something is in fact done, actually performed and what its doing entails
Halliday’s functional account (1975) of language use is also favored in CLT. He
described seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first
language:
the instrumental function: using language to get things
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the regulatory function: using language to control the behavior of others
the interactional function: using language to create interaction with others
the personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings
the heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover
the imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination
the representational function: using language to communicate
A functional approach: CLT (Hadley, p.116)
Richards and Rodgers (1986) described CLT as an approach rather than a method,
since it represents a philosophy of teaching that is based on communicative lg use.
Advocated by many applied linguists, CLT in their views emphasizes
notional-functional concepts and communicative competence, rather than grammatical
structures, as central to teaching. The major characteristics are:
6. Meaning is primary; contextualization is basic.
7. Attempts to communicate in TL are encouraged in the beginning of instruction.
8. Material sequencing is determined by the content, meaning, and function.
9. L1 is acceptable when feasible.
10. Activities and strategies for learning are varied.
6. Communicative competence is the goal of instruction.
Canale and Swain (1998) identify four dimensions of communicative competence:
Grammatical competence- similar to linguistic competence by Chomsky by what is
formally possible
Sociolinguistic competence- understanding of the social context in which
communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the
participants, and the purpose for their interaction
Discourse competence- the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of
cohesion and coherence
Strategic competence- the coping strategies to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and
redirect communication
Principle: communication, task, meaningfulness principles
1. the communication principle: Activities that involve communication
promote lg learning.
2. the task principle: Activities that involve the completion of real-world
tasks promote learning.
3. the meaningfulness principle: Learners must be engaged in meaningful
and authentic language use for learning to take place.
Influences:
The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
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The activities that truly communicative have features of information gap, choice, and
feedback; they must be guided by the teacher for unrehearsed situations. Authentic
materials should be used.
True communication is purposeful.
Activities are better carried out in small groups in which interaction among students
are maximized.
Criticism:
Being prejudiced in favor of native-speaker teachers by demanding a relatively
uncontrolled range of language use and expecting the teacher to be able to respond to
any and every language problem which may come up.
A basis of group and pairwork and less teacher intervention against education
traditions
Lack of the explicit teaching of grammar -> a consequent loss among students in
accuracy in the pursuit of fluency
Practice in the classroom:
Grammatical structures had better be subsumed under various functional categories.
Authentic materials are preferred.
There should be less attention to grammatical rules but fluency should never be
encouraged at the expense of clear, unambiguous, direct communication.
Technology and increased teachers’ lg proficiency now make achieving the goals of
CLT possible.
Communication continuum
Non-communicative activities
Communicative activities
No communicative desire
A desire to communicate
No communicative purpose
A communicative purpose
Form not content
Content not form
One language item only
Variety of language
Teacher intervention
No teacher intervention
Materials control
No materials control
J. Cooperative Language Learning (focus on teamwork) (& Collaborative
Learning-focus learning with able peers or elders)
Background
1. Features: group learning activities to promote cooperation among
students rather than competition.
2. antecedents: John Dewey, an US educator in the early 20th century,
promoted the idea of building cooperation in learning into regular classrooms on a
regular and systematic basis.
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Approach
Theory of language
Environment: “ All normal children are born to talk.”-> Communication is generally
considered to be the primary purpose of language.
Conversation: Most talk is organized as conversation.
conversational maxims 格言 (cooperative rules) (Grice 1975)
the ways of application of the maxims: through casual , everyday conversational
interaction
in SLA, cooperatively structured interactional activities realize the maxims
Theory of learning
The importance of social interaction in learning (Piaget and Vygotsky)
critical thinking: “the Question Matrix” by Wiederhold, 1995 from simple recall of
information to forming conceptual judgments
six learning advantages for ESL students in CLL classrooms
increased frequency and variety of second language practice
development or use of language in ways that support cognitive development and
increased language skills
integration of content-based instruction
various curricular materials to stimulate language and concept learning
teachers’ freedom to master new professional skills, emphasizing communication
students as resources for each other
Design
Objectives: to foster cooperation, to develop critical thinking, and to develop
communicative competence
Syllabus: no particular form but use of group-based procedures
types of learning and teaching activities
* three aspects to attend to:
(a) types of cooperative language learning groups (Johnson,1994)
Time
Purposes
Features
Formal cooperative One class period to
To achieve shared
A specific task
learning groups
learning goals
involving students
working together
several weeks
Informal cooperative A few minutes to a
learning groups
class period
To focus student
attention
Cooperative base
groups
To allow members
to cooperate with
each other to
succeed
Long term in
heterogeneous
learning groups
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academically
(b) key elements of successful group-based learning in CLL (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)
(i) positive interdependence: mutual support
(ii) group formation
-- decide on the size of the group up to the kind of tasks, age of learners, time limits
-- assign students to groups e.g. teacher-selected, random or
student-selected
(iii) individual accountability（責任制）: group and individual performance
(iv) social skills: explicit instruction in social skills
(v) structuring and structures: ways of organizing student
interaction
(c) three major kinds of cooperative learning tasks (Coelho, 1992)
(i) team practice from common input-skills development and mastery of facts
(ii) Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined input-evaluation and synthesis of facts
and opinions
(iii) Cooperative projects: topics/resources selected by student-discovery learning
learner roles: to learn teamwork skills, and to self-evaluate usually in pair tasks
teacher roles: facilitator of learning by create a learning environment and providing
broad questions to challenge thinking
role of instructional materials: variations of materials to suit Ss’ variability
Criticism:
the use with learners of different proficiency levels benefits only intermediate and
advanced learners
too many demands on teachers
K. Content-Based Instruction (especially for ESP, EOP, and immersion programs)
(Book 3 p. 49)
Background:
Acquiring content (a subject matter) through language under the influence
of Immersion Education where foreign language instruction is taught through the
medium of the foreign language or for learners who need language to carry out
specific roles such as nurse, engineer and so on (Language for Specific Purposes)
Approach:
Theory of Language
Language is text- and discourse-based
Language use draws on integrated skills
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Language is purposeful
Theory of Language Learning
(1) People learn a second language most successfully when the information they are
acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful, and leading to a desired goal.
(2) Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than others.
(e.g. Geography)
(3) Students learn best when instruction addresses students’ needs.
(4) Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners.
Design
Objectives
(1) to activate and develop existing English language skills
(2) to acquire learning skills and strategies that could be applied in future language
development opportunities
(3) to develop general academic skills applicable to university studies in all subject
areas
(4) to broaden students’ understanding of English-speaking peoples
Syllabus
the macro syllabus: a sequence of modules selected to reflect students’ interests and a
multidisciplinary perspective
the micro syllabus: more specific modules and mastery of certain skills
Types of learning and teaching activities
Stroller (1967): six activities according to their instructional focus
language skills improvement
vocabulary building
discourse organization
communicative interaction
study skills
synthesis of content materials and grammar
Mohan’s knowledge framework (1986): six universal knowledge structures
Learner roles: autonomous learners who learn by doing
Teacher roles
needs analysis
essential skills for this method by Stryker and Leaver
The role of teaching materials: materials typically with the subject matter of the
content course
Criticism: most language teachers are not trained to teach a subject matter but
team-teaching proposals can work
Advantages: it yields to an increase of intrinsic motivation and combination of
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language learning and different disciplines
L Task-Based Language Teaching: not a new method but from a perspective of CLT
Background
definition of “task”
Richards (2001:224): an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as
finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a phone
call, etc. Tasks should resemble real-life language use. (CLT)
Nunan (1989:10): the communicative task is a piece of classroom work which
involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the
target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than
form. The task also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a
communicative act in its own right.
