1.
Positive behavioral interventions help to prevent major problem behaviors and effectively address minor infraction.
2.
Imitation and modeling are the same.
3.
DRA involves demonstrating and reinforcing the appropriate behavior.
4.
Modeling and DRA should not be combined.
5.
DRD is a tolerant procedure. It communicates that behavior change is a gradual process.
6.
DRO has no place in the school.
7.
Positive behavior interventions can help increase positive self-concepts and attitudes towards school.
8.
Punitive procedures provide immediate relief to the user and thus tend to be overused.
9.
Punitive strategies tend to cause aggression, escape, avoidance reactions, and interfere with developing a positive student –teacher relationship.
The focus of this module is on positive behavior interventions: Modeling and differential reinforcement strategies. After completing this module, you should be able to:
1.
Define, recognize, and give original examples of the following terms. a.
Modeling b.
DRA c.
DRO d.
DRD
2.
Identify what type of problem behaviors these strategies can be used to reduce without the use of punishment.
3.
Use the “rule of thumb” for modeling.
4.
State the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy.
5.
Provide an illustration of using all four strategies on a student’s problem behavior.
6.
Provide an illustration of using all four strategies to address a schoolwide problem behavior.
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7.
State the advantages of positive behavioral interventions over the use of punitive procedures for managing student behaviors.
Positive behavior interventions are effective in reducing minor infractions and in preventing both minor and major infractions. Punishment, then, is not usually necessary when dealing with minor infractions, such as blurting out, out of seat, talking to a neighbor, etc., in that positive behavioral strategies can often be more effective in producing an environment in which students will not only learn, but will want to learn. Plus, punishment has a number of disadvantages that are pointed out below. Thus, the more that we can minimize the use of punishment, the more likely we are to develop an environment conducive to learning.
As we grow up we learn from observing the demonstrations and acts of others. Students constantly scan to see what happens, or what the consequences to various acts are. We learn what behaviors get us what we want (e.g., appreciation, attention, recognition, money, items, food, escape from an aversive situation) and what results in what we do not want (e.g., punishment, non-recognition). The cartoon below illustrates modeling.
Either the big guy wanted to make sure that he didn’t miss out on the reinforcers that he observed Robert receive, or he’s after a more powerful reinforcer. In any event, it illustrates the power of modeling.
Defined. Modeling consists of catching a student’s peers engaged in the appropriate behavior (e.g., doing their schoolwork) and positively recognizing that behavior. (When the student imitates the desired behavior, or starts doing his or her schoolwork, it also is
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important to positively recognize that appropriate behavior or act of imitation.) All teachers at all grade levels use modeling to various degrees. Some are very skilled at it.
Rule of thumb. Here is a rule of thumb to follow to help promote a greater use of modeling.
The rule is: When you see a student engage in a minor infraction (e.g., behaviors that do not present a danger to self or others and are not so disruptive that they cannot be tolerated temporally such as blurting out, or being out of seat) , use the infraction as a cue, reminder for you to look for the youngsters who are behaving appropriately and reinforce them.
So often, the students who misbehave in the class, or out on the school grounds, are the ones who get most the recognition. Some students learn that they must misbehave in order to get any recognition (negative recognition is better than no recognition). What happens when the teacher sits acting out Igor next to the “Perfect” student, but continues to give Igor antics most of the recognition while giving “Perfect” no recognition? Perfect starts imitating Igor because that is what works in that situation. This rule of thumb turns this situation around and provides recognition to the students who are behaving appropriately; not those who are misbehaving, or engaging in various minor infractions. Plus, when teachers have tried this rule of thumb they have informed us that teaching has become fun again. None of us got into teaching to yell at and punish students.
Rule of thumb illustrated. When you see Debbie talking to a neighbor rather than doing her work, rather than scolding Debbie or telling her to get back to work, compliment other students, including some of her friends, for working on their assignments. If Ramon is out of his seat again, compliment those who are in their seats working. Don’t just compliment a single model. Use multiple individuals as models, even an entire row or table when appropriate. Never use the same student over and over again as a model. And, of course, when Debbie and Ramon start working, compliment them too for working. (Also, check
Ramon’s work difficulty to make sure it’s appropriate to his level.)
