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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
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ARTS
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HIS 102: INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY UNIT:
HIS 102 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY
UNIT: 3
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Published 2007©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in
writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-66-5
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
HIS 102 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY
UNIT: 3
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do
most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is
different from that of conventional textbooks. The course writers have
made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need
to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge
required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and
where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the
selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers
and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help
in improving access to University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
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HIS 102 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY
UNIT: 3
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction,
objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should take 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be
available at designated contact centers for tutorials. The center
expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further
you could supplement the study with more information from the list
of references and suggested readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help
you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood
the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the
study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center.
You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition,
you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
HIS 102 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
This course informs students of the various theories,
methods employed in Archaeology. It may include identification
of sites, excavation, dating, preservation and finally exhibition
and publication. Chapter one attempts to define some of the
concepts
use
in
archaeology,
the
various
conceptions
of
archaeology as viewed worldwide by different schools of
thoughts. No matter the bias of the different schools of thoughts
all have agreed that Archaeology is connected with the study of
material remains, it gathers its data through survey and
excavation. Chapter two highlights the historical background of
Archaeology world wide down to the Nigerian situation. Chapter
three highlights the different substances obtained in archaeology
and how they are preserved in archaeological record. Chapter
four portrays how sites or features are discovered. Chapter five
dealt with excavation the main thrust of archaeology which
culminates in the dating of artifacts as conduced in chapter six.
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HIS 102 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY
UNIT: 3

HIS 102:
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY
UNITS: 3
T A B L E O F C O N T E N TS
PAGES
PREFACE
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HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
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INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC:
1. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF
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2. HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY
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3. METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY
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4. DISCOVERY OF EVIDENCE -
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5. EXCAVATION
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6. DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY -
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SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
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T O P I C 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
TOPIC:
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF
CONCEPT -
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INTRODUCTION -
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1.2
OBJECTIVES
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1.3
IN-TEXT
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1.3.1
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS -
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1.3.2
ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
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1.3.3
PROPERTIES OF ARCHAEOLOGY -
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1.3.4
RELEVANCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY- -
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1.3.5
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES -
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1.4
SUMMARY -
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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REFERENCES
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SUGGESTED READING
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1.0 TOPIC: INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF CONCEPT
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The course is an introductory text to both historians
and social scientists. It examines the definition of various
concepts used in Archaeology and prehistory. It gives the
amateur a first hand information on the principles and
methods employed in archaeology towards the recovery of
data and reconstruction of past ways of life of human
populace in a given geographical milieu.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Describe
field
techniques
through
observations and recordings of field data.
ii.
Identify and assess materials cultural data
to include knowledge of human and
skeletal anatomy, elements of Geology and
Geomorphology
(rock
types
and
stratigraphy, elements of surveying etc).
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
Just like all disciplines, Archaeology too uses several concepts
as bedrock towards understanding the subject. The concepts are
broadly divided into two:
a. General concepts; and
b. Archaeological concepts.
Some of the general concepts include History, proto-history,
pre-history and ethno-archaeology; while the archaeological
concepts are artefact, attribute, assemblage, culture, diffusion,
and acculturation.
History is defined loosely to mean the story of the past.
Secondly it is used to mean the story of the past derived from
written records or reliable oral traditions.
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Proto-history is the history of the past where written
records and oral traditions are scanty or inadequate. The periods
properly called proto-historic is different in different parts of
the world since full and adequate historical records also began at
different dates.
Pre-history is the story of earlier part of man’s past that
has no written records and no reliable oral tradition. Actual
dates for the prehistoric period are different in different parts of
the world, because writing was introduced at different times.
Ethno-archaeology is the study of material culture in
systematic context for the purpose of acquiring information,
both specific and general, that will be useful in archaeological
investigation. It involves the pursuit and study of an actual
situation in which specified behaviours can be observed.
Archaeology has been defined by Thurstan Shaw (1975) as
a method of finding out about the past from the material remains
left behind by former inhabitants. It comprises of a system of
techniques for deriving the maximum amount of information
from the material culture and physical remains which have been
left behind by past generations of mankind, and which have
survived to the present. According to James Deetz (1967) an
American archaeologist in his readable book, “An invitation to
archaeology”, defined it as saying, “Archaeologists are
anthropologists, who usually excavate the material remain of
past cultures and through the study of such evidence, attempt to
recreate the history of man from his earliest past, and to
determine the nature of cultural systems at different times and
places around the world”.
1.3.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
Archaeology the world over is seen from various
perspectives basically because of different approaches and
purposes. All groups tend to regard archaeology as a bunch of
techniques used for reconstructing the past rather than a subject
in its own right. European archaeologists usually belong to the
historicising school; while American archaeologists tend to be
anthropologists. This stems from the fact that the majority of
archaeology in the America’s is aimed at studying the preCDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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Hispanic Indians, and the standard way in which the Indians
have been studied has been ethnographical and anthropological
rather than historical, and archaeology seemed to carry those
studies logically back in to the pre-conquest period. The third
group see archaeology as a purely scientific discipline borrowing
wide range of techniques from botany, physics, chemistry,
geology etc.
There is no consensus of opinion among practitioners of
archaeology. If there were, we would not presently have at the
University of Ibadan a full Department of Archaeology in the
Faculty of Science, while in ABU Zaria the Department of
Archaeology is in the Faculty of Arts and Social Science. While
the University of Ibadan thinks that the subject is an
independent discipline, largely a field science, Ahmadu Bello
University considers archaeology as largely as an adjunct of
history.
But no matter what the particular bias of the individual
archaeologists or school of thought, all are agree on the
following:
1. Archaeology is connected with the study of material
remains left behind by ancient man.
2. Archaeology aims at recovering at least, some aspects of
man’s past, mainly those unrecorded by written documents
3. Archaeology gathers its data primarily through excavations
and reconnaissance survey
The basic archaeological concepts are as follows: Artefact,
Attribute, Assemblage and Culture (Bassey, W. A. 1982:24).