Breen (1987): a language learning task is a structured plan for the provision of
opportunities for the refinement of knowledge and capabilities entailed in a new
language and its use during communication.
Prabhu (1987): a task is an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome
from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers
to control and regulate the process
Crookes (1986): a task is piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified
objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data
for research (not only summaries, essay and class notes but drills, dialogue readings)
the key assumptions (Feez, 1998:17)
process over product
purposeful activities
communicative interaction
life need or pedagogical purpose
different factors of the difficulty of a task
three kinds of tasks
occupational tasks
team tasks
academic tasks
Approach
1. Theory of language
Language is primarily a means of making meaning
Multiple modes of language inform TBI: criteria to classify tasks
(a) structural model (determining the linguistic complexity of tasks): Language is
simply seen as less-to-more complex in fairly traditional ways, since linguistic
complexity is interpretable as constrained by structural syllabus consideration.
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(b) functional model: task goals (Berwick); personal, narrative, and decision-making
tasks (Foster & Skehan)
(c) interactional model: interactional activity and communicative goal (Pica)
Lexical units are central in language use and language learning: to consider lexical
phrases, sentence stems, prefabricated routines, and collocations since speech
processing is based on the production and reception of whole phrase units larger than
the word-> fluency over accuracy
Conversation is the central focus of language and the keystone of language
acquisition.
2. Theory of language learning: besides those from CLT, additional learning principles
are
Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition
The negotiation of meaning is the central element in SLA
During the negotiation of meaning, some part of a learner’s
utterance requires modification (e.g. pronunciation, grammar, lexicon)
(c) Comprehensible input is not enough for adequate second language development;
opportunities for productive use of language are also critical for full language
development (by Swain, the Output Hypothesis); tasks is the pivot point for
simulation of input-output practice, negotiation of meaning, and transitionally focused
conversation.
Task activity and achievement are motivational: because tasks are genuinely authentic,
easy to understand
Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical
purposes: to develop fluency and an awareness of language form by selecting tasks
with appropriate demands of cognitive processing
Design
Objectives
Both objectives and selection of tasks are determined by the specific needs of
particular learners
The syllabus should be communicative or task-based
A communicative syllabus
1. This syllabus developed from the communicative language teaching in the 1980
and 90s.
2. It attempts to develop a framework either for a general course or a restricted
setting
3. versions of a communicative syllabus: competency-based, text-based, and
task-based
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Rationale
Examples
Competency-based 1. It is based on a specification of
syllabus
the competencies learners are
expected to master in relation to
specific situations and activities
2. It is also widely used in social
survival and work-oriented
language programs.
* competencies= the essential
skills, knowledge, and attitudes
“telephone”
1. read and dial phone
numbers
2. identify oneself on the
phone when answering and
calling
3. requests to speak to sb
4. respond to request to hold
5. respond to offer to take
required for effective performance messages
of particular tasks and activities
Text-based syllabus 1. It is built around texts and
samples of extended discourses
2. A context for language learning
should be identified. (e.g.
telephone negotiations with
contractors)
e.g.1 exchanges- simple,
complex, or casual
e.g.2 forms- simple or
complex formatted texts
Task-based syllabus 1. Tasks are activities that drive
Two types of tasks for
the SLA process
syllabus design
2. Grammar teaching is not central 1. pedagogical tasks
here since learners will acquire it jigsaw tasks
as a by-product of carrying out
information-gap tasks
tasks
problem-solving tasks
3. Tasks are motivating for
decision-making tasks
learners and engage them in
opinion exchange tasks
meaningful communication
2. real-world tasks
Syllabus: comparison of a conventional syllabus (specify content and learning
outcomes)and a task-based one (concerned with the process dimensions of learning)
two kinds of tasks by Nunan
(i) real-world tasks: to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found importance in a
needs analysis and turn out to be important and useful in the real world e.g. using the
phone
(ii) pedagogical tasks: having a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but
do not necessarily reflect real-world tasks e.g. an information-gap task
considerations to sequence tasks by Honeyfield
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procedures, input text, output required, amount
and type of help given, role of
teachers and learners, time allowed, motivation, confidence, and learning styles
Types of activities
six task types by Willis (1996)
-- listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal
experiences, creative tasks
tasks according to types of interaction by Pica (1993)
(i) Jigsaw tasks
(ii) information-gap activities
(iii) problem-solving tasks: a single solution of the outcome
(iv) decision-making tasks: usually several possible outcomes for the problem given
(v) opinion exchange tasks: no need to reach agreement
one-way or two way; convergent or divergent; collaborative or competitive; single or
multiple outcomes; concrete or abstract language, simple or complex processing,
simple or complex language; reality-based or not reality-based
(4) learner roles
(a) group participant
(b) monitor: attend to both meaning and form in the message
(c) risk taker and innovator: to create and interpret messages for
which the lack full linguistic resources and prior experience
(5) teacher roles
(a) selector and sequencer of tasks
(b) preparing learners of tasks
(c) consciousness-raising: form-focusing techniques e.g.
attention-focusing pre-task activities, text exploration, guided
exposure to parallel tasks, and use of highlighted material
(6) Role of Teaching materials
(a) pedagogical materials
(b) realia: newspapers, TV, the Internet
Procedure
pretask activities: introduction to topic and task
task activity: task, planning, report
posttask activities
influence:
dependence on tasks as the primary source of pedagogical input in teaching and the
absence of a systematic grammatical or other type of syllabus to characterize it
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aspects justified in TBLT: proposed schemes for task types, task sequencing,
evaluation of task performance
(3) weakness: the basic assumption of it remains in the domain of ideology rather than
fact
* In conclusion:
TBLT views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly
linked to the curricular goals they serve, the purposes of which extend beyond the
practice of lg.
A task is an activity in which
1. meaning is primary
2. there’s some communication problem to solve
3. task completion has some priority
4. the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome
M. Neurolinguistic Programming by John Grindler and Richard Bandler (the mid
1970s)
Definition: neuro= about brain, linguistic=communication (both verbal and
nonverbal), programming=observable patterns of thought and behavior
Neuro linguistic programming (NLP for short) was developed in the early 1970s
by an information scientist and a linguist at the University of California at Santa Cruz.
They had observed that people with similar education, training, background, and years
of experience were achieving widely varying results ranging from wonderful to
mediocre. They wanted to know the secrets of effective people. What makes them
perform and accomplish things. They were especially interested in the possibility of
being able to duplicate the behavior, and therefore the competence, of these highly
effective individuals. It was the golden era of modeling and simulation. They
decided to model human excellence. They looked at factors such as education,
business and therapy. They have then zeroed in on the communication aspect. They
started studying how the successful people communicated (verbal language, body
language, eye movements, and others). By modeling their behavior, John Grinder and
Richard Bandler were able to make out patterns of thinking that assisted in the
subject's success. The two theorized that the brain can learn the healthy patterns and
behaviors and that this would bring about positive physical and emotional effects.
What emerged from their work came to be known as Neuro-Linguistic
Programming.
The basic premise of NLP is that the words we use reflect an inner, subconscious
perception of our problems. If these words and perceptions are inaccurate, they will
create an underlying problem as long as we continue to use and to think them. Our
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attitudes are, in a sense, a self-fulfilling prophecy.
The neuro linguistic therapist will analyze every word and phrase you use in
describing your symptoms or concerns about your health. He or she will examine
your facial expressions and body movements. After determining problems in your
perception, the therapist will help you understand the root cause. The therapist will
help you remodel your thoughts and mental associations in order to fix your
preconceived notions. These preconceived notions may be keeping you from
achieving the success you deserve.