This procedure also can be used throughout the school. For example, if litter is a problem, rather than punishing students for leaving litter on the campus, reinforce those who place litter in proper receptacles. It can be used to promote good sportsmanship, behavior on the school bus, appropriate behavior in the hallways, etc. (See chapter 7 of TABS Resource
Guide for detailed illustrations.)
Cautions with use. Modeling is very effective and will work with most students, but it is not appropriate in all situations. For example, because it does not produce rapid results, it is not appropriate to use when a serious behavior must be stopped immediately. Similarly, when you recognize a model’s behavior, and another student shouts out: “I did that too teacher,” do not recognize that behavior because you do not what it to serve as a modeled behavior to be imitated. Also, recall that public praise is not reinforcing to all students. So as pointed out in the reinforcement module, be sure to use that which you have identified as reinforcing to the model and the misbehaving student. Finally, this strategy does not work unless BOTH the model’s behavior and the act of imitation get reinforced. Always reinforce the act of imitation or the infractions could increase.
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Advantages. Modeling teaches students how to behave by providing them with opportunities to witness good behavior being recognized. The focus is not on punishment but on teaching. Thus, it also minimizes the negative side effects that punishment can have and makes the school environment more positive and more conducive to learning. Use this strategy frequently throughout the school day as a regular classroom and schoolwide management tool.
1.
Which of these is an example of modeling? a.
Mr. Kim ignores student outbursts and calls on students who are quietly raising their hands by saying “thank you for quietly raising your hand Liz, how can I help you?” (Yes) b.
Ms. Jones reprimands her students for being too loud in the hallway by stating, “You are the noisiest group of kids I’ve ever had, you are embarrassing me and yourselves by talking so loudly that I have to stop and talk to you about how inappropriate this is.” (No) c.
Ms. Lee posts one of her student’s assignments and states to the class, “this is how your work should look.” She then compliments those who do similar work. (yes)
2.
Under what circumstances would modeling be an inappropriate procedure to use?
Answer: To use as an immediate consequence for serious behaviors that must be stopped immediately, such as behaviors that can cause harm to anyone.
3.
Scenario:
Mr. Ross has just learned to use modeling to reduce many of Thomas’ blurting out behaviors. Thomas was recently moved next to Sean, and Thomas is not only more attentive during lectures, but has shown improved scores on weekly spelling tests. What
Mr. Ross cannot figure out is why Sean’s grades are slipping. Mr. Ross was careful to compliment both Sean and Thomas for not shouting out and showing good test scores, but lately Sean has not earned anything above a C and therefore has not been receiving compliments. In fact, Sean has been spending a lot of time in the quiet work area, away from the rest of the class.
Identify a possible explanation for Sean’s grades. a.
Sean does not like compliments, so avoids getting compliments by performing poorly. b.
Sean does not like sitting next to Thomas, thus performs poorly so that he is moved to the quiet work area.
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A second positive behavior intervention, or alternative to punishment, that helps teach students how to behave, is commonly called “Catch’em behaving; or professionally,
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors (DRA).
Defined. DRA is a reinforcement procedure designed to reduce a given behavior. When
DRA is used an alternative behavior is reinforced while reinforcement for the unwanted behavior is withheld.
Illustrated. Jose frequently leaves his seat. While out of his seat he bumps into other students’ desks, trips, sharpens his pencil, takes things out of cabinets, and wanders around the classroom. He appears to do this for your attention. Rather than asking yourself, “which infraction do I begin to work on first?” DRA requires that the following question be asked:
“What do I want Jose to be doing in place of the problem behaviors”? You might answer, “I want him to be in his seat doing his work.” If you can get him in his seat doing his work throughout the period, the problem will no longer occur. Thus, DRA teaches him how to behave, rather than punishing him for being out of his seat or getting into things. It’s done by reinforcing him when he is in his seat doing his work and withholding reinforcement when he is out of his seat. The intervention might be one in which Jose is reinforced for gradually longer and longer periods of doing his work. When he gets out of his seat no attention is given him. In fact, it is a good idea to combine this strategy with modeling so when he is out of his seat, compliment and give lots of attention to students who are in their seat doing their work. This will help him quickly learn that to gain your attention he must be in his seat.
Catch’em Behaving Game.
The catch-em behaving game is an application of the DRA that also includes modeling. It introduces fun, excitement and novelty into the classroom. It also can help achieve control in a classroom fairly quickly--within one to three days. It involves the following steps for third through twelfth grades, but also can be adapted for the primary level:

