Emotional intelligence and management development implications
Insights from the Lebanese context
The Authors
D. Jamali, Olayan School of Business, American University of Beirut, Beirut,
Lebanon
Y. Sidani, Olayan School of Business, American University of Beirut, Beirut,
Lebanon
D. Abu-Zaki, Olayan School of Business, American University of Beirut, Beirut,
Lebanon
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present an exploratory study of EI in the
Lebanese context, investigating empirically variations in EI competency scores (selfawareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, social awareness and social skills) in a
sample of 225 Lebanese employees/managers. The study provides preliminary
feedback on the possibility of detection of systematic variations in EI levels across
demographic variables in the workplace and highlights relevant implications
accordingly.
Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire-based measure was developed to
capture the basic competencies on a self-report basis.
Findings – The findings suggest differences in EI scores across different EI
competencies for males and females, with males scoring higher on self-regulation and
self-motivation, and females scoring higher on self-awareness, empathy and social
skills, and that EI levels increase significantly with managerial position.
Originality/value – The value added of this research is to revisit the salience of EI in
the workplace and to highlight relevant implications. The research supports the
business case for integrating EI valuation into traditional organizational functions
(e.g. selection, promotion, and training).
Article Type: Research paper
Keyword(s): Emotional intelligence; Lebanon.
Journal: Journal of Management Development
Volume: 27
Number: 3
Year: 2008
pp: 348-360
Copyright © Emerald Group Publishing Limited
ISSN: 0262-1711
Introduction
Emotional intelligence (EI) is a term that has attracted increasing attention and
enjoyed a robust resurgence across a wide range of disciplines including management,
psychology and the health sciences. The usefulness of the EI construct is increasingly
asserted in terms of bringing a more balanced view of the intertwined role of
cognition and emotion in influencing life outcomes. This is in contrast to traditional
conceptualizations of cognition and emotion as discretely independent and the
overstated importance of cognitive intelligence in predicting work success (Cherniss,
2001).
The recent ascendancy of EI as an important topic in the business and psychology
literature is thus attributed in great part to a realization that traditional intelligence
quotient (IQ) scores can no longer be considered as effective primary predictors of
performance and success (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000; Mandell and Pherwani, 2003).
Some outcome variations relating to the success of individuals in educational and
organizational contexts could not be explained through traditional IQ measures (Fatt
and Howe, 2003). Accordingly, recent years have witnessed a move away from a
narrow and linear conception of intelligence emphasizing cognitive skills or abilities
to a multifaceted conception, integrating EI as a key component (Gardner, 1983; Van
Rooy and Viswesvaran, 2003).
EI has thus become increasingly popular in recent years due to the belief that the
benefits of intellectual intelligence have been overstated and that there is a need to
probe the broader spectrum of the psychological mechanisms that allow individuals to
flourish in their lives and in their jobs. The appeal of EI is also grounded in the view
that EQ, unlike IQ, is likely to be more equally distributed across socio-cultural
groups and that its competencies can be learned, with some scholars contrasting the
supposed malleability of EI with the relative fixity of IQ (Mathews et al., 2003).
Psychological research increasingly suggests the importance of EI in predicting
success in life (Bar-On, 1997a). Management and organizational research on the other
hand increasingly affirms that people with high levels of EI experience more career
success (Dulewicz and Higgs, 1998; Weisinger, 1998), feel less job insecurity (Jordan
et al., 2002), lead more effectively (Higgs and Rowland, 2002; Prati et al., 2003), are
more effective in team leadership/team performance (Rice, 1999), are more adaptable
to stressful events (Nikolaou and Tsaousis, 2002) and exhibit better coping strategies
(Bar-On et al., 2000).
But while the benefits of EI are increasingly documented, there is a scarcity of
research that addresses variations in EI across cultures, or across demographic clusters
in the workplace. Also, the potential influence of emotions on organizational
dynamics has only recently started attracting the attention it deserves in both
occupational research and practice. In this context, after shedding light on alternative
theories of EI and identifying gaps in the empirical literature on offer relating to EI at
work, the paper presents an empirical investigation conducted in Lebanon on the
relationship between EI competences and specific demographic variables in the
workplace. The findings are described in detail, their implications assessed and
recommendations for future research delineated accordingly.