NLP will help you get out of these unhealthy traits and replace them with
positive thoughts, and patterns that promote wellness.
how people influence each other and how behaviors of very effective people could be
duplicated (Modeling successful performance leads to excellence)
key principles:
outcomes: We learn how others have responded to a particular situation we are facing.
We see the differences in the approaches and in the outcomes. Based on it, we may
voluntarily make changes to our own behavior.
Rapport: No one is wrong or broken. People work perfectly to accomplish what they
are currently accomplishing.
sensory acuity: Every one of us uses one or a combination of these senses to perceive
the world.
Flexibility: The person who is most likely to do well responds to changing (or
unchanging) circumstances appropriately.
L. The Lexical Approach by Lewis, 1993
An approach to teaching languages that has a lot in common with the
communicative approach, but also examines how lexical phrases, prefabricated
chunks of language, play an important role in producing fluent speech. The lexical
approach was first coined by Michael Lewis.
The fundamental principle of the lexical approach is "language consists of
grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar." What this means is that lexical
phrases offer far more language generative power than grammatical structures.
Accordingly, advocates of this kind of approach argue that lexis should move to the
center of language syllabuses. Justification for this theory comes from statistical
analysis of language which shows that we do indeed speak in chunks and collocations.
chunks: Several words that commonly occur together in fixed phrases sometimes
referred to as a lexical phrase. We tend to speak in chunks which reduces the energy
required for processing language. So chunks are parts of an utterance. For example,
“It was because of the rain that I was late” has two chunks or parts- It was because of
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the rain and that I was late.
Collocations: the tendency for certain words to occur with or near other words with
higher frequency than chance such as “perform” is used with “operation”, but not with
“discussion.”
Application of The Lexical Syllabus (Willis, 1990)- the Collins Cobuild English
Course
O. The Post-Methods Era (Book 4, p.244): death of methods and approaches by the
end of the 20th century because some of them are unlikely to be widely adopted, for
they are difficult to understand and use, lack clear practical application, require
special training, and necessitate major changes in teachers’ practices and beliefs.
Approach: CLT, Competency-based Language Teaching, Content-based Instruction,
Cooperative Learning, Lexical Approaches, MI, the Natural Approach,
Neurolinguistic Programming, Task-based Language Teaching, and Whole Language
Method (lasting up till the late 1980s): ALM, Situational Language Learning, the
Silent Way, Suggestopedia, TPR, Counseling-Learning (CLL)
More specifically, the criticisms are:
The top-down criticism
Role of contextual factors
The need for curriculum development processes
Lack of research basis
Similarity of classroom practices
So for teachers nowadays, they should attend to:
Self-awareness and self-observation
reflective teaching: an approach to teaching and to teacher education which is based
on the assumption that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the
quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences. In
teacher education programs, activities aim to develop the skills of considering the
teaching process thoughtfully, analytically and objectively, as a way of improving
classroom practices, including journals they write about, audio and video taping of a
teacher’s lesson, or group discussion with peers or a supervisor.
action research: classroom-based research where teachers formulate research
hypotheses, design a study, and a test, observe and give feedback to teach other and
treat errors. So teachers have to convert their ideas into specific research questions,
operationally define the elements of the question, determine how they will answer the
question, and interpret the results appropriately.
Portfolios: collections of Ss’ works over a period of time in various lg learning tasks,
allowing for a far more accurate form of lg learning evaluation than the traditional one,
which may measure specific, isolated skills and abilities at a specific time and doesn’t
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offer a full assessment of lg learning. So the benefits of using portfolios are (1)
linking assessment to instruction to ensure teachers are measuring what they have
taught, (2) planning for and evaluating portfolios to reveal any weaknesses in
instructional practices and (3) no time lost on assessment, good for individualized
instruction.
Part III: Practice
* Overview of teaching methodology and culture teaching
1. Introduction of important terminology of TESOL
2. Development of English Teaching Methodology
3. Curriculum design
4. Teaching the four and sub-skills
5. Language testing
6. Teacher development
Overview 1: The Dynamics of Methodological Change
1. 1840s to 1860s:
The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM; also the Classical Method):
Inspired by Latin and Greek learning in grammar schools for centuries in
Europe; aiming at appreciation of foreign literature and mental exercise
(Mental Discipline Theory) by deductive teaching of grammatical rules,
memorization of lists of isolated words, translations of texts and doing
written exercises.
It is criticized of being a tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of
unusable grammar rules and vocabulary and attempting to produce perfect
translations of literary prose. It is fully “theory-lessness”. However, it
requires few specialized skill on the par of teachers. Tests of grammar rules
and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. It is
at times successful in leading a student toward a reading knowledge of a L2.
The Direct Method (popular in the early 20th century): Deriving from
Gouin’s Series Method and then developed by Berlitz, who called it the
Berlitz Method
Refutation to GT, which ignored language use, and application of IPA (1886)
to assist teaching of pronunciation; L2 learning similar to L1 learning where
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lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the lg, no translation, and little or
no analysis of grammatical rules are found.
Ss are highly motivated and native-speaking teachers are employed. But it
was only favored in private schools which could afford small classes and
high budget. It is also criticized for its weak theoretical foundations. Its
success may have been a factor of the skill and personality of the teacher
rather than the method itself.
2. 1930s-60s:
The Audio-lingual Method: (after the Reading Approach)
Based on Behavioral Psychology, Structuralism and the Contrastive
Analysis (the morpheme studies), this method aims at using the target
language communicatively by intensive oral drilling of basic sentence
patterns but it was challenged by Noam Chomsky in the early 60s.
At the same time, the Situational Approach prevailed in the U.K.
It is criticized for its failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency,
misconceptions of learning as a process of habit-formation and overlearning,
avoidance of errors, and inadequate theoretical foundations of structural
linguistics which did not tell us everything about lg that we needed to know.
3. 1970s (the Designer Methods: promises of success, one size fits all by David
Nunan, 1989 ):
Influenced by the theories of second language learning such as the
Error Analysis, Krashen’s theories, Shumann’s
pidginization/acculturaltion Model; the 1970s is significant, for since
then research on SLA became a single discipline in its own right, and a
number of innovative methods were conceived.
The Cognitive Approach: (p.6)
The emphasis on human cognition led to see learners in a more active role
to formulate hypotheses to discover the rules of the target language. When
errors occur, they are signs that learners are testing their hypotheses.
Deductive and inductive grammar exercises were developed.
The Silent Way (by Caleb Gattegno): a problem-solving approach to learning
Discovery learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects
(Cuisenaire rods, wall charts) and problem-solving. In this way, learners
develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility.
Ss benefit from healthy doses of discovery learning and less teacher talk.
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However, it was too harsh a method and the teacher too distant. The rods
and charts wear thin after a few lessons and other materials then must be
introduced instead.
Desuggestopedia (by Georgi Lozanov): superlearning (relaxed concentration)
It assumes that the human brain could process great quantities of material if
given the right conditions for learning, among which are a state of
relaxation and giving over of control to the teacher. So it capitalizes on
relaxed states of mind for maximum retention of material where Ss are
encouraged to be as childlike as possible. Influenced by humanistic
psychology, this method respect learners’ feelings and desuggest their
limitations on learning via integration of the fine arts (music, paintings, and
drama) and peripheral learning.
It is criticized for the highly questionable experimental data of Lozanov and
a lack of practicality as well as the issue of the place of memorization,
excluding references to understanding or problem-solving. However,
deliberately induced states of relaxation may be beneficial in the classroom
and music has proved to help relax people.
