Sentence Function and End Punctuation:
- Declarative = declares; a statement
End punctuation = .
- Interrogative = interrogates; a question
End punctuation = ?
- Exclamatory = exclaims; shows a lot of emotion
End punctuation = !
- Imperative = a command
End punctuation = . or !
Parts of a Sentence:
- Sentence = a group of words with two main parts: a complete subject and a complete predicate
* MUST have a subject and a verb to have a complete sentence!!! > if not, you have a sentence fragment
- Subject = who or what is doing the action OR the main who or what that the sentence is about
* Complete Subject = a noun or pronoun that names the person, place, or thing that the sentence is about (+) any words that
modify the noun or pronoun BEFORE the verb
* Simple Subject = essential noun, pronoun, or group of words acting as a noun that cannot be left out of the complete subject >
CANNOT be the object of a preposition, so cross off prepositional phrases
* The simple subject can be compound.
* In imperative sentences the subject = implied you
* In questions, the subject often follows the verb.
* The subject of a sentence is NEVER here or there. > in this situation, here and there are adverbs
* In some sentences, the subject is places after the verb in order to give it greater emphasis
- Predicate = what the subject is doing
* Complete Predicate = the main verb (+) any modifiers
* Simple Predicate = essential verb or verb phrase that cannot be left out of the complete predicate
* The simple predicate can contain a compound verb.
- Complements = a word or group of words that completes the meaning of the predicate of a sentence (direct objects, indirect
objects, subject complements, objective complements) > CANNOT be the object of a preposition
* Direct Object = a noun or pronoun (can be compound) that directly receives the action of a transitive verb (an action verb that
directs the action toward someone or something named in the same sentence)
Ex: Sam bought his brother a blue sweater. > bought what? sweater = D.O.
* Indirect Object = a noun or pronoun (can be compound) that appears WITH a direct object ALWAYS and names the person or
thing that something is given to or done for.
Ex: Sam bought his brother a blue sweater. > bought the sweater for whom? brother = Ind.O.
* Subject Complement = a noun, pronoun, or adjective that appears with a linking verb (a verb that connects a word at the
beginning of a sentence with a word at the end) and tells something about the subject
2 Kinds: > Predicate Nominative = noun or pronoun that appears with a linking verb and renames or explains the subject of
the sentence; can be compound
> Predicate Adjective = an adjective that appears with a linking verb and describes the subject of the sentence;
can be compound
* Objective Complement = an adjective or noun that describes or renames a direct object.
Ex: Sam bought his brother a blue sweater. > what describes or renames the sweater? blue = O.C.
Parts of Speech:
- Nouns = a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea > can be concrete or abstract
Subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, objects of a preposition… are always going to be a noun/pronoun
* compound noun = made up of more than one word (bubble bath)
* common noun = names any one of a class of people, places, or things – general (state)
* proper noun = names a specific person, place, or thing – always capitalized (Georgia)
- Pronouns = a word that takes the place of/stands for a noun; the antecedent is the noun that the pronoun takes the place of > a
pronoun MUST have a CLEAR antecedent
* personal pronouns = refer to the person speaking (first person), the person spoken to (second person), or the person,
place, or thing spoken about (third person) (I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its,
we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs)
* reflexive & intensive pronouns = end in –self or –selves ALWAYS (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves)
> reflexive = indicates that someone is performing an action to, for, or upon itself; CANNOT be
taken out of the sentences or it changes the meaning of the sentence
> intensive = simply adds emphasis to a noun or pronoun in the same sentence; CAN be taken out
of the sentence and the sentence still means the same
* demonstrative pronouns = point out specific people, places, or things; demonstrates a specific (this, that, these, those)
* relative pronouns = connects one idea to another idea in the sentence; relates 2 ideas (that, which, who, whom, whose)
* interrogative pronouns = begin a question; think interrogate (what, which, who, whom, whose)
* indefinite pronouns = refer to unspecified people, places, and things; think indefinite
( Always singular = another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little,
much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something; Always plural = both, few,
many, others, several; Both = all, any, more, most, none, some)
- Verbs = a word that expresses time while showing an action, a condition, or the fact that something exists
* action verb = a verb that tells what action someone or something is performing > mental as well as physical action
transitive = directs action toward someone or something named in the same sentence (has a direct object)
intransitive = does not direct action toward someone or something named in the same sentence (NO direct obj.)