Artefact: An artefact is any man made or man-modified
object. Gordon V. Childe (1956) separated artefacts into relics
such as pots, metals, weapons, stone tools and monuments,
which include tombs, city walls and castles etc.
Attribute: An Artefact is composed of a set of attributes. An
attribute is the physical manifestation of a single human action
or single sequence of actions which, in conjunction with others,
is directed towards the production of an artefact. Examples are
motifs, shapes, edges etc. Attributes exist in different states by
either their presence or absence. Attributes can either be seen
as quantitative or qualitative. Quantitatively, attributes are seen
through measurement and quantity (count) while qualitatively it
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comprises the material manifestation of variation on a single
action. For example, the effects of a soft hammer as opposed to a
hard hammer. The importance of a particular attribute is
dependent on the subject of the analysis. Thus the firing colour
of a pot will be of interest in a study of pottery manufacture but
will be of no relevance to a study of the development of forms.
Assemblage is a situation when artefacts are found together
in direct association. But when a series of assemblages sharing
a high proportion of a similar artefact types are found within a
defined region, it is said to constitute an archaeological culture.
Gordon V. Childe was responsible for the development and
application of the concept of archaeological cultures.
Culture: culture is peculiarly human. It is the extra-somatic,
non-instinctive behaviour of human social groups. Its specific
form varies with the particular group. It is universal to all.
Culture can be sub-divided into various spheres: social,
economic, religious etc. Archaeologists are particularly
concerned to explain the processes of culture change, and this
can be seen through the following cultural processes:- diffusion
and acculturation.
Diffusion has been a favourite explanation for culture change.
David Clarke (1968:13-14) identified three forms:
stimulus, primary and secondary diffusions.
Stimulus diffusion is a process whereby repatterning in an
assemblage can occur as a response to an external
stimulus without involving borrowing or reproduction of
a particular trait.
Primary diffusion is a process whereby within a culture new
elements can be generated at particular points through
invention and then be distributed through trade,
intermarriage or gift exchange to the whole culture area.
Secondary diffusion is a situation where artefacts from one
cultural area are often distributed beyond their region of
origin by trade or some exchange mechanisms.
Acculturation is said to occur when two cultures become
increasingly similar as a result of interaction between
their respective groups of people by intermarriage, trade
or sharing of certain resources. The full development of
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this process is called cultural fusion. The reverse process,
that is the break up of a culture in to two or more, can be
called cultural fission. This can occur as communities
become isolated from one another by physical barriers.
1.3.3 PROPERTIES OF ARCHAEOLOGY
It is now fully recognised that properties of archaeological
remains are both natural and human and require two different
approaches. As natural objects archaeological remains may be
studied by their geometry (shape), physics( weight and magnetic
properties); chemistry (Chemical compositions); Biology (Fauna
and Flora). The number of natural properties that can be studied
is of course infinite. As human objects, archaeological remains
are studied primarily from the standpoint of technology (i.e.
production of tools), settlement pattern and land for farming
and pastoral activities.
1.3.4 RELEVANCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY
The Elliot Commission of 1945 on higher education in
Nigeria urged for research into the past of west Africa by
asserting that:
“Researches in the past will not only stimulate
local interests in the ancient traditions of the
people, but will help to maintain their sense of
continuity in the rapid changes now coming
upon them”
Archaeological findings at sites such as Iwo Eleru in
Western Nigeria indicated that the Negroid is in fact the oldest
known physical types in West Africa dating back to 11,000bp.
The Dufuna canoe dating 8,500 years testify the presence of
human activity in form of sea faring, fishing, transportation and
haulage along the Yobe valley. The canoe is so far the oldest in
Africa and third oldest in the world.
Archaeological research on the Bama Ridge at Konduga
sand pit indicate the existence of human settlement in this area
dating to over 6000 years, ranking among the oldest occupation
settlements in West Africa. Archaeological research is making a
significant contribution to the peoples knowledge of their
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prehistory. Findings at Nok and Daima in Northern Nigeria,
Igbo-Ukwu in the East, Iwo Eleru, Ife and old Oyo in South West
are some of the spectacular sites in Nigeria.
1.3.5 CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
Those who graduate or study archaeology are likely, to be
engaged in the following jobs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.4
Researchers at an Academic Institutes Colleges and
Universities
Work as Cultural Attaches at our Embassies overseas
Work at cultural centres, Arts councils, and National
Commission for Museums and Monuments
Work as an employee of the customs and excise to check
the influx of antiquities out of this country
Can work with United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organisations (UNESCO)
A teacher of history, cultural studies, etc.
SUMMARY
As in all disciplines the world over, specific concepts
are used specifically for the discipline towards the
understanding of the discipline. The relevance of the
discipline will be appreciated by students when portrayed
and the career opportunities available.
1.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. What is the relevance of Archaeology to historical
study?
2. What is the relationship of Archaeology and other
disciplines?
1.6
REFERENCES
Kathleen, Kenyon, (1961) Beginning in Archaeology, Dent,
London.
Glyn Daniel, (1967) “The origins
Archaeology”: London Relican Books.
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and
growth
of
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Thurstan Shaw, (1963 - Archaeology and Nigeria, Ibadan
University press, Ibadan
_________ (1964) – “Field research in Nigerian
Archaeology, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria,
11,4.
__________ (1965) - The Approach through Archaeology to
Early West African History, Ajayi & Espie, eds. A thousand
Years of West African History ed., Ibadan: University Press
_______ (1969) – “Archaeology in Nigeria”. Antiquity XLIII,
171, 187-199.
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
Neustypny, Evzen (1971)
Antiquity XLV 177, 34-39
–
“Whither
Archaeology”,
Deetz, James (1967) An Invitation to Archaeology, Natural
History Press. New York.
Bassey, W. Andah, (1982) - African Development in Cultural
Perspective (with special reference to Nigeria) Occasional
Publications of the Department of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Ibadan.