Community Language Learning (by Charles Curran, 1972):
A counseling-learning model in which non-defensive learning is achieved
with six elements (security, aggression, attention, reflection, retention, and
discrimination) and learners are considered “whole persons.” It aims at
building a supportive community of Ss to interact in an interpersonal
relationship, to lower defenses, and to meet learner needs.
The principles of discovery learning, student-centered participation and
development of student autonomy (independence) remain viable in the
application to lg classrooms. But it was too restrictive for institutional lg
programs. Teachers are too non-directive, and their translation expertise
determines success. Finally, there is too much reliance on an inductive
strategy of learning.
Total Physical Response (by James Asher, 1977):
Based on the Comprehension Approach (p.6), understanding precedes
production. Meaning is conveyed through actions (instructions given by the
teacher); memory is increased if it is stimulated or traced through association
with motor activity which is a right-brain function (the trace theory of
learning). Learners’ learning anxiety has to be lowered.
It seems to be especially effective in the beginning level and its appeal to the
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dramatic nature of lg learning is attractive. It can also be used into more
advanced proficiency levels by incorporating more complex syntax into the
imperative. However, in TPR reading and writing activities, Ss are limited to
spinning off from the oral work in the classroom.
The Natural Approach (by Tracy Terrel and Stephan Krashen, 1982):
Acting on the claims of the Comprehension-based Approach, NA maintains
that production delayed until speech emerges and basic personal communication
skills taught in a relaxed atmosphere where the teacher provides comprehensible
input. Fluency is pursued instead of accuracy.
The most controversial aspects of NA are its advocacy of a silent period and
emphasis on comprehensible input since speech does not always emerge
naturally and the decision of which structure to be included is somehow intuitive.
However, NA’s advice of a silent period is good while Ss grow accustomed to a
new lg since their lg ego is not easily threatened and no immediate risk-taking is
forced.
4. 1980s: significance of communicative competence by Dell Hymes; functional
approaches
The Communicative Language Teaching: (learn to use English) the
notional-functional syllabus as a precursor to CLT
1. goal: communicative competence by using activities of information gap,
choice and feedback (Johnson and Morrow, 1981)
2. authentic language and materials
3. integration of forms, meanings and functions
4. the principles of task, meaningfulness and
The Content-based approach: (use English to learn it)
1. the integration of content learning which is relevant to and interesting to
Ss with lg teaching aims
2. Its effective form, competency-based instruction, develops learners’
language skills at the same time they learn survival or life-coping skills.
3. an increase in intrinsic motivation and empowerment
The Whole Language Approach: to describe cooperative learning, participatory
learning, learner-centered learning, focus on the community of learners and the
social nature of lg, use of authentic, natural lg, meaning-centered lg, holistic
assessment techniques in testing and integration of the four skills
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1. Language is regarded holistically, rather than pieces.
2. Learners work from the top-down to understand the meaning of whole
texts before they work on the linguistic forms- purposeful use of
language
3. the interaction and interconnection between oral lg and written lg
4. the importance of the written code as natural and developmental as the
oral code is.
The Task-based approach: (use English to learn it)
1. learning as a set of communicative tasks (techniques or activities) that
are directly linked to the curricular goals they serve, the purposes of
which extend beyond the practice of lg for its own sake
2. meaning is primary
3. there is some communication problem to solve
4. comparable real-world activities
5. task completion has some priority
6. the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome
The Participatory approach: (use English to learn it)
1. help learners to understand the social, historical, or cultural forces that
affects their lives and thus take action and make decisions to gain
control over their lives
2. The nature of the content is based on issues of concern to learners
(experiencec-centered)(difference to the Content-based approach)
Learning strategy training:
1. good language learners by Rubin 1975
2. Build on learners’ prior knowledge and learning experiences
3. To teach learning facilitates learners’ academic success
4. Learning strategies by Chamot and O’Malley (1994)
(a) metacognitive strategies
(b) cognitive strategies
(c) social-affective strategies
Cooperative Learning: (related to Grice’s Conversation Maxims)
1. Positive interdependence among students in groups in a cooperative way
2. Social skills to be taught
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3. Responsibility and accountability for each other; distributed leadership
4. more structured and more directive to Ss about how to work together in
groups than collaborative learning where Ss engage with more capable
others who provide assistance and guidance.
Interactive learning:
1. Most meaning is a product of negotiation-> group/pair work
2. authentic classroom tasks in real-world contexts by practicing oral
communication
3. based on the Interaction Hypothesis by Michael Long: the importance of
input and output in the development of lg where Ss interact with each
other through oral and written discourse to enhance their communicative
abilities.
Learner-Centered Instruction: one concern within a CLT framework
1. focus on learners’ needs, styles, and goals
2. empowerment of Ss
3. no presupposition of curricular objectives in advance
4. creative and innovative techniques
5. enhancement of Ss’ sense of competence and self-worth.
Multiple Intelligences: by Howard Gardner (1983)
1. two kinds of learners by Hatch, 1974
(a) data-gatherers
(b) rule-formers
2. multiple intelligences: Learners bring with them specific and unique
strengths
(a) logical/mathematical
(b) visual/spatial
(c) body/kinesthetic
(d) musical/rhythmic
(e) interpersonal
(f) intrapersonal
(g) verbal/linguistic
(h) naturalistic
Overview 2 Development of TESOL
I.
pre-twentieth-century trends
1. Before 14th and 15th centuries: focus on language use when first Greek and
then Latin were used as lingua francas.
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2. During the Renaissance, Latin as the formal object of instruction in schools
(classical Latin) and for everyday purposes (vulgate Latin)
3. in the 17th century: Latin ceased to be a lingua franca and the European
vernaculars grew for language use
4. in the early 19th century: The Grammar-Translation Approach used to
teach modern languages as well as Latin.
5. in the late 19th century: popular in Germany and France with the emphasis on
language use when IPA was established in 1886 which focused on spoken
language via phonetic training
6. in the early 20th century: The Direct Method was implemented in the US but
didn’t succeed due to few foreign language teachers
7. In the late 1930s to early 1940s: the Reading Approach was adopted based
on the Coleman Report (1929) where reading some of the great works of
literature and philosophy was introduced. Also it was used for the decline of
DM due to lack of native-speaking teachers, no opportunities for L2 use, and
usefulness of the Reading Approach.
8. During the World War II: the Audiolingual Method was developed due to
military needs of foreign language learners when the Oral or Situational
Approach gave rise in Britain (1940-60s) which advocated organizing
structures around situations that would provide the learner with maximum
opportunity to practice the target language, usually choral repetition.
II.
Nine Twentieth-century Approaches to Language Teaching
In addition to the five approaches above, four other approaches were widely used
during the final quarter of the 20th century
1. Cognitive: reaction to the Audiolingual Approach
(1) language learning as rule acquisition
(2) responsible learning
(3) both deductive and inductive grammar instruction
(4) de-emphasize pronunciation
(5) balance the four skills
(6) importance of vocabulary instruction
(7) errors as inevitable
(8) general language proficiency of the teacher
2. Affective-humanistic: reaction to the general lack of affective considerations
in both Audiolingualism and the Cognitive Approach
(1) respect learners’ feelings
(2) meaningful communication
(3) pair and group work
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(4) importance of class atmosphere
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
peer support and interaction
self-realization from language learning
teacher as a counselor or facilitator
translation as necessary in the initial stages only
3. Comprehension-based: an outgrowth or research in L1 acquisition
(1) importance of listening comprehension
(2) nonverbal responses in meaningful ways
(3) a silent period
(4) comprehensible input
(5) monitoring
(6) little error correction
(7) appropriate teaching materials for non-native teachers
4. Communicative: an outgrowth of Hymes and Halliday to see language as a
system for communication
(1) the ability to communicate in the target language
(2) social functions of language
(3) group and pair work
(4) role play and dramatization
(5) authentic materials
(6) integrative skills
(7) teacher as a facilitator
(8) teacher to use TL fluently and appropriately
*Communicative competence is a linguistic term for the ability not only to apply the
grammatical rules of a language to form correct utterances, but also to know when to
use these utterances appropriately. The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,
reacting against the inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's distinction between competence
and performance. According to a 1980 paper by Canale and Swain which has become
canonical in applied linguistics, communicative competence consists of four
components:
grammatical competence: words and rules
sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness
discourse competence: cohesion and coherence
strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategies
A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it
into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both
grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence,"
which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.