Identify one or more behaviors that you want your students to demonstrate (e.g., completing classwork, getting to class on time, raising their hands, working quietly, helping classmates with their work).

Select with the class various reinforcing activities and items appropriate to give individual students in your class (see Chapter 3 of Classroom management: A California resource guide for a plethora of ideas).

Obtain a roll of tickets (at a stationary store).

Explain to your students that you will be looking for the occurrence of the identified behaviors, and that you will be giving those who you catch doing those behaviors a ticket. Request that the students write their names on each ticket they receive as soon as they receive it. At an appropriate time in the class, have the students place their tickets in a selected container. The more tickets each student receives, the better chance he or she will have for being chosen to play the game.

Pass out tickets to students you catch exhibiting identified behaviors (i.e., provide a ticket whenever a student is caught completing his or her classwork, raising his or her hand, or for what ever behavior you have selected). Be sure to compliment the student receiving the ticket for his or her appropriate behavior.
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
Place four to five paper cups upside down on a table or on your desk. Under each cup place a piece of paper on which you have written down one of the reinforcing items or activities.

Every so often have a drawing in your class. Draw one to five tickets out of the container and call out the student’s name written on each ticket. (It is best to play the game frequently--about three times during a period--when first introduced to your class. After a day or two the frequency of playing the game should be gradually reduced. Eventually, this is an activity that you may want to phase out completely, or just play once in a while as a special treat for the class, after the game has obtained its desired classroom management effects.) However, be sure to continue your compliments and praise.

Have each student whose name was called select a cup and read to the class what reward he or she is to receive.

Provide the rewards mentioned on the paper note to the students who won them, and congratulate each.
Adaptations.
You may choose other ways to select students to play the game. For example, you may keep point records in a notebook and allow only those students with a certain amount of points to play the game. Or you may select students to play the game based on their current behavior at the moment you decide to play the game. At the primary school level, one of the above adaptations can be selected and the notes can be read to the students.
Advantages and Disadvantages. DRA is not a rapid acting procedure. It takes time to change the behavior. However, DRA is a positive reductive procedure that teaches the student how to behave and avoids the negative side effects of punishment (see table below).
For other illustrations see Chapter 4 of Classroom management: A California Resource
Guide.
Other ways of using reinforcement to help reduce problem behavior are to:
(1) Provide reinforcement for gradually longer periods of time during which the problem behavior does not occur. For example, “Suzie, I can tell you’re making improvement.
You haven’t gotten out of your seat for the past 15 minutes. Great job!” “Tyron, you were able to play the entire recess without fighting. You should be proud of your improvement.” (This strategy is called omission training or differential reinforcement for zero occurrence, or DRO)
(2) Provide reinforcement for reduced rates of the problem behavior. For example,
“Suzie, you only got out of your seat once during the period, wow, that’s a fantastic improvement.” Or, “Michelle, you only blurted out twice during the past half-hour.
Pat yourself on the back because that’s a major improvement.” (This strategy is called differential reinforcement for diminishing rates, or DRD).
Advantages and disadvantages. These strategies have the advantage of using reinforcement, rather than punishment, to reduce behavior. However, the teacher is negatively scanning, or looking for the occurrence of the problem behavior with each. Plus, these two strategies do not teach the student how to behave. Thus, they should be combined
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with DRA and Modeling when they are used. This combination will incorporate positive scanning, provide more frequent reinforcement; and, as you will recall from the module on reinforcement, the more frequent the reinforcement the more rapid learning, or a change in behavior, occurs. Also, research indicates that the more praise provided by the teacher, the fewer behavior problems experienced in the classroom, and fewer students are identified for possible special education assessment. Thus, a combination of these four strategies will teach how to behave, or help them become successful, and reduce problem behaviors more rapidly: A win-win situation (the student and teacher both benefit).
1.
A fourth grade teacher sees that her student Mark is often out of his seat and disturbing others. The teacher is trying not to call attention to Mark’s inappropriate behaviors, how can she redirect Mark using modeling, DRO, DRD, and DRA? a.
Modeling: She can point out the appropriate behaviors of another student, by saying “I like the way you are working in your assigned seat, Ben.” b.
DRO: “Mark, you didn’t cuss at all during recess today. I’m proud of your improvement.” c.
DRD: “Mark, you only got out of your seat once during math. That’s a real improvement. Good going!” d.
DRA: She can point out Mark’s appropriate behaviors “Mark, very nice job working in your seat.”
2.
True or False, DRA and Modeling are methods to be used for behaviors that require immediate attention. (False)
3.
What is one major benefit of both DRA and Modeling, as compared to punishment?
(Answer: Teaches appropriate behavior, rather than merely stopping undesired behavior.)
1.
Appropriately identify each strategy below: a.
Modeling b.
DRO c.
DRD d.
DRA
___ 1. “Mark you got out of your seat only twice during the reading lesson today, very good job.” (c)
___ 2. “Thomas you have not complained at all today, I’m very proud of you.”
(b)
___3. “ Jennifer, You’re working hard and not distracting your classmates, you’re making good progress.” (d)
___4. “Amy, thank you for waiting quietly for your turn, you may go next.
Carlos, thank you for calming yourself down, you may now go after Amy.” (a)
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This program can result in a clean campus while using positive behavioral interventions that requires little staff time and minimal expense. It can be used at the high school, junior high school, or elementary levels by changing the schoolwide rewards offered. At one school, litter accumulated around the grounds despite efforts to reduce it by purchasing new trash barrels and coercing students to use them. As a result, the custodian was kept busy just cleaning up the litter.
Purpose