Thurstan, Shaw, (ed) (1975) Lectures on Nigerian
Prehistory and Archaeology, Ibadan University Press.
Irving Rouse, (1972) - Introduction to Prehistory: A
systemic approach, Macgraw-Hill Book co.
Richard,
A.
Gould,
(1978)
Ethnoarchaeology, University of
Albuquerque.
–
Exploration
in
New Mexico Press.
Clarke, D. L. (1968) Analytical Archaeology. London:
Metheun.
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TOPIC 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC: HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY
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2.1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
OBJECTIVES
2.3
IN-TEXT
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2.3.1 HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY
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2.3.2 ARCHAEOLOGY IN NIGERIA
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SUMMARY -
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SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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2.6
REFERENCE
2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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2.0
TOPIC: HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY
2.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Archaeology as a systematic discipline is young, with
an age of only 200 years in both the old and the New
World.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Determine when archaeology started
wide.
ii.
Determine when it began in Nigeria.
world
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1 HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY
Archaeological work can be divided into four periods. The
old world embraces Near East, India and South East Asia and
Africa and the new world represents North and South America
and Australasia. Archaeological work can be divided into four
periods:
2.3.1.1 THE PIONEERING OR SPECULATIVE PERIOD
This period ranges from the 18th and 19th centuries. The
first half of the 19th century saw the establishment of the
antiquarian societies whose main purpose was to propagate the
science of archaeology.
Places where such societies were
established include England, Wales and Scotland. At the close of
the 19th century an antiquarian section was established in the
British Museum.
2.3.1.2 THE DESCRIPTION PERIOD
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This period witnessed the development of the three age
systems by C. J. Thomsen and J. J. A Worsea. They described all
the inventories in their Museum based on technological age
system of Stone, Bronze and Iron. In 1865 the first book on
Archaeology was written by John Lubbock. An exposition of
human antiquities and archaeological finds took place in 1867.
2.3.1.3 DESCRIPTIVE HISTORIC PERIOD
This spans from 1865 to1945.
It witnessed the
development of stratigraphy in archaeology. Radio Carbon dating
was also discovered. In 1806 the first International Conference
of Archaeological was held.
In 1867 an exposition of
archaeological materials was held in Paris. The technique of
excavation was developed. Between 1865-1866, around 18731875 photography in field work was introduced.
2.3.1.4 COMPARATIVE – HISTORIC PERIOD
It spans from 1950 to the present. This period witnessed
archaeologists advancing from asking where and when; to asking
how and why things happen? A more rigorous analysis was
introduced using ethnographic parallels.
2.3.2 HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN NIGERIA
Archaeological research in Nigeria can be broken up into
three main phases. The first phase is the colonial phase. K. C
Murray and E. H. Duckworth in 1934 urged for the establishment
of a Nigerian Museum. That appeal led to the formation of the
Nigerian Department of Antiquities. Between 1949 and 1950 the
Jos Museum was built. Between 1945 and 1955 and 1956/1957
A. J. Goodwin excavated at Benin. Between 1956 and 1957 Frank
willet excavated at old Oyo. Between 1959 and 1960 Thurstan
shaw excavated at Igbo Ukwu. All these excavations were
sponsored by the Federal Department of Antiquities. In 1958
Frank Willet was appointed Archaeologist in the Department of
Antiquities and the following year the first Nigerian
Archaeologist, Liman Ciroma, was appointed. Graham Connah
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was appointed in 1961, Robert Soper 1962, Ekpo Eyo 1963, Kunle
Oyenuga 1964, A. J. Priddy, 1964, Francis Bassey, Michael
Nkanta and Angela Fagg in 1967 Archaeological position was
created at the University of Ife in 1962 at the institutes of
African Studies. University of Ibadan though the oldest of all the
Universities in Nigeria, the Department of Archaeology was
created only in 1963 and Thurstan Shaw was appointed to an
Archaeology chair in the Institute of African studies of that
University. The same year Donald Hartle was appointed Head of
Archaeology section at the Department of Archaeology and
History at the University of Nigeria Nsukka. Graham Connah
and Steve Daniels, joined Thurstan Shaw at Ibadan in 1964,
while Paul Ozanne and Kunle Oyenuga joined Ife in 1966
2.3.2.1 THE INDEPENDENCE PHASE
This period saw the recruitment of Archaeologists who
were academics notably, Thurstan Shaw and Graham Connah at
Ibadan, Donald Hartle at Nsukka. In 1965 information flow
between Archaeologists working in Nigeria and their colleagues
abroad was intensified by the establishment of the West African
Archaeological Newsletter.
Before then, the journal of the
Historical society of Nigeria was used by Archaeologists to
publish their results
2.3.2.3 THE CONTEMPORARY PHASE
This phase has experienced or witnessed the proliferation
of Archaeology units either subsumed in the Department of
History or Anthropology at some of the Federal Universities. It
also witnessed the establishment of Museums in various parts of
the country, under the auspices of the National Commission for
Museums and monuments. The forum for information flow of
Archaeologists in the country was created by the establishment
of the Archaeological Association of Nigeria and the West African
Archaeological Association.
2.4
SUMMARY
The study of Archaeology as a systematic discipline
started very recently. But archaeological interest began in
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the 18th and 19th centuries which culminated into the
periodisation of the discipline was categorized into phases.
2.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.6
Give a detail history of the beginning of Archaeology
world wide
REFERENCES
Andah, B. W. (1980) Whither Scientific Archaeology in
Nigeria (Or the Place of Archaeology in Nigeria).
Radio Nigeria, October, Lectures.
Arkell, A. J. (1994) “Archaeological Research in West
Africa”: Antiquity XVIII, 147-50
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
Thurstan Shaw (1964) Archaeology and Nigeria, Ibadan
University Press, Ibadan.
___________ (1969) Archaeology in Nigeria, Antiquity
XLIII, 1969; 187-199
___________ (1975) Discovering Nigeria’s Past, Oxford
University Press, Ibadan.