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Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely
accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education.
This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was
commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has
been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning
speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.

central points of each approach
1. cognitive approach: Language is rule-governed cognitive behavior,
not habit formation
2. affective-humanistic approach: learning a foreign language is a
process of self-realization and of relating to other people
3. comprehension approach: language acquisition occurs if and only if
the learner comprehends meaningful input
4. communicative approach: the purpose of language is
communication
Review: the key issues of TESOL
I.
Brainstorm the following terms with their correspondent theories
1. Mental Discipline Theory
2. Behaviorism
3. the Contrastive Analysis
4. Language Acquisition Device and Universal Grammar
5. Whole person
6. The Designer Methods
7. Communicative Competence
8. Top-down processing & bottom-up processing
9. the 8th intelligence by Gardner
10. The Classical Method
11. IPA
12. The Army Method
13. Habit formation
14. Cruisenaire Rods, sound-color chart, fidel charts, word chart
15. adoption of fine art, music and drama
16. Imperatives
17. Lexical chunks learning
18. i+1
19. time, focus on form, and knowledge of rules
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20. survival methods
II.
21. Conversational maxims (Grice)
22. the Comprehension Approach
23. experienced-centered content
short-answer questions
1. What makes an activity communicative (Morrow)?
2. Three kinds of task-based activities?
3. six elements necessary for nondefensive learning?
4. What is 3 P?
5. What are three kinds of learning strategies defined by Chamot and
O’Malley?
6. What are five hypotheses Krashen proposed?
7. What is Grice’s maxims?
8. two kinds of learners by Hatch?
9. six principal components through which desuggestion and suggestion
operate?
Review
Culture Teaching (Teaching language in context by A.O. Hadley)
1. Why teaching culture?
(1) lg study is an essential component in the curriculum in part because it can
lead to greater cross-cultural understanding
(2) lg and culture are inseparable.
However, little has been discussed about the relationship between lg and
culture and little consensus on how the teaching of lg and culture should be
integrated has been reached.
2. problems in the teaching culture
(1) Too much time has to be involved if culture is taught.
(2) Teachers are afraid of teaching it due to lack of cultural knowledge
- A facts-only approach to culture teaching is ineffective.
(3) Teachers may neglect it since it involves dealing with student attitudes, a
somewhat threatening area
3. four ways of teaching culture by Galloway, 1985
(1) the Frankenstein Approach: A taco from here, a flamenco dancer from there, a
gaucho from here, a bullfight from there
(2) The 4-F Approach: folk dances, festivals, fairs, and food
(3) The Tour Guide Approach: the identification of monuments, rivers and cities
(4) The “By the Way” Approach: sporadic (偶然) lectures or bits of behavior
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selected indiscriminantly to emphasize sharp differences
4. indefinite definition of “culture” as the source of difficulty in culture teaching
(1) Brooks (1975): culture is everything, and event the best in human life so
exposure to the great literary masterpieces of L2 is to cultivate learners. (Olympian
culture or culture MLA (music, literature and art))
(2) Seelye (1993): Culture is a broad concept that embraces all aspects of human life
form folktales to carved whales; it includes both Olympian culture and Hearthstone
culture (culture BBV- beliefs, behavior, and values)
e.g. ALM in the 1960s contains hearthstone culture (little-c) which began to
emphasize formal (big-C) culture- five-part definition of culture
Culture 1: Biological growth
Culture 2: Personal refinement
Culture 3: Literature and the fine arts
Culture 4: Patterns for living (Teachers should focus on this first, and then 3 or 5)
Culture 5: The sum total of a way of life
(3) Nostrand’s Emergent Model (1967): 9 objectives in various social
situations for Ss to be able to react appropriately by analyzing and
describing a culture using the main “themes”, not topics.e.g. French
culture- individualism, realism, intellectuality and the art of living. Themes
are not any topics or values but an emotionally charged concern, which
motivates or strongly influence the culture bearers’ conduct in situations
(4) Seelye (1993): modified the kinds of understanding by Nostrand by
developing a set of six instructional goal- to help Ss develop interest in who
in the target culture did what, where and when, and why, and finally the
ability to explore the culture and evaluate generalizations.
(5) Lafaytte (1988): a simple direct approach that exploits existing content and
practice by applying five goals, knowledge of formal or high culture
( geography, history, art), knowledge of everyday or popular culture,
affective objectives (valuing different peoples and societies), multicultural
objectives (e.g. TL-related ethnic groups in U.S.), and process objectives
(evaluating the validity of statements about a culture and developing
research and organizational skills).
(6) AATF (the American Association of teachers of French): cultural
competence- communication in cultural context, the value system, social
patterns and conventions, social institutions, geography and the
environment, history, literature and the arts.
5. Models for building cross-cultural understanding
(1) Galloway: convention (context- or function-determined conventions),
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connotation, conditioning, comprehension
(2) Hanvey: four levels- superficial traits, significant traits, intellectual level,
the level of empathy (living)
6. strategies for teaching culture
(1) plan cultural lessons carefully as lg activities and integrated into lesson plans
(2) Present cultural topics in conjunction with related thematic units and related
grammatical content
(3) Use a variety of techniques in the four skills.
(4) Make good use of textbook illustrations and photos.
(5) Use cultural information when teaching vocabulary.
(6) Use small-group techniques for culture instruction
(7) Avoid a facts only approach.
(8) Use L2 whenever possible to teach cultural content
(9) Test cultural understanding as carefully as lg is tested
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Charts of Important Teaching Methods (You can add each method’s origin,
originator, the time of popularity, influences and shortcomings.)