To reduce litter and/or graffiti on school grounds.

To teach students to deposit trash in barrels.

To teach students that they are responsible for keeping their campus clean.

To teach students to have greater respect for their environment.

To help the campus become a place of which to be proud.
Procedures
1.
An administrator (or designee) measures the severity of the problem by counting each piece of litter in various areas on campus every day for two weeks.
2.
Unannounced, he or she selects a date to begin and hands out tickets to students who are observed throwing trash away in designated barrels (use of DRA). At the same time, the administrator pairs tickets with verbal praise.
3.
Students gather for an assembly at the end of that day. The administrator explains the details of the program and draws several winners from the pool of ticket holders. Winners receive prizes, such as lunch line privileges, movie passes, fast-food certificates, etc. (Use of DRA and modeling.)
4.
The program continues on a daily basis, with drawings held weekly for prizes.
Eventually, drawings are held less frequently, i.e., every two weeks, then every month, etc.
5.
Gradually the administrator gives out fewer tickets.
6.
He or she continues to chart the daily amount of litter left on the grounds.
Materials, Equipment, and Personnel Needed

Administrator to count litter and give out tickets with praise
 Trash barrels (should be present already)

Supply of tickets

Prizes (fast-food certificates, books, movie passes, etc.)
Results
The school's daily average, in a two-week interval, went from more than 100 pieces of litter to fewer than five pieces every day. Staff and students were enthusiastic about their clean campus and the positive atmosphere created by the program.
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Adaptations
Counselors and teachers may be enlisted to give out tickets. Rewarding the grade whose students have received the most tickets within a specified time will set up a grade level competition. Assemblies, movies or some other reward can be provided for reduced campus litter (DRD) and for the absence of litter in certain areas (DRO). Schoolwide special activities or other rewards may also be presented, based on a continued high rate of cleanliness. Running a slogan or poster contest can generate extra enthusiasm schoolwide.
Concluding Comments
This program provides a fun way for getting students to clean up and take pride in their campus. An additional benefit noted by the school principal was that student attendance improved on the days of the drawing.
The Table below highlights the need to minimize the use of punitive procedures by illustrating the outcomes of using punitive verses positive behavioral intervention strategies.
Punitive strategies tend to be overused because they provide immediate relief to the teacher using them. Positive behavioral interventions do not provide immediate relief. Punitive strategies need to be reserved only for major infraction, infractions that present a danger to others or to the student him- or herself that must be stopped rapidly. Positive behavior interventions are more instructional and help to provide a positive environment that is more conducive to learning than punitive strategies.
PUNITIVE PROCEDURES POSITIVE BEHAVIOR
INTERVENTIONS
SLOWLY STOPS BEHAVIOR RAPIDLY STOPS BEHAVIOR
PROVIDES IMMEDIATE RELIEF
(REINFORCEMENT) TO THE TEACHER
TEACHES THE STUDENT AND PEERS
WHAT NOT TO DO
PROVIDES NO IMMEDIATE RELIEF TO
THE TEACHER
TEACHES THE STUDENT AND PEERS
HOW TO BEHAVE
INCREASES POSITIVE SELF-
STATEMENTS (SELF-CONCEPT)
DECREASES POSITIVE SELF-
STATEMENTS (SELF-CONCEPT)
DECREASES POSITIVE ATTITUDES
TOWARD SCHOOL AND SCHOOL WORK
CAUSES WITHDRAWAL (NON-TASK,
INCREASES POSITIVE ATTITUDES