Effah Gyamfi (n.d.) Archaeology and Cultural Education in
Nigeria, the Proceedings, of the 4th Annual
Conference of the Archaeological Association of
Nigeria, Published by the Editorial Board of West
African Journal of Archaeology, Dept of Archaeology
and Anthropology, University of Ibadan.
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TOPIC 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC: METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY
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INTRODUCTION
3.2
OBJECTIVES
3.3
IN-TEXT
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3.3.1
METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY
3.3.2
SUBSTANCES FOUND IN
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDS
3.3.3
WHAT DETERMINES THE PRESERVATION
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SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES -
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REFERENCE
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SUGGESTED READINGS
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3.0
TOPIC: METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY
3.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
We will study in this topic, various substances that
are obtained in archaeological record and how they can be
preserved.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Identify various remains and how they make an
imprint as an archaeological evidence.
ii.
Know how these remains are preserved and the
various
circumstances
surrounding
their
preservation.
3.3
IN-TEXT
3.3.1 METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY
Since Archaeology is a method of recovering information
from the material remains left by former inhabitants, it is
pertinent to identify what these remains are and how they make
an imprint as an archaeological evidence. These remains consist
of cadaver or skeletons of human beings. Usually, the flesh
decays rapidly leaving the skeletal parts but in a suitable
situation a human body can be preserved especially in a
waterlogged condition which is airtight. Some of the remains
also include caves, houses and palaces. Some of these structures
survive much longer due to the structural materials used in their
construction. It is interesting to note that nomadic habitats are
hard to come by in archaeological record. Other remains include
people’s rubbish, heaps or refuse which ultimately results in the
formation of mounds; thus archaeology is often tagged the
“science of rubbish”. Remains such as fortifications in the form
of earthworks, defence walls and ditches or religious remains
such as mosques, churches, temples and shrines are also sources
of archaeological evidences. Workshops of tools and weapons
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exhibit objects manufactured for human use and may include
stone tools, iron smelting sites etc. Domestic utensils include
pots, metals etc. Pottery is the most ubiquitous materials
obtained at all archaeological sites.
3.3.2 SUBSTANCES FOUND IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDS
All archaeological materials obtained either from the
surface or through excavations are made up of different
substances. These include the following: stone, metal, baked
clay, rock surfaces and organic materials.
Stone: This material was widely used by man during the
prehistoric age. Most of the stone tools and implements
which survive came from the stone age as the name
implies. The substance used by prehistoric populations
include pebble tool, a hammer stone, scraper, pick, points,
microliths and segments etc.
Metal: man used this material in the last 10,000 years. It
includes bronze, brass, iron and gold.
Baked clay: This is the most ubiquitous material produced
and used by prehistoric populations, which survive up to
this day. They include pottery, figurine and terracotta.
Rock Surfaces: This is in a form of rock painting and
engraving depicting the artistic skills of the pre-historic
populations and have a lot of meanings associated with the
depiction.
Organic materials: These include wood, leather, calabash,
animals and vegetable fibres, and they are hardly
preserved in archaeological record, but in a situation
where they are revealed, various circumstances work
towards their preservation.
3.3.3 WHAT DETERMINES THE PRESERVATION OF ARTEFACTS?
1. Nature of the material: Skeletal remains lasts longer than
flesh. Stones and baked clay survives much more longer
than organic materials. A metal such as gold is almost
indestructible. Copper and bronze corrode easily to a green
colour whereas iron often rusts away to a stateless mass.
2. The chemical circumstances in which remains are found:
Some materials survive better than the others due to their
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nature and at times due to the nature of the environment in
which they are formed. Under extremely dry conditions or
in certain waterlogged situations, flesh and hair may be
preserved. In some cases flesh may be artificially preserved
by burial practices such as mummification as obtained in
ancient Egypt. Organic materials such as calabash and
textiles may be preserved as a result of their close
association with Copper or Bronze which serve to prevent
the destructive action of termites and bacteria.
3. The customs and practice of ancient populations: If a
community expose their dead on a hill or a tree without
undergoing the conventional burial in a pit as their customs
and practices dictates, the whole physical remains will
never be left for the archaeologists to study. But on the
other hand, if there is an elaborate mortuary practices such
as the building of tombs, pyramids as obtained in ancient
Egypt, a great deal of information will be preserved. It will
be difficult to obtain information on nomadic populations,
for obvious reasons.
3.4
SUMMARY
This chapter identified the various substances obtained in
archaeological record and how far they can be preserved based
on their nature and their state of preservation.
3.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
3.6
Refer to the publication of Thurstan Shaw’s
work “unearthing Igbo-Ukwu” and identify why
certain items were preserved in archaeological
record?
REFERENCES
Thurstan Shaw (ed) (1975) Lectures on Nigerian Prehistory
and Archaeology, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
______ (1977) Uneathing Igbo Ukwu, Oxford University
Press, Ibadan.
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TOPIC: DISCOVERY OF EVIDENCE
4.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
In this topic, we will identify the various methods used in
the discovery of sites and features.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Distinguish the various ways in which sites or
features are revealed.
ii.
How sites are identified?
4.3
IN-TEXT
4.3.1 DISCOVERY OF EVIDENCE
It is difficult to generalise methods used in the discovery of
archaeological sites. Sites vary in their physical characteristics,
their state of preservation and environmental setting. One of the
primary sources for the discovery of sites is through natural or
artificial erosion of deposit or through river or stream action or
human interference such as farming, ploughing and
construction. Running water erodes and deposits materials and
constantly expose and mask other geological features. Be that as
it may archaeological sites are identified using four main
methods. They are as follows:
1. By accident
2. By fieldwork or reconnaissance survey
3. By aerial photography
4. By detection devices
4.3.1.1 BY ACCIDENT
Most Archaeological sites and finds all over the world have
been identified by laymen i.e. non archaeologists through
accidental means.