The
Grammar-Translation
Method
The Direct Method
goals
1. to read literature written
in the target language
2. to develop students’
mind
To communicate in the
target language by learning
to think in the target
language
The role of the teacher
authority
Director and partners
The role of the students
Passive listeners
partners
Characteristics of the
Translation, deductive
1. T demonstrates word
teaching/learning processes learning of grammar,
meanings through the
memorization of words and
use of realia, pictures,
equivalents
or pantomime
2. situation or topic-based
syllabus
3. inductive learning of
grammar
4. practice vocabulary in
complete sentences
5. Ss speak a lot
S-T or S-S interaction
The feelings of the students
Mostly T->S
both
no
no
View of culture & language 1. literary language is
superior to spoken
language
2. culture consists of
literature and fine arts
1. language is primarily
spoken
2. culture consists of the
history of the target
culture, the geography
of the country, and
information about the
daily lives of the
speakers
Emphasis of skills & areas Reading and writing;
vocabulary and grammar
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1. vocabulary over
grammar
2. pronunciation teaching
in the beginning
3. oral communication as
basic
The role of L1
Mostly used in class for
translation
No L1
evaluation
Written tests (translation) Oral interviews or
and practice of grammatical paragraph writing (not to
rules
demonstrate the knowledge
about the language but how
to use the language)
Error correction
T provides the correct
Self-correction
answer; the correct answer
should be got
techniques
Translation of a literary
passage, reading
comprehension questions,
antonyms/synonyms,
cognates, deductive
application of rule,
fill-in-the-blanks,
memorization, use words in
sentences, composition
Reading aloud, question
and answer exercise, getting
students to self-correct,
conversation practice,
fill-in-the-blank exercise in
the target language,
dictation, map drawing,
paragraph writing
The Audio-lingual Method Communicative Language
Teaching
goals
To use the target language
communicatively by
forming new habits in the
target language and
overcoming the old habits
of their L1
To enable students to
communicate in the target
language based on the
knowledge of the linguistic
forms, meanings, and
functions
The role of the teacher
An orchestra
Facilitator, advisor,
leader/modeler
co-communicator
imitator
Communicator to negotiate
meaning
The role of the students
Characteristics of the
1. dialogues learned
teaching/learning processes
through imitation and
repetition
2. drills are conducted
3. induce grammar from
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1. Communicative
activities that have
features of information
gap, choice, and
feedback
examples
S-T or S-S interaction
2. communication is
4. positive reinforcement
for correct responses
5. cultural information is
contextualized in the
dialogues
6. reading and written
work based on the oral
work
purposeful
3. the use of authentic
materials
4. group/pair work
Teacher-directed S-S
interaction; mostly T to S
S-S in pairs or groups
The feelings of the students no
1. learning to
communicate motivates
students
2. allow students to
express their
individuality
3. cooperative activities to
enhance student security
View of culture & language 1. every language is seen
1. language is for
as having its own
communication;
unique system which is
linguistic competence+
comprised of
communicative
phonological,
competence
morphological, and
2. culture is the everyday
syntactic levels
lifestyle of the target
2. Everyday speech is
population, including
emphasized
verbal and nonverbal
3. the complexity of
behaviors
speech is graded
4. culture consists of
everyday behavior and
lifestyle of the target
language speakers
Emphasis of skills & areas 1. Minimum of vocabulary 1. a functional syllabus
2. practice the sound
2. language at the
system and
suprasentential level
“grammatical patterns”
(cohesion and
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3. pronunciation teaching
coherence)
with minimal pairs
3. integration of the four
4. oral skills over receptive
skills
skills
The role of L1
L1 interference by the
Contrastive Analysis
No L1 except for explaining
activities or assignments
evaluation
Discrete-point tests
Evaluation of both fluency
and accuracy in students’
performance or integrative
tests such as writing to a
friend
errors
Should be avoided
Tolerance of errors during
fluency-based activities
techniques
Dialogue memorization,
backward build-up drill,
repetition drill, chain drill,
substitution drill,
transformation drill,
question-and-answer drill,
use of minimal pairs,
Scrambled sentences,
language games, picture
strip story, role play
complete the dialogue,
grammar game
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The Silent Way
Desuggestopedia
goals
To enable students to
express themselves and
develop independence from
the teacher and their own
inner criteria for correctness
To tap more of students’
mental power for learning a
foreign language for
everyday communication
by desuggesting their
psychological barriers
The role of the teacher
Technician or engineer for
learner autonomy
Authority students must
trust and respect
The role of the students
Independent and
responsible learner
Trusted partner
Characteristics of the
1. a sound-color chart to 1. bright and cheerful
teaching/learning processes
associate sounds of the
learning environment
target language with
with posters displaying
particular colors
grammatical
2. minimal spoken cues to
information for
produce structures in
peripheral learning
situations
2. new identity for Ss
3. feedback from students 3. handouts with lengthy
about the class
dialogues with
translation of L1
4. two concerts to activate
the whole brain receptive (active and
passive concerts)and
activation phases
(dramatization, songs,
games)
S-T or S-S interaction
S->T, S-S verbal interaction T initiates interaction
collectively or individually,
Ss respond nonverbally
and then verbally
The feelings of the students 1. T observes students
1. desuggest students’
2. S’s feedback to express
psychological barriers
how they feel
2. suggest they can
3. a relaxed, enjoyable
succeed
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learning environment by 3. give a new identity for
cooperation
Ss to feel secure
View of culture & language 1. language universals and
individual features
2. culture and language are
interconnected
1. two-plane process of
communication: language
(conscious), nonverbal
behaviors that affect how
one’s linguistic message is
interpreted (subconscious)
Emphasis of skills & areas 1. pronunciation and
structures at the
beginning
1. Emphasize vocabulary
2. teach grammar
explicitly but minimally
2. no, fixed, linear,
3. emphasize speaking
structural syllabus:
communicatively
recycle structures
4. include reading and
according to learning
writing also
needs
3. integrate four skills but
usually speaking and
listening first
The role of L1
1. L1 only in instructions
1. L1 translation to make
or during feedback
sessions
2. L1 transfer
the meaning of the
dialogue clear
2. L1 used in class when
necessary but less and
less
evaluation
Assess students all the time No formal tests but normal
but no praise or criticism
in-class performance
errors
Self-correction or peer
correction
Errors gently corrected
techniques
Sound-color chart, peer
Classroom set-up,
correction, teachers’ silence, peripheral learning, positive
rods, self-correction
suggestion, role play,
gestures, word chart, fidel concerts, creative and
charts, structured feedback adaptive activities
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Community Language
Learning
Total Physical Response
goals
To use the target language
communicatively in a
nondefensive manner
To learn to communicate in
a foreign language
enjoyably as Ss did in
acquiring L1
The role of the teacher
Counselor who recognizes
learners’ fear of learning
director
The role of the students
From dependence to
independence
imitator
Characteristics of the
1. learner-generated
1. modeling of the
teaching/learning processes
conversation in L1
instructor
2. T translates to L2 and 2. recombine elements of
Ss record the lines in
the commands
chunks
3. read and write
3. transcript in L1 and L2
4. Ss reflect on what they
learn
5. six elements for
nondefensive learning:
security, aggression,
attention, reflection,
retention, and
discrimination
S-T or S-S interaction
S-S, T-S
(teacher-student-centered)
1. T to the whole class or
individuals; Ss respond
nonverbally
2. Later Ss command and
T respond
The feelings of the students Student security from
1. allow learners to speak
feedback, knowing time
when they are ready
limits, the amount of
2. Make language learning
language they can handle at
more enjoyable
one time
3. not too much modeling
and no rush
View of culture & language 1. Language is for
communication where
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1. Speech is primary
2. culture is the lifestyle of
learning is persons
the target people
2. culture as an integral
part of language
learning
Emphasis of skills & areas Listening and speaking at
first, particular grammar
points, pronunciation
patterns and vocabulary
1. emphasize vocabulary
and grammatical
structures (imperatives)
2. spoken over written
language;
comprehension before
production
The role of L1
Use of L1 to enhance
student security from
unfamiliar to familiar by
equivalents of L1 and L2
L1 in introducing TPR
Body movements to convey
meaning
evaluation
Integrative tests or
self-evaluation
Evaluate students’
performance of a series of
actions
errors
Repeat students’ errors in a Tolerate errors and only
nonthreatening way
correct major errors
unobrusively
techniques
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Tape recording student
Commands, role reversal,
conversation, transcription, action sequence
reflection on experience,
reflective listening, human
computer, small group tasks
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3. Curriculum Design: syllabus design, selection of teaching materials,
lesson plans
 Whole-class teaching (Book 6, Chapter 8)
Advantages: It reinforces a sense of belonging among the group
members; it is suitable for activities where the teacher is acting as a
controller, it allows teachers to gauge the mood of the class in general;
it is the preferred class style in many education settings where students
and teachers feel secure.