* linking verb = a verb that connects a word at or near the beginning of a sentence with a word at or near the end of
the sentence (all forms of be > am, are, is, was, were, am being…, can be…, have been… + appear, become, feel,
grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn)
a verb = a linking verb if it can logically be substituted by am, are, or is
EX: The pears taste sweet. > The pears are sweet.
* helping verb = a verb that can add to another verb to make a single verb phrase (any form of be + do, does, did,
have, has, had, would, shall, should, will, might, must, can, could, may…can be used as a helping verb)
EX: They will sing in the morning.
- Adjectives = a word (modifier) used to describe a noun or pronoun or to give a noun or pronoun a more specific meaning >
answers What kind? Which one? How many? How much?
* articles (the, a, an) = adjectives ; a noun can = an adjective guitar music ; adjectives can be proper and compound ;
pronouns can be used as adjectives (personal = my, your, his, her, its, our, their) (demonstrative = this, that, these,
those) (interrogative = which, what, whose) (all indefinite pronouns)
- Adverbs = a word (modifier) used to describe a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
* an adverb that modifies a verb answers the questions: Where? When? In what way? To what extent?
* an adverb that modifies an adjective or another adverb answers only 1 question: To what extent?
- Prepositions = a word that appears with a noun or pronoun and relates the noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence ; a
preposition ALWAYS has an object (noun or pronoun) that follows the preposition
* think about the rabbit and the log + other prepositions that do not fall under this rule
- Conjunctions = a word used to connect other words or groups of words. > 3 kinds: coordinating, correlative, subordinating
* coordinating = connect similar kinds of words or similar groups of words (fanboys > for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
* correlative = same as coordinating except that they always appear in pairs (both…and, either…or, neither…nor,
not only…but also, whether…or)
* subordinating = connect two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate to/dependent upon the other
(after, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even though, if, in order that, since, so that, than,
though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while)
* conjunctive adverb = an adverb that acts as a conjunction to connect complete ideas > often used as transitions
(accordingly, again, also, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise,
then, therefore, thus)
- Interjections = a word that expresses feeling or emotion; it functions independently of a sentence. > usually followed
by an exclamation point
Hurray!
Subject-Verb Agreement:
- Subject and verb must agree in # (singular or plural) : cross off prepositional phrases and extra information (usually in commas)
to find the subject and verb > make sure subject and verb ALWAYS agree no matter what!
- Compound Subjects
* AND : a compound subject connected by and is always plural with 2 exceptions > if the 2 parts are thought of as one item OR if
the word every or each comes before the subject
* OR/NOR : whenever you have a compound subject connected by or/nor always look at the subject closest to the verb and match
the verb in # with that subject
- Confusing Subjects
* even if the verb comes before the subject, they must still agree
* a linking verb must agree with the subject regardless of the number of the predicate nominative
* a collective noun (group, committee…) takes a singular verb when the group is acting as one unit and a plural verb when the
individuals within the group are acting independently
* nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take singular verbs (Measles = 1 disease)
* with indefinite pronouns, you must memorize which are always singular, which are always plural, and which can be both > if
the indefinite pronoun can be both singular and plural, look at the noun it refers to
* titles of creative works, names of organizations, amounts, and measurements are all singular
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement:
- Pronoun Cases : 1. Nominative = the subject (does the action) or predicate nominative (renames the subject) of a sentence > I,
you, he, she, it, we, they 2. Objective = the direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, or object of a verbal within a
sentence > me, you, him, her, it, us, them 3. Possessive = shows ownership > my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours,
their, theirs * Always make sure to use the correct pronoun case within a sentence!!!