Finds are stumbled upon accidentally,
whenever the surface of the ground is turned over as in the case
of farming, ploughing, digging foundation for building and laying
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of pipes etc. Anyone engaged in such activity is likely to come
across archaeological finds. For this reason, it is important for
people to be sensitised and report any artefact identified in the
course of their activities and report accordingly. The greater the
number of accidental discoveries that are reported to the
archaeologists, the greater the knowledge that we shall posses
concerning our unwritten past. In Nigeria such discoveries
should be reported as soon as possible to the Local Government
Areas or to the State Government, where the find is made or any
university close by and the National Commission for Museums
and Monuments.
Important sites discovered through accidental means
include the following: Mai Idon Toro and Nok discovered as a
result of tin mining operations in the Jos plateau. Igbo-Ukwu
was discovered in 1939 as a result of digging a cistern by two
brothers Isaiah and Richard in their compounds. The Dufuna
canoe was discovered by Mal. Ya’u, a Fulani, cattle rearer in the
course of digging a water well for his cattle in Yobe State of
Nigeria. in 1987.
4.3.1.2 BY FIELDWORK OR RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
Fieldwork entails two main operations; recognition and
recording. Recognition involves that of artefacts, spectacular
features and ability to distinguish ancient sites from the most
recent ones.
Recording usually comprises of a mixture of verbal
description, measurements and photography. Before the
commencement
of
any
fieldwork
investigations,
the
Archaeologists is expected to equip himself with the necessary
map of the area to be familiar of the geography of the area to be
searched. Whenever a researcher embarks on a fieldwork, he
must observe the geological features around; search for oral
information from the indigenous inhabitants close to the site,
contact nomads and where necessary who usually traverse the
landscape. Fieldwork in most cases is a deliberate attempt to
expose the environment and identify features. An aspect of
fieldwork is the grid and system walking, whereby the whole
landscape to be searched is gridded (divided into sectors). Each
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sector is systematically searched by either a single Archaeologist
operating on a strictly controlled sector, or by a small group of
Archaeologists moving at a uniform pace over the sectors so that
no areas are missed.
4.3.1.3 BY AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
The use of aerial photography was pioneered between 1914
and 1918 during the First World War by Major G.W.G. Allen and
O.G.S. Crawford. Aerial Photography has, without question made
the greatest contribution of any method yet devised into the
discovery of archaeological sites particularly in Britain. The
aerial photography taken during the First World War was meant
to identify enemy activity, but it provided the opportunity to
interpret features of more ancient origin and from this point the
theory of aerial photography as a source for the discovery of
archaeological sites emerged.
The technique depends upon the character of the remains.
Features in relief such as ditches, mounds and walls are visible
on the ground, but an observer is unlikely to pick up the minute
depressions or elevations from a vantage point which may either
be too close to the features to see it in perspective or too far
from the feature to recognise its existence. The aerial camera
will be able to disclose sites which may be unlikely visible to the
naked eye. Aerial photography has become an important aid to
archaeologists but unfortunately, it is of very little use in heavily
forested areas such as the extreme south of Nigeria.
4.3.1.4 BY DETECTION DEVICES
This involves the use of electrical resistivity and proton
magnetometer.
Electrical Resistivity: This system was initially developed for
geological prospection as well as civil engineering. The principle
is as follows:
That rocks and soils conduct electricity
mainly through the presence of moisture
which contains mineral salts in solution.
Differences in structural features beneath
the ground may be detected by variations
in the resistance of the ground to a flow
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of electricity.
The resistance meter
detects the presence of a feature by
causing the current pattern to be
distorted, indicative of a structural
features in situ”. This type of instrument
will be able to detect buried walls,
ditches or pits etc. (Coles, J. 1972).
Proton magnetometer is a technique used for locating features
over a restricted area. It can locate areas with fired materials
such as Kilns, furnaces, ovens, hearths, structures and iron
working sites.
The above two mentioned instruments are not in use in Nigeria
only recently the electrical resistivity instrument was used by a
German Archaeologists at a site, Zilum, in Borno. It should be
noted that the instruments are principally useful in ascertaining
the details of a site already discovered without having to
excavate the whole area, rather than in discovering the site in
the first instance.
4.4
SUMMARY
This chapter identified the various methods used in the
discovery of sites and features such as by accident, by
fieldwork, by aerial photography and detection devices.
4.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Enumerate possible ways of identifying
archaeological sites
4.6
REFERENCES
Aitken, M. (1974)-Physics and Archaeology, 2nd ed. New
York: Inter Science Publications.
Alexander, T. (1970) - The Directing of Archaeological
Excavations, London: John Baker
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Brothwell, and Higg (ed) (1969) - Science in Archaeology.
2nd ed. London: Thames and Hudson.
Atkinson, R. J. C. (1953) - Field Archaeology. 2nd ed. London:
Methuen.
Binford, L. E. (1972) - An Archaeological Perspective: New
York.
Bradford, J. (1957) - Ancient Landscape, studies in Field
Archaeology London Bell.
Butzer, K. W. (1971) - Environment and Archaeology 2nd ed.
London Metheun
Chang, K. C. (1967) - Rethinking Archaeology, New York:
Random House
Childe, V. G. (1942) - What happened in History, London:
Penguin.
__________________ (1956) - A short Introduction to
Archaeology: London Muller.
__________________ (1956) - Piecing Together the past,
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Clark, J. G. D (1957) - Archaeology and Society 3rd ed.
London: Methuen.
__________________ (1969) - World Pre-history 2nd ed.
Cambridge University Press
_________________ and Piggott, S. (1965) - Pre-historic
Societies: London: Hutchinson
Clarke, D. L. (1968) - Analytical Archaeology, London:
Methuen
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____________________ (ed) (1972 - Models in Archaeology.
London: Methuen
4.7
SUGGESTED READING
Coles, J. (1972) - Field Archaeology in Britain, London:
Methuen.
Crawford, O. G. S. (1953 - Archaeology in the field, London:
Bent.