Alternative theories of EI
The increasing interest in emotions and the growing awareness of the role it plays in
business and in life is in great part due to the proliferation of research over the past
decade on emotions generally and EI specifically. In this section, we will shed briefly
the light on the three theories that have generated the most interest in terms of
research and applications, namely the theories of Bar-On (1988, 2000), Salovey and
Mayer (1997), and Goleman (1998a).
The first of the three major theories to emerge was that of Bar-On (1988). In his
doctoral dissertation, he coined the term “emotional quotient” (EQ), as an analogue to
intelligence quotient (IQ). Bar-On (1997b) defined his model in terms of five main
social and emotional abilities including intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills,
adaptability, stress management and mood which together influence a person's ability
to cope effectively with environmental demands. His model thus framed EI in the
context of personality theory and is best viewed as a general model of psychological
well-being and adaptation (Goleman, 2001).
Salovey and Mayer (1997) on the other hand framed EI within a model of
intelligence. Their motivation to develop a theory of EI stemmed from a realization
that traditional measures of intelligence failed to measure individual differences in the
ability to perceive, process and effectively manage emotions. Accordingly, they
evolved a model that has a cognitive focus, outlining the specific mental aptitudes for
recognizing and marshalling emotions (Goleman, 2001). As illustrated in Figure 1,
their model is developmental, comprising four tiers of abilities with the complexity of
emotional skill increasing from basic emotional perception to more complex
processes integrating emotion and cognition.
Goleman (1998b) on the other hand presented an EI based theory of performance, that
is competency based, comprising a discrete set of abilities that integrate affective and
cognitive skills. What differentiates Goleman's (1998b) model from those of Bar-On
(1988) and Salovey and Mayer (1997) is his attempt to ground his theory specifically
in the context of competencies relevant for work performance. The early framework
proposed by Goleman (1998b) identified five dimensions of emotional intelligence,
including self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy and social skills
(Table I). These have been classified into two broad categories, namely personal
competence in dealing with one's own self, and social competence in dealing with the
self of others (Goleman, 1995). Figure 2 illustrates this classification, which, with
minor variations, is increasingly grounded in the literature.
Given the relevance of Goleman's (1998b) model to organizational life, and
accumulating evidence suggesting the importance of EI competencies for effective
performance at work, we have adopted Goleman's (1998b) model to develop a selfreport measure that was used to gauge EI in the context of a sample of Lebanese
organizations and to draw or highlight relevant work-related implications. The details
of our study are presented below. The next section however presents an overview of
various studies, documenting existing orientations in empirical examinations of EI at
work as well as gaps to address in future empirical work about EI and work
performance.
Empirical studies of EI at work
The data documenting the importance of EI competencies for effective performance at
work is accumulating. McClelland (1998) for example reviewed data from more than
thirty different organizations, showing that a wide range of EI competencies relating
to self-motivation, social awareness and social skills, distinguished top performers
from average ones. Boyatzis (1982) found that among several hundred managers from
12 different organizations, accurate self-assessment (i.e. self-awareness) was the
hallmark of superior performance. And Spencer and Spencer (1993) found that
superior sales managers are those that exhibited competence in sensing the
developmental needs of others and bolstering their abilities (i.e. relationship
management).
A growing body of organizational and occupational research points more generally to
the important role of emotions at work. Accumulating evidence portrays EI as
associated with greater work satisfaction, increased ability to cope with stress, a better
change orientation or propensity and stronger organizational commitment (Carmeli,
2003; Vakola et al., 2004). Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2003) found that cognitive
ability accounts only for approximately 25 percent of the variance in job performance.
Their study posits EI as a valuable predictor of work performance and suggests the
overall predictive validity of EI to hold fairly constant across all performance
domains, including work, group and academic performance. These findings concur
with those of Watkin (2000) whose research portrays EI as the single most important
factor for superior performance at every level from entry-level jobs to top executive
positions. Bar-On and Parker (2000) similarly find EI competencies as critical for
effective performance in most jobs and Goleman (1998b) finds that 67 percent of the
abilities regarded as essential for effective performance were emotional competencies.