TOWARD SCHOOL AND SCHOOL WORK
PROMOTES ENHANCED PARTICIPATION
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TARDY, TRUANCY, DROPPING OUT)
CAUSES AGGRESSION (AGAINST
PROPERTY AND OTHERS)
TEACHES STUDENTS TO RESPOND IN A
PUNITIVE MANNER
CAN HARM STUDENT-TEACHER
RELATIONSHIP
DECREASES LIKELIHOOD OF
AGGRESSION
TEACHES STUDENTS TO RECOGNIZE
THE POSITIVE
CAN ENHANCE STUDENT-TEACHER
RELATIONSHIP
A group of teachers from one elementary school have just attended a workshop on using positive behavior interventions and have begun implementing both schoolwide and classroom programs incorporating the newly learned materials. Ms. Smith has decided to ignore the minor infractions (i.e. blurting out, out of seat) by complimenting students who behave appropriately and compliments those who immediately imitate the appropriate behaviors of others. In addition, she also compliments specific students for reduced rates of infractions. She has been employing this strategy for over a week now and has noticed a great deal of improvement in the majority of her students. Mr. Kwan has decided to use tickets to “reward” students who engage in desired behaviors and has made a diligent effort to point out improvements in his “challenging” students. He also provides tickets and compliments to students who go for longer and longer periods of time without any infractions. He too has seen improvements in almost all of his students. In fact, it was the principal who noticed the improvements in the students and asked that the teachers implement a schoolwide program. It is agreed that it is important to recognize all of the classes, even those with teachers that may not be implementing such programs in the classroom. Each week the principal awards a special trophy to the class that shows the fewest infractions. The principal decides that a staff training should be provided to all staff members. He has appointed Mr. Kim and Ms. Smith to organize the training and develop an outline of items to discuss, including a demonstration of their programs.
1.
What procedure is Ms. Smith using in her classroom? a.
Modeling and DRD
2.
What procedure is Mr. Kwan using in his classroom? a.
DRA and DRO
3.
What procedure is the principal using? a.
DRD and modeling
4.
What are some key points the teachers may want to point out at the staff meeting? a.
Identify 3 benefits of positive behavior interventions versus punishment alone: i.
Improved self-esteem ii.
Enhanced teacher-student relationship iii.
Increased positive attitudes iv.
Teaches students to recognize positives
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(any 3 responses from chart are acceptable)
1.
Positive behavioral interventions help to prevent major problem behaviors and effectively address minor infraction. (True)
2.
Imitation and modeling are the same. (False – Modeling involves demonstrating the behavior, imitation involves copying the behavior.)
3.
DRA involves demonstrating and reinforcing the appropriate behavior. (False –
Demonstrating the behavior is modeling.)
4.
Modeling and DRA should not be combined. (True - both can be more effective when combined.)
5.
DRD is a tolerant procedure. It communicates that behavior change is a gradual process. (True)
6.
DRO has no place in the school. (False – DRO can be very useful as a classroom and schoolwide behavior management procedure.)
7.
Positive behavior interventions can help increase positive self-concepts and attitudes towards school. (True.)
8.
Punitive procedures provide immediate relief to the user and thus tend to be overused.
(True.)
9.
Punitive strategies tend to cause aggression, escape, avoidance reactions, and interfere with developing a positive student –teacher relationship. (True.)
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