Disadvantages: It favors the group rather than the individual;
individual don’t have much chance to speak on their own; many
students are disinclined to participate in front of the whole class; it may
not encourage students to be responsible for their own learning; it is
not the best way to organize CLT.
 Individual teaching
Advantages: It allows teachers to respond to individual
differences; it is likely to be less stressful for students than performing
in a whole-class setting; it can develop; learner autonomy and promote
skills of self-reliance; it can be a way of restoring peace and tranquility
to a noisy and chaotic situation.
Disadvantages: It doesn’t help a class develop a sense of
belonging; much thought and materials preparation are involved.

3.
Pair-work teaching:
Advantages: It dramatically increases the amount of speaking
time, it allows students to work and interact independently; it promotes
cooperation in the classroom; it is relatively quick and easy to
organize.
Disadvantages: Pairwork is frequently noisy; students may veer
away; it is not always popular with students; the actual choice of paired
partner can be problematic.
Classroom management:
(a) physical environment: (1) sight, sound, comfort (2) seating
arrangement (semi-circles, U-shapes or concentric circles), (3) chalkboard
use (neat and orderly), (4) equipment
(b) your voice(to be heard) and body language
(c) teaching under adverse circumstances
(i) teaching large classes
problems of large classes
 variable proficiency and ability
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 minimized individual T-S attention
 fewer student opportunities to speak
 limited feedback from T on Ss’
written work
solutions
 To make each student feel
importance by learning names and
using them
 To assign Ss as much interactive
work as possible
 To optimize the use of pair work and
small-group work
 To do more listening comprehension
activities
 To use peer-editing, feedback, and
evaluation in written work
 To give a range of extra-class work
 To collect written work at different
times
 To set up small learning centers
 To organize informal conversation
groups and study groups
(ii) teaching multiple proficiency levels in the same class
Do not overgeneralize your assessment of Ss’ proficiency levels
Diagnose Ss’ competencies which may vary among different
skills
Offer choices in individual techniques that vary according to
needs and challenges (varying extra-class work)
Use learning centers
Talk toward the middle of the levels of proficiency in your class
The role of the mother tongue in class
(a) Why students use L1 in class?
-The language required by an activity is hard to use in L2
- It is natural to use L1, even code-switching
- Teachers use L1 often.
- The amount of L1 use is related to Ss’ differing styles and
abilities.
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(b) Attitudes to L1 in the classroom
- advantages of L1 use: grammar explanations, checking
comprehension, giving instructions, discussing classroom
methodology, and checking for sense. There is no evidence L2
only improves learning efficiency.
- Whether we should try and stop L1 use?
Ss are likely to use L1 but it should depend on when they use it, for oral
fluency or comprehension. Teachers still have to provide comprehensible
input and teacher-talking time is important in lg acquisition. However, L1
use may help especially for low-level students. So teachers have to set clear
guideline of when to use L1, choose appropriate tasks which students are
capable of doing in English, create an English atmosphere, and use
persuasion and other inducements.
Strategies-Based Instruction: to equip Ss with a sense of what successful
language learners do to achieve success and to aid them in developing their own
unique, individual pathways to success especially in a large class (p.97)
(a) good language learners (Book 3 p.209)
(b) how to teach strategies in the classroom
(i) teach strategies through interactive techniques (Book 3 p.216)
(ii) use compensatory techniques: e.g. to overcome low tolerance of ambiguity
by brainstorming, paraphrasing
(iii) administer a strategy inventory (Book 3 p.221-5 by Oxford)
(iv) make use of impromptu teacher-initiated advice (to develop style
awareness) e.g. Did you practice a lot?
* strategic investment: A learner’s own personal investment of time, effort, and
attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies
for comprehending and producing the language. So two major pedagogical
implications are: (1) the importance of recognizing and dealing with the wide variety
of styles and strategies that learners successfully bring to the learning process and (2)
the need for attention to each separate individual in the classroom through specific
strategies-based instruction.
Computers in language teaching: birth of educational technology in the 1940s
actually and growth in the 1970 and 80s
(a) what computers can’t do
(i) machine translation
(ii) providing appropriate feedback to learners
(iii) voice recognition
(iv) grammar checking
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(v) essay marking
(b) what computers can do
(i) drills: word processor for composition
(ii) adaptive testing
(iii) reference: corpora and concordancing (for preparation of teaching
materials, creation of lists of collocations, and looking at the context where a
given word occurs); the Internet (authentic English, access to kinds of
information)
(iv) computer mediated communication: E-mail exchange (usually in informal
styles for fluency promotion), chat
multimedia production: digital video, hypertext
(c) use of videos (Book 6 Chapter 20)
(i) why use video: seeing language –in-use; cross-cultural awareness; the
power of creating; motivation
(ii) problems: the nothing new syndrome, poor quality tapes and disks; poor
viewing conditions, stop and start, the length of extracts, fingers and thumbs
(iii) types: off-air programs, real-world video, lg learning video
viewing techniques: fast forward, silent viewing for lg or music, freeze frame,
partial viewing
(iv) listening techniques: pictureless listening (lg, music, and sound effects),
picture or speech
(c) Development of technology: the 1950s (lg lab)-> the 1980s (PC)-> now
(multimedia(combination of images, sounds, and texts with interactive
control by the learner); the Internet)
(d) benefits of technology:
- multimodal practice with feedback
- individualization in a large class
- pair/group work on projects
- the fun factor
- variety in the resources available and learning styles used
- exploratory learning with large amounts of lg data
- real-life skill-building in computer use
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Integrating the Four Skills- a recent trend toward skill integration , a whole lg
approach, manifested in five models
1. Why integration? (Book 3 Ch15 p.232-44)
(a) It gives students greater motivation that converts to better retention of
principles of effective speaking, listening, reading and writing.
(b) Students are given a chance to diversify their efforts in more
meaningful tasks.
(c) Support of observations: for a skills-integrated approach within a
communicative framework
(i) production and reception are two sides of a coin.
(ii) Interaction means sending and receiving messages.
(iii) Written and spoken language are interrelated.
(iv) For literate learners, the interrelationship of written and spoken language
is an intrinsically motivating reflection of language and culture and society.
(v) By attending to what learners can do with language, all of the four skills
are invited to the classroom.
(vi) Often one skill reinforce another.
(vii) Most of our natural performance involves the integration of skills and
connections between language and the way we think, feel and act.
2. models of integration of skills:
(1) Content-based instruction 內容取向教學: the strong version (subject first)
and the weak version (both the subject and the lg valued-> theme-based
instruction)主題取向教學
(a) integrates the learning of some subject-matter with the learning of a
second language
(b) examples: immersion programs for elementary-school children(strong
version)沈浸式課程
(c) purpose: applying the meaningful learning principle to set useful and
practical objectives and increase the intrinsic motivation
(d) targeted students: usually pertains to academic or occupational
instruction over an extended period of time at intermediate-to-advanced
proficiency levels.
(e) Challenges: too demanding on teachers since they should possess both
knowledge of the lg and the subject matter(a double expert)
(f) Integration of skills in reading, discussing, problem-solving, writing
reports, etc.