- Personal pronouns MUST agree in number and gender with their antecedents!!
* Compound antecedents > SAME RULES AS SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT! > antecedent joined by and, use a plural
pronoun unless 1 of the 2 exceptions applies; antecedent joined by or/nor, look at the antecedent closest to the pronoun
* when antecedent’s gender is not specified, use both masculine and feminine pronouns
* a reflexive pronoun must have an antecedent in the sentence in which it appears
* with indefinite pronouns, you must memorize which are always singular, which are always plural, and which can be both > if
the ind. pronoun can be both singular and plural, look at the noun it refers to
* MAKE SURE AN OBVIOUS ANTECEDENT IS CLEARLY UNDERSTOOD, or do not use a pronoun!!!
* use the personal pronoun you only when the reference is truly to the reader or listener
Parallelism:
- Whenever words or word phrases are connected by a coordinating conjunction, correlative conjunction, or being compared,
MAKE SURE the words or word phrases look alike and follow the same part of speech pattern!!!
Phrases:
- Phrase = a group of words, without a subject and verb, that functions in a sentence as one part of speech
5 types of phrases:
- Prepositional Phrases = begin with a preposition and end with a noun/pronoun (which is the object of the preposition and can
be compound); prepositional phrases function either as adjectives by modifying nouns/pronouns OR as adverbs by
modifying verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
2 kinds:
* adjective phrase = a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun by telling what kind or which one : more than 1
adjective phrase may be used to modify the same noun
* adverb phrase = a prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, and adjective, or an adverb by pointing out where, when, in
what way, or to what extent
- Appositive Phrases = an appositive is a noun or pronoun placed near another noun or pronoun to identify, rename, or explain
it, so an appositive phrase is a noun or pronoun with modifiers placed next to a noun or pronoun to add information and
details (identify, rename, or explain it) ; many follow the subject, but they can also accompany almost any noun or pronoun
used in a sentence; appositives and appositive phrases also make it possible for a writer to combine sentences with similar
ideas; many times an appositive or appositive phrase will have commas around it
- Participial Phrases = a participle looks like a verb but acts like an adjective EX: a whining sound > whining looks like a verb,
but instead it is modifying sound, so it is an adjective
So, a participial phrase is a participle with modifiers, and the entire phrase acts as an adjective EX: Studying carefully, she
learned much about Native American people. > ‘studying carefully’ modifies she
* a participial phrase can be placed before or after the word it modifies
* a participial phrase is surrounded by commas if it is NOT essential to the meaning of the sentence
- Gerund Phrases = a gerund looks like a verb but acts like a noun (subject, indirect object, direct object, predicate nominative,
object of a preposition, or appositive) * a gerund ALWAYS ends in –ing EX: Writing is an important skill to learn. >
‘writing’ looks like a verb, but it acts like a noun, in this case the subject of the sentence
So, a gerund phrase is a gerund with modifiers, all acting together as a noun EX: Carving in stone was how the Aztecs made
their calendars. > ‘carving in stone’ looks like a verb, but all together it acts as a noun, the subject of this sentence
* ALWAYS use the possessive form of a personal pronoun before a gerund!!! Mr. Avery disliked his (NOT him) smoking.
- Infinitive Phrases = an infinitive is a form of a verb that generally appears with the word to and acts as a noun, adjective, or
adverb (can be the subject, direct object, predicate nominative, object of a preposition, appositive, adjective, or adverb)
EX: To decorate requires gold and feathers. > ‘to decorate’ is an infinitive acting as the subject
* Remember, Preposition vs. Infinitive > a prepositional always ends with a noun or pronoun; an infinitive always ends with
a verb
So, an infinitive phrase = an infinitive with modifiers all acting together as a noun, adjective, or adverb
EX: Professional dancers need to practice daily.