Daniel, G. (1962) - The idea of Pre-history, London: Penguin
_____________ (1967) - The Origin and Growth of
Archaeology, London: Penguin.
Deetz, J. (1967 - Invitation to Archaeology. New York:
American Museum of Natural History.
Fryer, D. H. (196)1 - Surveying for Archaeologists. 2nd ed.
Durham: University of Durham press
Heizer, R. F. (1966) - A Guide to Archaeological Field
methods: 3rd ed. Palo Alto California University Press.
______________and Graham, J. A. (1967) - A Guide to Field
Methods in Archaeology, Palo Alto, California University
Press.
_______________ and Cook, S. F. (eds) (1960) - The
Application of Quantitative methods in Archaeology, Viking
fund publications in Anthropology, 28.
Hole, F. and Heizer, R. F. (1973) - An introduction to PreHistoric Archaeology 3rd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Kenyon, K. M. (1964) - Beginning in Archaeology, London:
Bent.
Piggott, S. (1959) - Approach to Archaeology. London: A &
C Black
Pyddoke, E. (ed) (1963) - The Scientist and Archaeology.
London: Bent.
Wheeler, R. E. M. (1954) - Archaeology from the Earth,
London: Oxford
Walu, L. D. (2001) - Basic Archaeology, Jos Mazlink Nigeria
Limited.
Bassey, W. Andah and Okpoko A. I. (1994) - Practising
Archaeology in Africa. Wisdom Publishers Ibadan
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Sowunmi, M. A. Folorunso L. A and Aremu D. A. (2001)
Basics in Archaeological and Anthropological principles,
Theories and methods, Dept. of Archaeology and
Anthropology, University of Ibadan.
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TOPIC 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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EXCAVATION
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REFERENCE
5.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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5.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
In this topic, we highlight the aim of excavation and
enumerate its various types.
5.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Determine the aims of excavation.
ii.
The various types of excavation.
5.3
5.3.1
IN-TEXT:
EXCAVATION
Archaeological investigations are usually conducted by
students, local archaeological societies, museums and university
departments of archaeology. No excavation, on whatever scale,
should be attempted unless all of the known archaeological
problems have been considered and an approach to the answers
suggested.
The problems are not purely ‘excavational’ but
include all legal matters as well as those of financial and staff
support.
Before embarking on archaeological investigation in any
part of Nigeria, permission must be sought from the National
Commission for Museums and Monument, the State and Local
Government area where the site is located. The excavation team
must consist of a Director whose role includes the appointment
of supervisors and workers of various kinds.
Excavation is a scientific technique to be learned by
experience and application. Some excavations are designed not
only to yield new information about a site, but also to provide
training of potential archaeologists. Instruction is usually the
aim of some excavations, as well as actual digging techniques.
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5.3.2 MAIN AIM OF EXCAVATION
The main aim of excavation is the recovery of data that can
throw light upon man’s part. Every excavation is planned to
answer a limited number of definite questions. The questions
may relate to the position of a site, its external and internal
features and its contents.
5.3.3 TYPES OF EXCAVATION
There are two types of excavations: vertical and
Horizontal. vertical excavations. This include test pitting and
trench excavation. The main aim of this excavation is to reveal
in cross section the depth, sequencing and composition of
archaeological remains. Test excavation serves as a control pit
which enables archaeologists to study the nature of the soils and
deposits in an undisturbed state. It serves as a reference or
control to the areas not disturbed or tempered by man. It
usually probes the full depth of a deposit in a vertical sense, not
its horizontal extent. A test pit can only accommodate one
excavator or two depending upon the dimension. That is to say
if the dimension of the pit is only 1 square metre it will
accommodate a single excavator, and if it is 2 square metre it
will be able to accommodate two excavators. Test pit is usually
conducted to sample the subsurface artefacts and ecofact to
obtain a cross sectional view of the sites depositional history. It
is usually the preliminary excavation at any given site to
determine the site potentials, and is usually outside the main
areas of known or suspected archaeological interests. The
limitation of test pit is that it lacks horizontal dimension.
The trench excavation is a narrow linear excavation meant
to expose both the full vertical and horizontal extent of a deposit
in one direction.
It resembles test pit often by having a
dimension of 1 to 2 meters wide to cut through the feature being
probed. Trenches thus explore both vertical accumulation and
horizontal association. It serves as a prelude to more extensive
lateral excavations. It is useful in probing features like mounds
as obtained in Borno i.e. Daima mound or the Tells of the Near
East.
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5.3.3.1 HORIZONTAL EXCAVATIONS
This include clearing and stripping excavation. These
methods aim at horizontal investigation of deposits and to reveal
in plan view both the horizontal extent and the arrangement of
an archaeological deposit.
Clearing excavations are meant to expose in plan view the nature
and extent of subsurface archaeological data. It is conducted
only after test pitting has revealed the basic stratigraphic
relationships of the site. It is used to expose the horizontal
extent of data with the vertical stratigraphic record preserved in
baulks. Baulks are unexcavated divisions between excavations.
Vertical excavation is slowly and steady giving way to clearing
excavations because much larger horizontal areas are being
investigated at one time.
Clearing is done across the square by peeling away the soils to
reveal the horizontal distribution of remains within the square
at that stratigraphic level, and this can be recorded and all the
features removed and the next lower level is exposed. This goes
on until the excavator reaches the sterile layer (layer i.e. devoid
of cultural materials).
Stripping excavation is conducted to clear large areas and expose
spatial distributions of data, such as foundations of large
buildings and entire settlements. It is usually conducted with
mechanical equipment as it involves extensive remains.
5.3.3.2 OTHER TYPES OF EXCAVATIONS:
There are a number of other types of excavations which
include Rescue, Treasure Hunts, Research, Experimental, and
under water excavations.