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(2). Theme-based (topic-based) instruction for EAP 學術英語
(a) especially for the intermediate to advanced levels e.g. in an intensive
English course; to structure a course around themes or topics to serve
multiple interests of Ss while focusing on content as well as institutional
needs for a lg course
(b) major principles of theme-based and content-based instruction
(i) automaticity 運用自如
(ii) meaningful learning 有意義的學習
(iii) intrinsic motivation 內在動機
(iv) communicative competence 溝通能力
(c) possible activities: environmental statistics and facts for reading,
writing, discussion and debate
(3) Experiential learning 體驗學習
(a) give students concrete experiences through which they discover
language principles by trial and error by processing feedback, by building
hypotheses about language and by revising the assumption to become
fluent; include activities that engage both left and right-brain processing,
that contextualize lg, that integrate skills toward authentic purposes
(b) foundations from Dewey
(i) learning by doing
(ii) inductive learning by discovery
(c) popular in elementary- school teaching to activate psycho-motor
aspect (physical actions) of language learning e.g. the Language
Experience Approach(Book 3 p.239)語言經驗法
advantages: intrinsic involvement of students in creating their own stories;
directly involved in the creative process of fashioning their own products
(4) The Episode Hypothesis (John Oller, 1983) Book 3 p.240 故事情節假設說
(a) inspired by “The Series Method “by Gouin in the 19th century: present
language in an easily followed storyline; the Series Method teaches Ss
directly (no translation) and conceptually (no rule) a series of connected
sentences that are easy to perceive.
(b) Assumption: Text will be easier to reproduce, understand, and recall
to the extent that it is structured episodically like drama without knowing
what’s going to happen next.
(c) Strengths: to form expectancies (a certain sense of drama of what’s
going to happen next, i.e. suspense), stories are universal, integration of
skills
(5) Task-based teaching 任務導向教學: an overall approach to organize a course
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around communicative tasks that learners need to engage in outside the
classroom (Handout A p.113)
(a) principles: a task is an activity in which
(i) meaning is primary
(ii) there is some communication problem to solve
(iii) there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities
(iv) task completion has some priority (the functional purposes whose input
can be from speeches, interview, cartoon strips..)
(v) the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome
(b) distinction
(i) target tasks (real-world tasks) 目標任務
student musts accomplish beyond the classroom
more specific and explicitly related to classroom instruction than
the functions of language in the Notional-Functional Syllabuses
e.g. giving personal information in a job interview
(ii) pedagogical tasks 教學任務
the nucleus of the classroom activity
include both formal and functional techniques
e.g. drills in the use of frequency words
(c) distinctiveness of task-based curricula: more language- based than
content-based, theme-based and experiential instruction by maintaining
the centrality of functions like greeting people, expressing opinions to
build learners’ pragmatic language competence; focus on a whole set of
real-world tasks from authentic sources e.g. interviews, public
announcement
4. teaching the four skills and the subskills
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5. Language testing: ypes of tests: contrasting categories of ESL tests
Knowledge tests
Performance (or skills) tests
Subjective tests
Objective tests
Productive tests
Receptive tests
Language subskill tests
Communicative skills tests
Norm-referenced tests
Criterion-referenced tests
Discrecte-point tests
Integrative tests
Proficiency tests
Achievement tests
Diagnostic tests
Aptitude tests
Knowledge tests: how well students know facts about the language
Performance (or skills) tests: (today’s concern)how well students
can use the lg
Subjective tests: (translation and essay) measure language skills naturally,
almost the way English is used in real life. But many teachers are not able to
score such tests quickly and consistently
Objective tests: (multiple-choice and matching tests)
Productive tests: like speaking tests that require active or creative answers
Receptive tests: like multiple-choice reading tests that tend to rely on
recognition, with students simply choosing the letter of the best answer
Language subskill tests: measure the separate components of English such as
vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation
Communicative skills tests: how well students can use the language in
actually exchanging ideas and information
Norm-referenced tests: compare each student with his classmates (most
classroom tests are like this)
Criterion-referenced tests: rate students against certain standards, regardless
of how other students do
Discrete-point tests: each item tests something very specific such as a
preposition or a vocabulary item
Integrative tests: like dictation that combine various language subskills much
the way we do when communicate in real life
Proficiency tests: measure overall mastery of English or how well prepared
one is to use English in a particular setting such as an auto mechanics course
or a university
Achievement tests: simply measure progress-gains for example in mastery of
count-noun use or mastery of the skills presented in an entire language text or
course
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diagnostic tests: diagnose a particular aspect of a language such as a
diagnostic test in pronunciation which aims to determine which phonological
features of English are difficult for a learner and should become a part of a
curriculum. Usually, such tests offer a checklist of features in pinpointing
difficulties. A general achievement test is not advisable to be a diagnostic test
since they analyze the extent to which students have acquired language
features that have already been taught but not offer information on student
need that will be worked on imminently.
aptitude tests: a test given to a person prior to any exposure to L2, a test
that predicts a person’s future success by measuring a person’s capacity or
general ability to learn a foreign language
performance tests: tests in which assessment is carried out in a context where
the candidate is involved in an act of communication
self-assessment: the process by which learners are trained to evaluate their
own performances, e.g. imagining how well they would cope in a range of
real-life settings
placement tests: to place a student into an appropriate level or section of a
language curriculum or school; including a sampling of material to be covered
in the curriculum (content validity) as to indicate an appropriately challenging
level or class to a student.
Traditional Assessment / alternative assessment
Traditional Assessment
Alternative assessment
One-shot, standardized exams
Continuous long-term assessment
Timed, multiple-choice format
Untimed, free-response format
Decontextualized test items
Contextualized communicative tasks
Scores suffice for feedback
Formative, interactive feedback
Norm-referenced scores
Criterion-referenced scores
Focus on the right answer
Open-ended, creative answers
Summative
Formative
Oriented to product
Oriented to process
Non-interactive performance
Interactive performance
Fosters extrinsic motivation
Fosters intrinsic motivation
6.5 Alternative assessments: a movement for the reform of school-based
assessment, away from standardized multiple choice tests and towards
assessments which are more sensitive to the goals of the curriculum, typically
includes portfolio assessment, exhibitions, records of participation in
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classroom activity, etc.
self- and peer-assessment: oral production, listening comprehension, writing, reading
Journals: purpose, clear directions, guidelines, imminent feedback
Conferences: formative
Portfolios: a purposeful collection of students’ work that demonstrates to students and
others their efforts, progress, and achievements in given areas such as essays,
compositions, book reports, art work, video- or audiotape recordings of a
student’s oral production, journals, etc.
cooperative test construction
6.6 Recent developments in classroom testing
6.6.1 new views on intelligence: multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner
6.6.2 performance-based testing: open-ended problems, hands-on projects,
student portfolios, experiments, labs, essay writing, group projects, etc.
6.6.3 interactive language tests: tests have to involve people in actually
performing the behavior that we want to measure such as requesting, speaking,
interacting; a lively exchange of stimulating ideas, opinions, impressions,
reactions, positions or attitudes
6.6.4 alternative assessment: e.g. portfolio assessment, performance assessment
6.6.5 new directions: computers/technology and language testing
(a) computer based testing (CBT): stimulus texts and prompts are
presented not in examination booklets but on the screen, with candidates
being required to key in their responses
(i) advantages: scoring of fixed response items can be done automatically; the
computer can deliver tests that are suitable to the particular abilities of the
candidate (e.g. computer adaptive tests with an item bank); test security
(ii) limitations: question of validity for those unfamiliar with the computer
(b) a semi-direct test by using tape recorders instead of a live face-to-face
interview: is favored due to cost considerations and the logistics of mass
test administration
(c) three basic critical dimensions of tests whose demands need to be
balanced: validity, reliability, and feasibility(practicality) due to the test
context and test purpose
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