Bennis (2001) and Chen et al. (1998) on the other hand claim that EI accounts for 8590 percent of the success of organizational leaders. Dulewicz and Higgs (1998) found
that their measure of EI accounted for 36 percent of the variance in organizational
advancement, while IQ accounted for only 27 percent. Longhorn (2004) suggests that
a relationship exists between the EI of the general managers in their study and their
key performance results as measured by the performance appraisal rating of the
manager, the profit output of the units under their control and the satisfaction of the
customers.
While there is unequivocal evidence pointing more or less conclusively to the benefits
of a successful integration of EI at work, very little research has examined variations
in EI across demographic clusters at work. How EI in the workplace is affected by
specific personal/demographic characteristics has not received the same kind of
systematic attention in the literature. Very few studies have touched specifically for
example on the effect of age, managerial position or gender on EI. We will provide a
brief review of existing studies, and try to address this gap in the literature in our
empirical component.
There are mixed findings for example regarding the relationship between age and EI.
While some studies suggest that age does not have a significant effect on EI (Cakan
and Altun, 2005), Bar-On (2000) found that older cohorts tend to score higher on his
scale of EI, suggesting that EI is learned through life experience. A study of the EI
levels of Indian executives similarly suggests that EI level increases with age, reaches
a peak and then starts decreasing (Punia, 2002). Click (2002) reports higher levels of
aggregate EI scores among older students in East Tennessee State University.
Some research has similarly indicated that EI levels are expected to increase with
managerial and leadership experience. This is particularly true in light of a growing
body of research suggesting that EI is a critical ingredient in accounting for the
success of organizational leaders (Chen et al., 1998; Goleman, 1998a; Bennis, 2001).
Van Der Zee (2004), for example, found that top managers scored higher than a
reference group on eleven out of fifteen EI dimensions. Fatt (2002) also suggests that
EI tends to acquire more importance as individuals progress in the organization. And
Goleman (1998b) suggests that the higher the employee's position in the organization,
the more EI is an important consideration.
The relationship between EI and gender has similarly received some attention in
recent years. Mandell and Pherwani (2003) for example found a significant difference
in the EI scores of male and female managers where females scored higher on average
than males. Their findings suggest that females seemed to be better able to control
their emotions and manage the emotions of others as compared to males. These
findings support the results of Mayer et al. (2000) and Mayer and Geher (1996),
which uncovered higher scores for females on different measures of EI. This is in
contrast to Goleman (1998a) who insinuated that there are no differences in the
overall EI scores of males and females.
Another explanation for the conflicting findings pertaining to gender is that while
both males and females may have the same average level of EI, they do differ with
respect to different EI competencies. Women may score higher on self-awareness and
empathy while males may self-regulate better. The Bar-On (1997b) model reveals in
this respect that females are more aware of emotions, demonstrate more empathy and
relate better interpersonally while men are more adept at managing and regulating
emotions. In a study assessing EI variables of undergraduate students in Singapore,
Fatt (2002) found that males scored higher on certain measures of EI such as
identifying and using emotions while no difference was found in other measures such
as understanding and regulating emotions. Morand's (2001) study indicated that
females were more likely to perceive different emotions. Petrides and Furnham
(2000), on the other hand, found that there was no overwhelming difference between
the total score for measured EI for both genders, yet males were more prone to fall
into self-serving biases in reporting higher EI scores, with a counterpart selfderogatory bias in women. Nikolaou and Tsaousis (2002) found no significant
differences between males and females in terms of measured overall EI score and
Cakan and Altun (2005) reported a non-significant gender effect on EI scores in their
sample of Turkish adult educators.
We believe that these preliminary findings are extremely interesting and deserving of
further attention and have therefore construed our study in such a way as to address
the effects of age, managerial level and gender on EI in the workplace and to draw
relevant work-related observations and implications.
Research methodology
Population and sample
The population from which we drew our sample consisted of employees of
corporations operating in Beirut, Lebanon. The organizations were selected from
thirteen different sectors including banks, publishing organizations, internet
companies, auditing firms, universities, government organizations, and other sectors.
A letter was initially sent to the human resource department of volunteering
organizations, explaining the design and purpose of the study. A second letter was
then sent to exempt employees asking for their participation in the research. There
was no mention of the term EI, but the research questions were framed in the context
of general emotional dispositions. The researchers informed the participants that their
answers would be kept confidential. A total 250 surveys were collected but 25 of
these were not usable which yielded a final sample of 225 individuals. The profile of
the sample is presented in Table II.