Rescue excavation: is usually conducted, when a site or a feature
is stumbled upon accidentally, and in order not to be destroyed
and loose all the records, archaeologists are contacted
impromptu to record and rescue the site in question. For
example, when work on the Hydro Electrical Power Station at
Kainji was about to commence in1963, a rescue operation team
of Archaeologists from the U.S.A. carried out a rescue operation.
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This also happened with Abuja, when declared a capital territory
and construction work started.
Treasure hunts evolved out when archaeology was at its
infancy in most parts of the world. Most of those who
pioneered excavations were not trained archaeologists, but
antiquarians; (i.e. those who seek for artefacts for their
material value), but not as an academic pursuit. Such
antiquarians ransacked these objects and took them to
Europe and America. Leo Frobenius a German ransacked
the Benin Palace in 1896 and took valuable objects to
Europe.
Research excavation is carried out on a specialised area
concerning the prehistoric past. It can be of short or long
term project.
Experimental
excavation;
deals
with
experimental
technique, using new and interested methods of digging,
recording and sampling of site. It exposes students and
researchers to new and ongoing techniques.
Under water excavation uses several methods adopted from
land archaeology. Aerial photography over large body of
water may reveal outlines of sunken ships, and
settlements. Sonar scanning helps detect under water
objects by the reflection of sound waves. Divers use metal
detectors to uncover metal objects.
Tools used by Archaeologists use wide range of tools, from
heavy duty machines, such as tractors and lifters to the
commonest small tools such as pick for digging and cutting,
the spade used for throwing up the soil, the shovel for the
removal of soil, the fork for loosening the soil, the trowel
for cleaning excavation edges, and the sieve to recover
extremely small objects by sieving.
5.3.4 RECORDING
Any slight advance in the course of excavation recording
takes place by either the Pen or the camera. Objects obtained in
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a specific layer or spit level are grouped together and bagged for
several analyses. Soil samples are collected and analysed in the
laboratory to detect pollen grains which can give us the history
of human occupation and activity such as farming, in a particular
area.
Preservation special care must be taken to preserve
objects made of such materials as metal, wood, cloth or leather.
For example, rusts on metal objects should be removed without
damaging the object. Wooden objects like the Dufuna canoe,
which was water-soaked, may crack or loose its shape when
exposed to the air. It therefore, has to be preserved in a water
medium in combination with formalin and polyethnol glycol
(peg). A specialist called Conservator takes care of the
preservation exercise.
5.4
SUMMARY
The aim of excavation is highlighted. The various types of
excavation enumerated and the painstaking effort of
recording and preservation studied.
5.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
5.6
How is excavation conducted?
REFERENCES
Bassey, W. Andah and Okpoko A. (1994) – Practising
Archaeology in Africa. . Ibadan: Wisdom publishers Limited.
David Browne (1975) - Principles and Practice in Modern
Archaeology. Ibadan: Hodder and Stoughton.
5.7
SUGGESTED READING
Thurstan Shaw (1975) - Lectures on Nigerian Prehistory
and Archaeology Ibadan: University Press.
Walu L. D. (2001) Basic Archaeology, Jos: Mazlink Nigeria
Limited,
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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OBJECTIVES
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IN-TEXT
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REFERENCE
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SUGGESTED READINGS
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6.1
INTRODUCITON
UNIT: 3
We study here, the recorvery of the data and its ultimate
datation as the most fundamental aspect in determining
and antiquity of the object.
6.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Know the importance of dating.
ii.
Different methods of dating.
6.3
6.3.1
IN-TEXT
DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY
Having acquired an artefact from a site, a side from its
preservation, the next stage is dating; to determine the age of
the find. There are two principal methods of dating: These are
Relative and Absolute.
Relative dating gives information about the age of an object
in relation to other objects. Thus relative dating does not
give actual dates but a comparison; whereas absolute
dating determines the age of an object in years, but it
cannot also give an exact date as history does. In contrast
to relative dating absolute dating gives a level of
probability that a certain event took place at some point
within a stated span of years.
6.3.1.1 RELATIVE DATING
There are two types of relative dating. They are sequence
dating and cross dating. Sequence dating is the attempt to
establish the relative chronological position of a series of
archaeological units or phases. Cross dating presupposes that a
sequence of archaeological units have already been established;
and the exercise here is to determine the relative position of the
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newly recovered component by correlation with a similar
component already sequencely dated. For example, if we find
smoking pipes on a site in West Africa, we can say with
confidence that it is not earlier than 17th century, because the
habit of smoking with the aid of pipes was not introduced from
outside before that date. The study of fossil pollen called
palynology is a tool in providing relative dating. Pollen grains of
trees, grass and plants are invisible to the naked eye, when they
fall to the ground. But when visualised under a microscope they
give a reflection of the surrounding vegetation. Thus by studying
the pollen at different soil levels, it is possible to obtain
information about changes in the natural flora and changes
produced as a result of man’s interference with nature, such as
when the practice of agriculture began.
6.3.1.2 ABSOLUTE DATING
There are several methods of absolute dating. They include
dendrochronology, varves, radiocarbon, potassium argon, fissiontrack, Thermoluminescene, and obsidian.
Dendrochronology:- (Tree ring dating) – Tree ring growth is
an annual event occurring especially in temperate regions
according to prevailing climatic conditions. The bristle
cone pine tree in the U.S.A. provides a sequence of rings up
to 1000 years. In the very dry areas too, where wood is
well preserved, it may be possible to arrive at an exact tree
ring dating in years by counting the tree rings. It gives also
seasonal variations. For example; with abundant rainfall,
rings may be wider while scanty rains attract a narrow
ring growth. Thus by using a core extraction technique, it is
possible to tell the age of a tree.
Varves dating applies to glacier or clay deposit laid down as
a result of a marked annual wet and dry season. In
favourable circumstances using a core extractor, glacier or
clay deposit can be counted in the same manner as that of
tree rings.