* do not need the word ‘to’ with the following verbs used as infinitives: dare, hear, help, let, make, please, see, watch
Clauses:
- Clause = a group of words with its own subject and verb; EVERY sentence is made up of at least 1 clause, or it is a
Fragment
- Independent Clause = can stand by itself as a complete sentence; it is independent!
- Dependent/Subordinate Clause = cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence; it can only be part of a sentence; it is
‘dependent’ on the independent clause > a dependent/subordinate clause starts with a relative pronoun, a relative adverb, or a
subordinating conjunction
* 3 types of dependent/subordinate clauses: adjective clause, adverb clause, and noun clause
* Adjective Clause = a dependent clause that acts as an adjective; modifies a noun or pronoun by telling what kind or which
one : usually begin with a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, or whose), but sometimes can begin with a relative
adverb or an adverb that relates 2 parts of a sentence (before, since, when, where, or why) : set off by commas if they are
NOT essential to the meaning of the sentence : an adjective clause MUST closely follow the word it modifies to avoid
confusion : adjective clauses often allow you to combine information from 2 sentences into 1 by adding information or
indicating the relationship between 2 ideas
* Adverb Clause = a dependent clause that acts as an adverb; modifies a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a verbal phrase by
telling where, when, in what way, to what extent, under what conditions, or why : ALWAYS begins with a subordinating
conjunction (refer to list under conjunctions above) : adverb clauses can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a
sentence; set it off by commas when it is at the beginning or middle of the sentence : place the clause as close as possible to
the word it modifies : adverb clauses can be used to combine information from 2 sentences into 1
* when adverb clauses beginning with as or than are used to express comparisons, words are sometimes left out =
elliptical clause EX: I respect him more than she. [does]
* Noun Clause = a dependent clause that acts as a noun (can be the subject, direct object, indirect object, predicate
nominative, or object of the preposition) EX: Whomever you bring will be welcome. > dependent clause acting as subject
4 Sentence Types/Structures: > goes along with Clauses
- If a sentence is not one of the following structures or if a sentence is improperly punctuated according to the following, then
it is a Run-on Sentence
- Simple Sentence = a sentence with 1 independent clause > has 1 subject and 1 main verb > can be compound > can have
modifying phrases and complements > NO dependent clause
- Compound Sentence = a sentence with 2 or more independent clauses > the dependent clauses can be joined in the following
ways: 1. comma, coordinating conjunction (fanboys) 2. by just a semicolon; 3. semicolon; conjunctive adverb comma,
-
Complex Sentence = a sentence with 1 independent clause & 1 or more dependent clauses > independent clause is usually
called the main clause to distinguish it from the subordinate clause > the subject and verb in the independent clause are called
the subject of the sentence and the main verb > in complex sentences with noun clauses, the subject of the main clause may
sometimes be the dependent/subordinate clause itself > when the dependent/subordinate clause comes at the beginning of the
sentence or in the middle and is NOT essential to the meaning of the sentence, comma it off from the rest
- Compound-Complex Sentence = combine the definitions of compound with complex above = a sentence with 2 or more
independent clauses and one or more dependent/subordinate clauses
* As a rule of thumb, you should not have more than 4 clauses in a sentence!