Variables and measures
The first section of the survey instrument requested demographic information about
the participants including gender, age, education and position. The second section
comprised 25 items rated on a Likert-type scale requiring participants to rate the
extent to which each statement is representative of their normal emotional
dispositions. This self-reporting questionnaire was specifically developed for the
purposes of the present study and intended to measure the five EI sub-competencies,
namely, self-awareness (seven items), self-regulation (four items), self-motivation
(four items), empathy (five items), and social skills (five items). This is consistent
with Goleman's (1998b) suggestion that a competence-based measure is more likely
to yield an effective measure of EI. The intention was thus to develop a questionnairebased measure to capture the basic competencies on a self-report basis. Those items
were generated after a thorough research and literature review and molded after the
emotional competence inventory (Goleman et al., 2000).
Research findings
Table III summarizes mean values for the items involved for the whole sample
highlighting moderate levels of reported EI scores for the entire sample.
Table IV compiles the results of the breakdown of EI scores across gender. The t-test
results indicate that males scored higher on self-regulation and self-motivation
whereas females scored higher on self-awareness, empathy, and social skills. All the
differences were, however, not significant except for self-regulation where males
reported significantly higher levels of self-regulation than females.
Table V compiles the results of the breakdown of EI scores across managerial
position. The results indicate that senior managers consistently scored higher than
middle managers who, in turn, scored higher than staff or lower-level employees on
every dimension of EI except for empathy where middle managers scored lower than
both senior managers and staff. Yet the relationships were only significant for the first
three dimensions, namely self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation. No
significant difference was found for empathy/social skills.
Table VI compiles the results of the breakdown of EI scores across educational
attainment. The differences in the means for the three educational categories did not
reveal any significant difference in EI scores with changes in educational attainment.
Table VII compiles the results of the breakdown of EI scores across age. The findings
suggest that no significant differences in EI scores with respect to the different
components exist with age variation, except for self-motivation where significant
differences were found to exist among different age groups. The highest group (35-44
years) scored 14.21 while the lowest group (under 25) scored 12.64.
Discussion of findings and implications
Our findings suggest moderate levels of reported EI for the entire sample. Further
research is needed with a larger national sample of workers/managers to validate this
finding. What is reassuring in this respect, however, is that EI competencies are not
fixed genetically and can be nurtured and improved. This may necessitate raising
awareness about EI and its various components in Lebanon, hence giving employees
the opportunity to increase their chances of work success, with parallel positive
implications for the entire society. In this respect, there is also a need for more crosscultural research to explain differences in EI scores across cultures.
Our findings also suggest gender differences in EI sub-competency scores with males
scoring higher on self-regulation and self-motivation, and females scoring higher on
self-awareness, empathy and social skills. Specifically, males reported significantly
higher levels of self-regulation. These findings are consistent with the bulk of
previous studies examining gender differences in EI (Mayer and Geher, 1996; Mayer
et al., 2000; Morand, 2001; Mandell and Pherwani, 2003). The same trends have been
reported for example by Bar-On (2000) in every population sample that has been
examined with the emotional quotient inventory (EQ-I). Our findings thus validate
generally reported trends of gender differences in EI scores documented in western
literature.
The detected gender-specific strengths with respect to various EI sub-competencies
can have interesting work implications. Women may possess a unique asset in social
relationships, and organizations can capitalize on this strength by placing women in
managerial and leadership positions that thrive on forging emotional connections and
effective collaboration. The strengths of males – pertaining to self-motivation and
self-regulation – can in turn be leveraged by placing them in strategic positions that
require achievement drive, persistent performance orientation and successful
adjustment to changing situational factors and priorities.
Another interesting observation is the need to nurture those competencies where
systematic weaknesses across genders have been noted (e.g. self-regulation and selfmotivation for women and empathy and social skills for men) given accumulating
evidence suggesting that EI competencies operate most powerfully in synergistic
groupings, with the need to master a critical mass of competencies for superior
performance (Goleman et al., 2000). There is indeed a whole stream of research
suggesting that organizations and individuals interface in ways that require a
multitude of EI abilities, working in an integrated fashion in conjunction with one
other (Goleman, 2001).