Radio carbon dating is the most widely used method of
dating. The principle is as follows. Carbon originates as
the indirect result of the bombardment of the earths
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atmosphere by cosmic rays. The carbon has 14 particles in
its nucleus thus christened C14. Carbon 14 mixes with the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and is absorbed by all
plants and living things. The proportion of C14 remains the
same during the life of the organism. However, as soon as
a given organism dies, the proportion of C14 begins to
change. Thus, since the C14 continues its decay and is no
longer replaced, by measuring the proportion of C14 in any
piece of dead organic matter, it is possible to arrive at the
length of time that has elapsed since death took place.
Items used in C14 dating include wood, bone, shell, leather,
textile and charcoal. Radiocarbon age is a statement of
statistical probability not an accurate date. That is why it
carries the + standard error; the date given as AD 1000 +
100 means that there are too chances that the actual date
lies between AD900and AD 1100. The effective range of
C14 dating is from about 50,000 years to a 100 years ago.
Potassium argon dating covers nearly the whole range of
the time scale and is useful for dating materials not older
than 100,000 years, especially when archaeological
artefacts are found in association with geological
materials. About 2.8% of the earths crust is made up of
potassium. The high percentage of potassium (K) in most
rocks allows for accurate dating, Radiocarbon age provided
the early dating for hominid fossils at olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania.
Fission Track dating is a geochronological technique that
has important archaeological applications. The effective
limits is 100,000 to 1,000,000 years like potassium-argon.
Fission track dating is applied to newly formed rocks. One
of the most famous applications of fission track dating to
archaeology is the dating of volcanic obsidian from Bed 1 at
Olduvai Gorge. The result was a standard deviation value
of 2.03+0.28 million years.
Thermoluminescene dating is associated with the effects of
high energy radiation, i.e. alpha, beta and gamma rays
emitted as a result of decay of radioactive impurities in
pottery. The method can be applied to pottery not older
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than 6,000 B.C. and possibly to volcanic lavas, stone
artefacts of flint and obsidian manufacture.
Obsidian dating this method of dating were designed by
Friedman and Smith in 1959. The principle of the dating is
the establishment of hydration rates for specific
archaeological regions. Method involved in calculating
hydration rates applies universally to obsidian hydration.
Obsidian dating is advantageous to archaeology as many
dating can be accomplished within a relatively rapid time
with little cost and the object being dated is the artefact
itself. Large number of dates can be processed for any
given assemblage or site.
The end result of all excavated archaeological materials is
cataloguing, reporting of research results, conservation,
exhibition and storage in a museum.
6.4
SUMMARY
Having undergone excavation, the recovery of the data and
its ultimate datation remains the most fundamental in
determining the antiquity of the object and how significant
it is to world heritage. Several aspects of dating have been
mentioned which is employed in the dating of one
substance or another.
6.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
6.6
Identify the various methods of dating in archaeology
REFERENCES
Bassey, W. Andah and Okpoko A. (1994) – Practising
Archaeology in Africa. Ibadan: Wisdom publishers Limited.
Thurstan Shaw (1975) - Lectures on Nigerian Prehistory and
Archaeology Ibadan: University Press.
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HIS 102 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY
6.7
UNIT: 3
SUGGESTED READING
Walu L. D. (2001) - Basic Archaeology, Jos: Mazlink Nigeria
Limited.
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1:
1.
study?
What is the relevance or archaeology to historical
Answer – Archaeology as a scientific tool of
investigation recovers data that history uses in
determining the historical background environmental
setting and the antiquity of the artifacts that is
recovered, emphasing on man – land relation. Any
discovery is seen as a societal heritage.
2
What is the relationship of Archaeology and other
disciplines?
Answer – Archaeology can be described in relation to
the remains obtained which are both natural and
human. As natural objects archaeological remains
may be studied be their geometry (shape) physics
(weight and magnetic properties chemistry (chemical
composition) Biology (Fauna and Flora). The
relationship or archaeology to either history or
anthropology is infinitesimal.
TOPIC 2:
1.
Give a detail history of the beginning of Archaeology
worldwide.
Answer – The history of archaeology worldwide can
be phased or speculative period which ranges form
18th to 19th C, saw the establishment of antiquarian
societies. The descriptive period witnessed the
development of the three age systems of stone,
Bronze and Iron. The descriptive historic period spans
form 1865 to 1945 saw the development of stratigrapy
in archaeology and the discovery of radio carbon
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dating. The comparative historic period spans form
1950 to date witnessed archaeologist advancing form
asking where and when; to asking how and why
things happen?
TOPIC 3:
1.
Refer to the publication of Thurston shows work
“Unearthing Igbo-Ukwu” and identify why certain
items were preserved in archaeological record?
Answer – Textile found in close contact with copper
or bronze can survive in the ground for many
hundreds of years.
TOPIC 4:
1.
Enumerate
possible
archaeological sites.
ways
of
identifying
Answer – Archaeological sites can be discovered using
four methods as follows: by accident, by fieldwork, by
aerial photography, and by detection devices.
TOPIC 5:
1.
How is excavation conducted?
Answer – There are several ways of conducting
excavation. Every excavation is planned to answer a
limited number of definite questions. Excavation can
be conducted either by spit level of 10cm, or 20cm or
more or by going direct to the cultural layers.
TOPIC 6:
1.
Identify the various methods of dating in archaeology.
Answer – There are several methods of dating. There
are relative dating, gives information about the age of
an object in relation to other objects and there are
absolute dating that determines the age of an object
in years. Each of these broad methods of dating have
minor means of dating within them, e.g. absolute
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dating has types of dating such as dendrochronology,
varves, radiocarbon, and potassium argon e.t.c.
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TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1.
Define Archaeology, Prehistory, Proto-history
and history and in the process identify areas
where they relate and differ.
2.
Enumerate the various substances obtained in
archaeological record and for each identify its
preservation properties.
3.
Enumerate with examples the various ways of
identifying archaeological sites.
4.
Explain
in
detail
the
various
procedures
involved in excavating an archaeological site.
5.
Define the following concepts with illustrations
sub-surface, Baulk, sterile layer.
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