Sentence Errors:
- Fragments = a group of words that does not express a complete thought but is punctuated as if it were a sentence; does not
have a subject and a verb
* correcting phrase fragments = a phrase should not be capitalized or punctuated as if it were a sentence > either add the
phrase to a nearby sentence (independent clause) OR add to the phrase whatever is needed to make it a complete sentence (a
subject, a verb, or both)
* correcting clause fragments = a dependent/subordinate clause should not be capitalized and punctuated as if it were a
sentence > either add the clause to a nearby sentence (independent clause) OR add whatever words are needed to make the
fragment into a sentence
- Run-ons = two or more complete sentences that are not properly joined or separated > run-ons are usually the result of haste,
so learn to check your sentences carefully to see where one sentence ends and the next one begins
* 2 kinds > 1. fused sentence = 2 or more sentences run together without any punctuation between them 2. comma splice =
two or more sentences separated only be a comma (instead of a comma and a conjunction or a semicolon)
* correcting run-ons (3 ways) = 1. Use an end mark to separate a run-on into two sentences 2. Use a comma and a
coordinating conjunction to combine two independent clauses into a compound sentence 3. Use a semicolon to connect two
closely related ideas
- Misplaced Modifiers = a modifier (a word, phrase, or clause that acts as an adjective or adverb) should be placed as close as
possible to the word it modifies in order to avoid confusion
* a modifier placed too far away from the word it modifies is called a misplaced modifier > because they are misplaced, such
phrases and clauses seem to modify the wrong word in a sentence > to fix, rewrite the sentence and place the modifier closer
to the word it modifies
Punctuation:
- End Marks = (refer to sentence function and end punctuation section of the grammar guide)
- Commas = a comma represents a short pause; it tells the reader to hesitate or pause before continuing the sentence > 2 basic
rules: 1. commas can be used to separate similar items 2. one or more commas can be used to set off a single item at the
beginning, middle, or end of a sentence
* Do not use a comma unless there is a comma rule for it > RULES = 1. use a comma before the conjunction to separate two
independent clauses in a compound sentence 2. use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series
(the number of commas that should be used in a series is one fewer than the number of items in the series) 3. use commas to
separate adjectives of equal rank (coordinate adjectives) – adjectives of equal rank can be switched around and retain the
same meaning BUT do not use commas to separate adjectives that must stay in a specific order and do not use a comma to
separate the last adjective in a series from the noun it modifies 4. use a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or clause
5. use commas to set off parenthetical expressions (a word or phrase that is unrelated to the rest of the sentence and interrupts
the general flow of the sentence) – two commas are used to enclose the entire parenthetical expression when the expression is
located in the middle of the sentence 6. use commas to set off nonessential expressions (provide additional, nonrestrictive
information in a sentence; you can remove nonessential material from a sentence, and the remaining sentence will still
contain all the necessary information) – 2 commas when nonessential info. is in the middle of the sentence & 1 comma if it is
at the beginning or end 7. when a geographical name is made up of 2 or more parts, use a comma after each item 8. when a
date is made up of 2 or more parts, use a comma after each item except in the case of a month followed by a day – you may
omit the comma if the date contains only the month and the year – if the parts of the date have already been joined by
prepositions, no comma is needed 9. when a name is followed by one or more titles or business abbreviations, use a comma
after the name and after each title/abbreviation 10. use a comma after each item in an address of 2 or more parts (except on
envelopes) 11. use a comma after the salutation in a personal letter and after the closing in all letters 12. with numbers of
more than three digits, use a comma after every third digit starting from the right (with the exception of ZIP codes, phone
numbers, page numbers, serial numbers, years, or house numbers) 13. use a comma to indicate the words left out of an
elliptical sentence 14. use commas to set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence 15. use a comma to prevent a
sentence from being misunderstood
- Semicolons = ; serves as a happy medium between the comma and the period – pause longer than with a comma, but not with
the finality of a period > RULES = 1. “use a semicolon” to join related independent clauses that are not already joined by a
coordinating conjunction 2. “ “ to join independent clauses separated by either a conjunctive adverb or a transitional
expression 3. “ “ to avoid confusion when independent clauses already contain commas 4. “ “ between items in a series if
the items themselves contain commas
- Colons = : > RULES = 1. use a colon before a list of items following an independent clause 2. to introduce a quotation that is
formal or lengthy or a quotation that does not contain a “he said/she said” expression 3. to introduce a sentence that
summarizes or explains the sentence before it 4. to introduce a formal appositive that follows an independent clause 5.