Another interesting aspect of our research is the finding relating to the fact that EI
scores increase in a significant way with managerial position, particularly the EI subcompetencies relating to self-awareness, self-regulation and self-motivation. This
finding lends credence to a growing body of research positing that EI is an imperative
for effective management and leadership (Goleman, 1998a; Bennis, 2001; Van Der
Zee, 2004; Rosete and Ciarrochi, 2005). Given that employees derive their emotional
cues from managers/leaders, it is imperative for those to effectively master a higher
level of personal and social competence.
In light of our findings and accumulating evidence pointing to the added value and
benefits of EI competencies, our research suggests the need to integrate EI valuation
into traditional organizational functions. For example, the finding that EI is
increasingly important at higher management levels may suggest that screening for EI
is legitimate and needed when hiring a candidate for a managerial position. EI is also
a relevant criterion when it comes to promotions and succession planning, particularly
when a position involves leadership. In other words, our findings suggest that EI
should be a central consideration when selecting and grooming for managerial type
positions.
Our findings also suggest that EI should be a major focus in training and development
efforts at all organizational levels and for both genders. This is particularly true if
organizations realize the value of nurturing a critical mass of EI competencies for
superior performance. EI assessment at work can help in compiling feedback on
employees' baseline EI abilities and can also help in tracking progress over time. This
exercise, if undertaken in a safe and supportive environment, helps to provide
employees with insight into their strengths and areas of development, which can in
turn become a critical component of work motivation.
Concluding remarks
EI is a very novel concept in the Lebanese context. Research is scant and
organizational development initiatives building on this notion are virtually nonexistent. It is of prime importance for practitioners to understand the current debate
revolving around the topic and the potential positive implications of a successful
integration of EI at work. It is also important to popularize the notion that while EI
may indeed touch on individual differences, it tends to grow over time and can be
improved and harnessed through proper training and development initiatives
(Ashkanasy and Daus, 2005).
We have presented in this paper the findings of a research undertaken in the Lebanese
context, which has attempted to measure EI competencies (self-awareness, selfregulation, self-motivation, social awareness and social skills) in a sample of 225
Lebanese employees and managers. The use of a self-report measure to assess
individuals on this model is consistent with established practice within personality
psychology, where self-report measures represent the dominant method of selfassessment. We realize in this respect that the use of psychological measurement has
always been somewhat controversial, and EI measurement is no exception. While we
have obtained interesting findings, we do not claim to have all the answers, as we
recognize the complexity inherent in applying principles associated with EI and the
subtlety of EI measurement at work.
Nevertheless, we believe that research along these lines is needed and promising,
based on the simple premise that nurturing the various EI competencies is likely to be
a possible route to increased productivity that is within the reach of most individuals
and organizations. Human resource development interventions revolving around EI
competency training may provide quick and powerful changes in employee behavior
that can be sustained over time. EI competency training and applications may also
allow organizations to tailor to the specific needs of various employee clusters based
on detected strengths and weaknesses in the respective components.
Previous studies have emphasized the need to delve more deeply into cross-cultural
issues underlying EI (e.g. Leung, 2005). The increasing interest in this concept
necessitates that researchers uncover the culture-specific factors that govern EI
dynamics in various organizational settings including Lebanon. In addition, future
research studies in Lebanon and other countries in the region could benefit from
addressing the relationship between the EI constructs and organizational outcomes
such as employee effectiveness/performance.
Given the unequivocal importance of emotions in both personal and organizational
life, further research is also needed at the corporate and national levels, highlighting
how emotional competencies can be nurtured and leveraged for better performance
and outcomes. While organizational research is on the increase, cross-cultural
research remains limited, and can provide interesting insights into culturally-related
strengths and weaknesses vis-a-vis the different EI sub-competencies as well as
cultural moderators/influences.
Figure 1The four-branch model of emotional intelligence
Figure 2The building blocks of emotional intelligence
Table IComponents of emotional intelligence
Table IIDemographic characteristics of the sample
Table IVBreakdown of EI scores across gender
Table VBreakdown of EI scores across managerial position
Table VIBreakdown of EI scores across educational attainment
Table VIIBreakdown of EI scores across age
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