Special Situations Requiring Colons = with time (5:22), with volume #:page number in references to periodicals, biblical
references (chapter #:verse #), subtitles for books and magazines, salutations in business letters, labels (WARNING: ) used to
signal important ideas
- Quotation Marks = “ “ > make sure to learn how to use quotation marks with direct quotes and dialogue (+) always place a
comma or a period inside the final quotation mark, but place a semicolon or colon outside of the final quotation mark
* Underlining vs. Quotation Marks > Underline titles of long written works, the titles of publications that are published as a
single work, titles of movies, television and radio series, lengthy works of music, paintings, sculptures, name of individual
air, sea, apace, and land crafts, foreign words not yet accepted into English : Use “Quotation Marks” around titles of short
written works, titles of stories, articles, etc. within a larger published work, titles of poems, titles of episodes in a series,
songs, and parts of long musical compositions : Do NOT underline or put quotation marks around the Bible, its books,
divisions, versions, or the names of other holy scriptures; titles of government charters, alliances, treaties, acts, statutes, or
reports
- Hyphens = - > use a hyphen when writing out two word numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine; with fractions used as
adjectives (one-half fruit); after a prefix that is followed by a proper noun or adjective (east-Pacific); in words with the
prefixes all-, ex-, and self- and in words with the suffix –elect (all-powerful, senator-elect); to connect two or more words that
are used as one word unless the dictionary gives a contrary spelling (merry-go-round); to connect a compound modifier
(unless one of the words ends in –ly) that comes before a noun (forest-dwelling natives); within a word when a combination
of letters might otherwise be confusing (co-op); between words to keep the reader from combining them erroneously (thirtydollar tickets); at the end of a line, if the word must be divided (make sure to always divide between syllables)
- Apostrophes = ‘ > to show possession (except with possessive forms of personal pronouns); use an apostrophe in a
contraction to indicate the position of the missing letter or letters; use an apostrophe and –s to write the plurals of numbers,
symbols, letters, and words used to name themselves
Degrees of Comparison:
- Degrees of Comparison = Most adjectives and adverbs have different forms to show degrees of comparison;
* 3 degrees = positive (regular form of the modifier)
* comparative (to compare 2 things; add –er to the end with one- and two-syllable modifiers; add more to the front with three
of more syllable modifiers)
*superlative (to compare 3 or more things; add –est to the end of one- to two-syllable modifiers; add most to the front of
three or more syllable modifiers)
*can use less and least to compare the other way
* Memorize the irregular comparative and superlative forms of certain adjectives and adverbs (EX: bad, worse, worst)
* Make sure your sentences compare only items of a similar kind
* When comparing one of a group with the rest of the group, make sure that your sentence contains the word other or the
word else
Active & Passive Voice:
- Voice = the form of a verb that shows whether the subject performs or receives the action
- Active Voice = a verb is active if its subject performs the action (Laura found a dinosaur bone.)
* Use the active voice whenever possible
- Passive Voice = a verb is passive if its action is performed upon the subject (A dinosaur bone was found by Laura.)
* A passive verb is made from a form of be plus the past participle of a transitive verb
* Use the passive voice when you want to emphasize the receiver of an action rather than the performer OR to point out the
receiver of an action whenever the performer is not important or not easily identified
Special Problems with Pronouns:
- Who, Whom, and Whose
* who and whoever are nominative > use who for the subject or predicate nominative of a sentence
* whom and whomever are objective > use whom for the direct object, object of a verbal, and object of a preposition
* whose and whosever are possessive
- Using Pronouns Correctly in Elliptical Clauses > In elliptical clauses beginning with than or as, use the form of the pronoun
that you would use if the clause were fully states (Jo is as talented as he [is].)
Miscellaneous:
- Do NOT use double negatives in a sentence!!! > do not use barely, hardly, or scarcely with another negative!
- Memorize and learn commonly confused words!!!
- Make sure to use capitalization correctly!
* This guide MUST be kept in your English binder at all times! You will need to reference this guide
during grammar activities and to study this guide before grammar quizzes. *